20

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF GRID CODE REQUIREMENTS

2.1 GENERAL

In the recent years, installation of renewable energy system is

increasing rapidly. At the same time, the power penetration to the grid due to
renewable energy sources has also increased. This increase in the power
penetration causes several problems compared to conventional power sources
because of scarcity of renewable power sources.

Wind energy is highly variable and fluctuates with respect to

meteorological conditions, variations of wind velocity and direction.
Sometime the power output may be zero for a long period. Therefore, it is
difficult to predict and connect wind turbine power output to the grids. The
connection procedure is different from conventional electricity generation
methods. Grid integration is the critical problem in the large-scale wind
farms. A better interconnected grid will also improve the running cost and the
emerging pricing policy. Therefore, it requires a common procedure to
connect the system to the grid. Many countries developed their own procedure
to make the connection to the grid called grid code.

Grid code means connection and operational requirements and

specific standards for wind farm grid integration. Modern wind farms must be
able to provide active power control, voltage and reactive power control,
frequency control, power balance and fault ride through capability in order to
maintain the electric system stability and reliability. Better understanding is
 21

required for wind farm and grid interaction at distribution system operator
level; otherwise, it leads to long delay in connection approvals for developers
and wind turbine manufacturers. In addition, large variety of grid code
requirements, with no technical justification will make complex situation for
wind turbine manufacturers. For example, some generators will not meet the
specific grid code requirements of some countries like Germany.

2.2 GRID CODE REQUIREMENTS

Since the beginning of the 90s, many countries have experienced a

substantial growth of distributed generation (DG) on their power systems. The
grid connection of DG gave rise to new problems and constraints, especially
on distribution networks. In addition, grid integration point is used to
determine the prices in wind farms. These constraints led system operators,
electric utilities, governments or regulatory boards to define technical
requirements for the grid connection of DG units. In the last decade, the
expansion of wind energy on distribution and transmission networks raised
specific problems related to this particular type of generation process (wind
energy conversion with stochastic generation) and to the technologies used.
This led to the definition of specific rules for the connection of wind farms or
to the adaptation of existing rules or in some cases to exemption (Bousseau
Pierre et al 2006).

The important German grid code requirements (FGH Certification

Office 2009) given by FGH, Germany are summarized below.

Reactive power in normal system operation.

Performance during system faults,

 22

It is used for continuous power generation during faults in the high-

voltage system. Also increased reactive power generation during system faults
depending on the degree of voltage reduction of active power generation at
system over-frequency.

The newly developed principles in Germany grid codes are

All types of generating plants are treated equally.

Distinguished only by type

Type 1: Generation plants with synchronous generators.

Type 2: Generation plants with other generator types.

The basic requirements in FGH certification process are;

1. Active power generation

It is depend on wind speed, unity power factor, maximum reactive

power generation and consumption, reduction of active power generation
depend on wind speed and accuracy in frequency control in the power system.

2. Reactive power generation

Maximum values of reactive power (generation and consumption)

depending on active power, Control alternatives (power factor, amount, Q-U
characteristic) and transition times after control setting.

3. System voltage disturbances according to IEC EN 61400-21-1

Flicker, Switching operations, Harmonics and Inter harmonics are

some of the disturbances considered in certification process.
 23

2.2.1 Review of International Grid Code Requirements

In practical terms, in wind farms with variable speed doubly fed

induction generators and synchronous generators are used. It is possible to
incorporate frequency response into the turbine control system and ultimately
across the wind farm. Wind farms with fixed speed generators cannot offer
voltage or frequency control ( et al 2007).

Important points to be considered in grid code requirements are, all

wind turbines must remain connected in the event of any fault in the high-
voltage transmission network. Reduction of the low voltage period duration
upto 1.5s is possible to overcome using LVRT techniques otherwise generator
is disconnected from the grid. For low voltage period shorter than 1.5s, STI
(Short-term interruption) is always required. Wind turbines have to ensure
that after FRT, power generation resumes within the shortest possible time. In
case of large disturbances with long lasting voltage sags, preventive measures
for voltage collapse is considered and desired frequency range on the grid is
within 47.5 Hz - 51.5 Hz. Outside this range, disconnection without any time
delay is necessary. In addition, wind turbines have to reduce power in feed
already at frequencies of about 50.2 Hz.

LVRT requirements in North American Electric Reliability

Corporation (NAERC) define that a wind farm remains connected to the grid
for voltage levels as low as 15 % of the nominal voltage for 625 ms (Jahangir
Hossain et al 2013). British grid codes require that
connected to the grid for voltage depressions down to 0% for 100 150 ms in
duration and recover as soon as possible to produce pre-fault power within

The important aspects of international grid codes are given by

Flor
 24

to the fault duration while Denmark has the lowest short circuit time duration

turbine shall remain connected to the electrical network during successive

faults. The German grid code requires wind power installations to remain
connected during voltage sags down to 0% from the rated voltage in the PCC
for duration of 150 ms. Moreover, during the fault a reactive current injection
up to 100% is required. Same requirement regarding reactive current injection
is present in the Spanish grid code. This demand is relatively difficult to be
met by some of the wind turbine concepts e.g. active stall wind turbine with
directly grid connected squirrel cage or doubly fed induction generator based
on wind turbines. Figure 2.1 shows the combined diagram (Florin Iov et al
2007) with regard to the low voltage requirements of the different countries. It
shows that the German grid code requirements are very difficult to be
fulfilled.

Figure 2.1 Summary regarding fault rides through capability of wind

turbines/farms in national grid codes

Florin Iov et al (2007) also pointed out the most frequently

occurred location of LVRT; Most of the events are located on overhead
lines. Most of the faults are located on 132 KV networks. The single-phase
fault has the highest probability to occur compared with other types of faults.
 25

Voltage drops down to 0.75 p.u have a duration of several cycles while
voltage drops down to 0.25 p.u from the rated voltage have duration of
several seconds up to minutes.

2.3 REVIEW OF INDIAN ELECTRICITY GRID CODE (IEGC)

A short review of the grid code, reported by the Central Electricity

Authority is presented here (Central Electricity Regulatory Commission,
2010).The Indian power system contains the following aspects namely,

1. Generating stations

2. Transmission or main transmission lines

3. Sub-stations

4. Tie-lines

5. Load dispatch activities

6. Mains or distribution mains

7. Electric supply-lines

8. Overhead lines

9. Service lines

10. Works

The main objective of Indian Electricity Grid Code (IEGC) is to

bring together a single set of technical and commercial rules for grid
integration. In addition to this, facilitation of the development of renewable
energy sources by specifying the technical and commercial aspects for
integration of these resources into the grid.
 26

Structure of the IEGC is

1. Role of various Organizations and their linkages

2. Planning Code for inter-State transmission

3. Connection Code

4. Operating Code

5. Scheduling and Dispatch Code

6. Miscellaneous

Special requirements for solar/ wind generators are given below

1. State Load Dispatch Centres (SLDC)/Regional Load Dispatch

Centres (RLDC) may direct a wind farm to curtail its VAr
draw/injection in case the security of grid or safety of any
equipment or personnel is endangered.

2. During the wind generator start-up, the wind generator shall

ensure that the reactive power draw (inrush currents in case of
induction generators) shall not affect the grid performance.

To meet the above objectives, data acquisition system facility shall

be provided for the transfer of information to concerned SLDC and RLDC.
National Load Dispatch Centre (NLDC)/RLDC are authorized to defer the
planned outage in case of any of the following, taking into account the
statutory requirements like grid disturbances, system isolation, partial black
out in a state, any other event in the system that may have an adverse impact
on the system security by the proposed outage.
 27

2.4 SUMMARY OF TAMIL NADU ELECTRICITY GRID CODE

Structure of the Tamil Nadu Electricity Grid Code recommended by

the Tamil Nadu Electricity Regulatory Commission (Tamil Nadu Electricity
Regulatory Commission 2005) is given below

1. Functional responsibilities of entities connected with the state

grid

2. System planning

3. Grid connectivity conditions

4. Requirement in grid operation

5. Scheduling and dispatch

6. Commercial issues and implementation

7. Non compliance

The State Transmission Utility (STU) which has to play a key role
in the implementation of the grid code may be required to act decisively for
maintaining the grid regimes for discharging its obligations.

The objective of the Tamil Nadu electricity code is to define the

services rendered by each wing in the overall electric system and also for
identifying the responsibility and performance factor and measurement points
for each one of them. Further, it facilitates intra state transmission and
wheeling of electricity, with a focus on the operation, maintenance,
development and planning of the Tamil Nadu State electricity grid.
 28

2.5 REVIEW OF INDIAN WIND ENERGY GRID CODE

REQUIREMENTS

In many countries in the world, including India has common

technical issues and energy policies on the increased penetration of wind
energy to the grid i.e

1. Voltage and reactive power control.

2. Frequency control.

3. Fault ride-through capabilities.

These are the three main points that new grid codes must adapt for
wind farm connection. The most worrying problem that wind farms must face
is a voltage dip in the grid. The effects of transient faults may propagate over
very large geographical areas and the disconnection of wind farms under
faulty conditions could pose a serious threat to network security and security
of supply, because a great amount of wind power could be disconnected
simultaneousl Bharat Singh & Singh (2009) says

enhancement.

Indian Wind Grid Code (IWGC) contains certain rules for planning,
connection, and operation on Indian grid. The structure of Indian wind grid
code is as follows (PRDC, 2009)

1. Role of various organizations and their linkages

2. Planning code for transmission systems evacuating wind

power

3. Connection code for wind farms

 29

Also, in the draft report of Indian wind grid code (PRDC, 2009)
contains the following aspects in the connection code i.e transmission system
voltage requirements, reactive power capability of wind farms, frequency
tolerance range, active power control, situation where wind turbines can be
disconnected from grid, situation where wind turbines must remain connected
to the grid, ability to withstand repetitive faults, protection, signals, data
communication requirements, system regarding instruments, wind farm
equipment, auxiliary supply, revenue metering, procedure for site access,
operational activities, maintenance and responsibilities for operational safety.

Exploiting the complete capabilities of wind farms is not feasible

always. Therefore, the connection codes should be such that it should provide
the maximum power output from the wind farm without affecting the existing
grid operation. Aspects considered for large-scale grid integration of wind
power in India are (Bharat Singh & Singh 2011).

1. Active power control

2. Reactive power control

3. Fault Ride Through capability

4. Communication requirements

5. Others - Modeling and validation, power quality, start and

stop, metering etc.

Ayodele et al (2012) pointed out that the system must maintain a

balance between the aggregate demand for electric power and the total power
generated by all power plants feeding the system.
 30

2.6 INDIAN GRID CODE FOR LOW VOLTAGE RIDE

THROUGH (LVRT)

Figure 2.2 shows the main Indian LVRT Requirement (PRDC,

2009).It is used to minimize the reactive power drawn from the grid and as
soon as the fault is cleared, wind turbine generators shall provide active
power in proportion to retain grid voltage.

In India, the LVRT requirements are applicable for the wind farms
having more than 66KV voltage penetration in the grid. It is tabulated in the
Table 2.1. (PRDC, 2009) Below this level, disconnection is allowed; On the
contrary, in India the fault occurrence in the sub transmission systems is very
frequent. At that time, thermal stress of the wind turbine is also high.
Therefore, it is necessary to disconnect from the grid like Danish grid code.

1. FRT without separation from

grid
2.FRT without separation from

1 grid, Under circumstances STI

3.STI allowed
4.Tripping allowed
Vpf

2
4

Vf
3

0 T 3000
Time (ms)
Where

Vf =15% of nominal system voltage

Vpf =Minimum voltage mentioned in IWGC

Figure 2.2 Indian low voltage ride through requirements (LVRT)

diagram
 31

Table 2.1 Fault clearing time and voltage limits of Indian grid code

Nominal system Fault clearing

Vpf Vf
voltage time
(KV) (KV)
(KV) T(ms)
400 100 360 60
220 160 200 33
132 160 120 19.8
110 160 96.25 16.5
66 300 60 9.9

Table 2.2 shows the voltage withstands limits of wind farms in

Indian power sector (PRDC, 2009).It shows that 33KV to 400KV wind farms
are possible to connect in the grid, also 10 to 25% voltage variation limits are
allowed.

Table 2.2 Voltage withstands limits of wind farms

Voltage (KV)
Limits
Nominal Maximum Minimum
of variation (%)
400 +5 to -10 420 360
220 +11 to -9 245 200
132 +10 to -9 145 120
110 +10 to -12.5 121 96.25
66 +10 to -9 72.5 60
33 +5 to -10 34.65 29.7
 32

2.7 PROPOSED IMPROVEMENTS IN THE INDIAN WIND

GRID CODE

Wind speeds are frequently changing and fluctuating, and hence it

is necessary to install additional reserves to manage the system power balance
and stability. Otherwise, large unexpected fluctuations, and power oscillations
occur in wind power. It can cause additional loop power flow through the
transmission grid. This large power deviation has to be balanced by other
sources, and these sources are not necessarily located near the wind park. As
per Indian grid code requirements, the reactive power compensation
equipment must remain connected during system fault, thereby avoiding the
need for exchange of reactive power particularly under low-voltage condition.
Also in Indian grid connections, the fault occurrence and fluctuations are very
frequent. Therefore, it is necessary to manage as per the International Council
on Large Electric Systems (CIGRE) (CIGRE Technical Brochure on Grid
Integration of Wind Generation, 2009).The suggested improvements in Indian
wind power grid connection code are,

1. Congestion management procedure

2. Power flow and power balance control (Active, Reactive and

frequency)

3. FRT capability (including ZVRT,LVRT,HVRT)

4. Communication requirements

5. Others (Stability, Power quality and Metering etc)

1. Congestion management procedure

Reasons for consideration of congestion is grid voltage beyond

operating range, Real time power flow exceeds the Available Transfer
 33

Capability (ATC) for one time block in the congested corridor and loading of
transmission lines beyond operating limit.

The brief procedure for real time congestion management is given

by ERLDC Procedure in (2011), it says that in case actual flow in inter/intra-
regional corridor exceeds ATC continuously, for two time blocks the National
Load Dispatch Center (NLDC) would issue a warning notice. SLDCs on
noticing congestion can inform the Regional Load Dispatch Center (RLDC)
which in turn will inform NLDC. If power flow is as per the schedule, the
congestion due to a forced outage at that time OA transaction shall be revised,
followed by Total Transfer Capability (TTC) revision. If power flow is as per
schedule and there is congestion in terms of voltages/line loadings are
maintained without any forced outages, the TTC shall be revised. In case of
continued persistence of congestion and no action from defaulting
constituents appropriate notice for application of congestion charges would be
issued.

The applicability of congestion charges is (ERLDC Procedure

2011) applicable simultaneously on all entities and payable by entities causing
congestion and receivable by entities relieving congestion. If congestion
charges may be applied in India, it is applicable for entities in one region
causing intra-regional congestion in a separate region. It is applicable only
after two time blocks after issue of the notice, if it is applied once will remain
in force for 8 time blocks (2 hours), congestion charges would not be applied
for more than four times in a day to prevent continued flip-flops, congestion
charges levied for the fourth time would remain in force for the rest of the
day, if the congestion charge continues the next day, the same shall be
considered as 1st time for the day. It is lifted only after the 2 hour period and
when power flow falls below ATC and remains below ATC level for at least
one time block. At frequency below 50 Hz, congestion charge would be
 34

levied for over drawl in the importing control area and at frequencies above
50 Hz. Congestion charge would be levied for under-drawl in the exporting
control area.

2. Power flow and power balance control (Active and Reactive)

Power balance requires that: Power generated at the source = Power

transmitted to the sink + Losses. Power balance concept must be implemented
in the controller to keep the system stable. At the utility side, the current
waveform can be commanded to have an adjustable power factor at minimum
current distortion while maintaining the DC bus voltage constant (power
balance) (Carlin et al 2001).

3. Fault Ride Through capability (including ZVRT, LVRT, HVRT)

Ride through technologies are categorized into three different

factors namely,

1. Zero Voltage Ride Through (ZVRT)

Example, short-term interruptions

2. Low Voltage Ride Through (LVRT)

Example, voltage sag

3. High Voltage Ride Through (HVRT)

Example, voltage swell

4. Communication requirements

Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) and smart grid

technology is the most popular technology used for remote control of wind
power.
 35

5. Others (Stability, Power quality and Metering etc)

Other requirements are followed as per International standards like

IEEE and IEC.

2.8 PROBLEMS DUE TO FAULT

Some of the problems associated with the fault are pointed out by
Athula Rajapakse et al 2009, i.e automatic reconnection of the wind power in
a particular area causes frequency problems, increasing penetrations of wind
power may increase or decrease short circuit levels and diminishing of
the power transfer capability in wind turbine generator, results in mechanical
over speeding of the machine and the turbine blades, this leads to mechanical
stress on blades and the other rotating parts.

Also during the fault recovery period, depending on the generator

technology employed, the wind turbine generator may draw increased
amounts of reactive power from the system. This will result in a poor fault
recovery response. Nature and magnitude of the fault current contribution of
the wind farm depends mostly on the wind turbine generator technology, a

protection and control settings. Turbine blade pitch control must be capable of
regulating the input mechanical power. During faults, fast pitch control of
blades will limit the over speeding of rotating elements. The sudden
disconnection of the wind turbine generators while the capacitor bank is still
connected can result in over voltage at the generator terminals. This is a major
protection problem related to the large wind farms.

2.9 VOLTAGE SAG

electrical system, followed by a voltage recovery after a short period of time,

 36

standard IEC
61000-2-1, 1990 also voltage sag is an alternative name for the phenomenon
voltage dip (IEC 61000-2-8, 2002) (Roberto Chouhy Leborgne 2007).

The main causes of voltage sags are (Joseph Franciscus Gerardus

Cobben 2007): Short circuits in the grid (low, medium or high-voltage
network), switching of heavy loads (mostly due to reconnection after a
disconnection) and inrush currents of high-power transformers (mostly placed
in substations).

The magnitude of the voltage sags are determined by distance to

fault, cross section of the lines and cables connection, type of transformers
between the location of fault and the recording point, type of the network
(radial or loops) and short-circuit impedance of the network, etc.

Jia Rong et al (2009) categorized the degree of stator voltage sag

like smaller voltage sag, bigger voltage sag, larger voltage sag and DC super-
high voltage. Controller is the main part to ride through the smaller voltage
sag. In the bigger voltage sag crowbar is required and in the larger voltage sag
both rotor, and stator side converters are disconnected.

2.10 POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS OF LVRT

The LVRT solutions are evaluated based on the following criteria

(Joós 2008):

Grid variables - Voltage during fault, voltage over-

shoot at recovery, response time.

Turbine variables - Rotor speed, rotor current, dc bus

voltage.
 37

The problems associated with LVRT can be possible to overcome

using the following methods,

1. Direct axis (d) and quadrature axis (q) currents of rotor,

2. Torque/speed control and hence MPPT (via direct rotor

current idr),

3. Reactive power exchange

4. External voltage support (via iqr)

This thesis focused on the first method i.e to control the d and q
axis rotor currents.

2.10.1 Rotor current control

Control system of HVdc link based on VSCs connecting wind

farms to the grid is proposed, in order to enhance the wind farm fault ride-
through capability (Theodoros D. Vrionis et al 2007). Cárdenas et al. (2013)
say that the vector control, typically orientated along the stator flux, is still the
most adopted method for regulating the rotor currents of DFIGs. With this
control methodology, decoupling of the reactive power and electrical torque is
simple to achieve sensorless control of variable-speed DFIGs. The most
popular methods are based on MRAS schemes providing good performance in
both stand-alone and grid-connected operation of DFIGs.

2.10.2 M-G set connected with flywheel

Annette voii et al (1998) says that the following methods are

suitable for LVRT. Figure 2.3 shows the M-G set connected with flywheel.
This system battery backup is higher than standard capacitors. Fuel cell
system can be used similar to battery backup system. Flywheels with high
strength composite materials provide full power ride through throughout one
 38

hour also boost converter integrated in dc link to maintain the dc link voltage
during voltage sag.

DFIG Grid
3

Wind 3
Turbine

Rotor Side Grid Side

3 Converter Converter
DC Link

Rotor side Grid side

converter converter
control control

Figure 2.3 M-G Set with a Flywheel for low voltage ride through

The energy storage system provides a further improvement with

super capacitor during transients. The storage device provides an effective
means to ride through disturbances and exhibits superior characteristics (Chad
Abbey & Géza Joos 2007).

Supercapacitor is a double layer capacitor; the energy is stored by

charge transfer at the boundary between electrode and electrolyte. The
amount of stored energy is function of the available electrode and electrolyte
surface, the size of the ions, and the level of the electrolyte decomposition
voltage. Supercapacitors are constituted of two electrodes, a separator and an
electrolyte. The two electrodes, made of activated carbon provide a high
surface area part, defining so energy density of the component. On the
electrodes, current collectors with a high conducting part assure the interface
between the electrodes and the connections of the supercapacitor. The two
electrodes are separated by a membrane, which allows the mobility of charged
ions and forbids no electronic contact. The electrolyte supplies and conducts
 39

the ions from one electrode to the other (Kuldeep Sahay & Bharti Dwivedi
2009).

2.10.3 Chopper in the DC link

Figure 2.4 shows the diagram of chopper connected in the DC

Link. During larger fault, the crowbar is activated and the reactive current
feed from the wind farm is limited. This disadvantage is overcome to some
extent using chopper integrated in the DC link (Wilch et al 2007).

DFIG Grid
3

Wind 3
Turbine

Rotor Side Grid Side

3 Converter Converter
DC Link with Chopper

Rotor side Grid side

converter converter
control control

Figure 2.4 Enhancement of reactive power with chopper in the DC link

for LVRT

2.10.4 Series Dynamic Braking Resistor

Series Dynamic Braking Resistor (SDBR) concept is very useful

for removing pitch control. It is done by dynamically inserting a resistor in the
generation circuit, increasing the voltage at the terminals of the generator, and
thereby mitigating the destabilizing depression of electrical torque and power
during the fault period (Andrew Cause brook et al 2007). Figure 2.5 shows
the SDBR connected wind farm.
 40

SDBR
DFIG Control
Grid
3
Bypass switch

Wind 3
Turbine Resistor

Rotor Side Grid Side

3 Converter Converter
DC Link

Rotor side Grid side

converter converter
control control

Figure 2.5 SBDR connected wind farm

2.10.5 TCSC connected wind farm

Figure 2.6 shows the TCSC connected wind farm. There is TCSC
in each phase and is controlled separately and capacitors are used for reactive
power compensation. The major problem found was designing of inductor
and capacitor values for TCSC (Nitin N Joshi & Mohan 2006).

DFIG Grid
3
TCSC
Wind 3
Turbine

Rotor Side Grid Side

3 Converter Converter
DC Link

Rotor side Grid side

converter converter
control control

Figure 2.6 TCSC connected to wind turbine for LVRT

 41

2.10.6 Series grid side converter

Flannery & Venkataramanan (2007a) presented two topologically

similar configurations for series grid side converter (SGSC) connected DFIG
wind turbines, which enable VSRT. In the first, the SGSC is connected to the
DFIG stator Y point. In the second, an injection transformer connects the
SGSC in series with the DFIG stator. Both configurations have sufficient
degrees of freedom to set the SGSC VA ratings based on voltage sag ride-
through requirements, independent of DC link voltage. Figure 2.7 shows the
Y point connected series grid side converter.

The SGSC is connected via a three-phase injection transformer in

series with the main stator windings of the DFIG. The machine neutral point
is internally tied together as in a conventional DFIG. The SGSC, three-phase
injection transformer and inductive filter all share the same per unit current as
the stator circuit of the DFIG (Kennedy Adinbo Aganah 2013).

DFIG Grid
3

Series injection Transformer

Wind 3
Turbine SGSC or
Stator winding Y point

Rotor Side Grid Side

3 Converter Converter
DC Link

Rotor side Grid side

converter converter
control control

Figure 2.7 Schematic configuration of transformer interfaced and Y

point connected series grid side converter (SGSC) DFIG
wind turbine
 42

2.10.7 STATCOM and SVC based wind farm

DFIG Grid
3

SVC
Wind 3
Turbine

Rotor Side Grid Side

3 Converter Converter
DC Link

Rotor side Grid side

converter converter
control control

Figure 2.8 Configurations of wind farm with SVC

Figure 2.9 shows the STATCOM based wind farm and Figure 2.8
shows the SVC based wind farm. Marta Molinas et al (2008) show that the
STATCOM performs better than the SVC in terms of LVRT capability if the
same rating is assumed for the devices.

DFIG Grid
3

Wind Series injection Transformer 3

Turbine
STATCOM
DC
AC

Rotor Side Grid Side

3 Converter Converter
DC Link

Rotor side Grid side

converter converter
control control

Figure 2.9 STATCOM based voltage ride through control in DFIG

 43

A common dc-link of the rotor side converter (RSC) and grid side
converter (GSC) supported static compensator (STATCOM) is proposed for
the voltage ride through capability by Behera &Wenzhong Gao (2009).

2.10.8 Magnetic Energy Recovery Switch (MERS) connected wind

farm

DFIG Grid
3

Wind 3
Turbine

Rotor Side Grid Side

3 Converter Converter
DC Link

Rotor side Grid side

converter converter
control control

Figure 2.10 Magnetic energy recovery switch (MERS) connected wind

farm

FACTS controllers supply reactive power during fault condition

and pre fault condition and this is the violation of connection rule. It was
found that the rating requirement of the series device is considerably lower
than that of the shunt device. Olav Jakob Fønstelien (2009) proposed the
Magnetic Energy Recovery Switch (MERS), which injects in series, a
capacitive voltage vector to cancel inductive voltage drops in power lines,
transformers etc. Figure 2.10 shows the diagram of Magnetic Energy
Recovery Switch (MERS) connected wind farm.

2.10.9 DVR connected wind farms

DVRs are similar to Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS) systems

but unlike the UPS systems that must supply the total voltage and power to
 44

voltage. The DVR power requirement is therefore much lower than a

corresponding UPS system (Kennedy Adinbo Aganah 2013).

Mahinda Vilathgamuwa et al (2003) proposed DVR (Dynamic

Voltage Restorer) scheme which is superior compared to the conventional
in-phase injection technique in terms of energy saving and dynamic
performance. Such characteristics are highly desirable as the design is seen to
result in a more economical restorer, which can improve the ride-through
capability of sensitive loads, and industrial processes. Figure 2.11 shows the
DVR connected wind farms.

DFIG Grid
3

Wind DVR 3
Turbine Filter
DC Link
Storage DC
Unit
AC
Rotor Side Grid Side
3 Converter Converter
DC Link

Rotor side Grid side

converter converter
control control

Figure 2.11 DVR connected wind farm

DVR method affords the stable operation for the DFIG wind
turbine system under different types of grid faults (Ahmad Osman Ibrahim et
al 2011). Amutha & Kalyan Kumar (2013) proposed a DVR based method to
improve the fault ride-through capability of induction generator wind farms.
Behera et al (2010b) proposed DVR structure which is operated in such a
fashion that it does not supply or absorb any active power during the steady-
state operation. The main purpose of a DVR is to protect sensitive loads from
sags/swells and interruptions in the supply side. The capacitor supported
 45

DVR, while operating in zero power mode, regulates the load voltage even
when the source and load voltages are unbalanced.

2.10.10 Wind farm connected to grid with series compensator

Shao Zhang et al (2012) presented the improved ride-through

control scheme of the series compensation. This method significantly reduces
the energy storage capacity of the series compensator, which in turn, reduces
the capital cost. Figure 2.12 shows the wind farm connected to grid with
series compensator.

DC
AC
DFIG Grid
3

Wind SWITCH 3
Turbine

Rotor Side Grid Side

3 Converter Converter
DC Link

Rotor side Grid side

converter converter
control control

Figure 2.12 DFIG wind turbine connected to grid with series

compensator

2.10.11 Superconducting fault current limiter

Figure 2.13 shows the utilization of Superconducting Fault Current

Limiter (SFCL) to improve fault ride through capability of DFIG which was
proposed by Elshiekh et al (2013). With using SFCL, the stator currents have
been limited effectively and the minimum voltage level at the generator
terminals has been increased leading to compliance with international grid
 46

codes. In addition, the overall dynamics of DFIG, represented by active and

reactive power, has been improved. With increasing the current limiting
resistance, further improvements in the obtained characteristics have been
achieved. With adjusting the current limiting resistance to a proper value, the
rotor currents can be limited within their safety margins. This would prevent
the rotor side converter from disconnection from the generator during faults
and keep the wind turbine connected to the grid. Consequently, fault ride-
through capability will be improved.

DFIG
Grid
3
SFCL

Wind 3
Turbine

Rotor Side Grid Side

3 Converter Converter
DC Link

Rotor side Grid side

converter converter
control control

Figure 2.13 DFIG-based wind turbine with SFCL

2.10.12 Superconducting magnetic energy storage

Figure 2.14 shows the SMES unit connected in wind farm.

Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) unit is utilized as a better
alternative for FACTS devices to improve the power dispatch and dynamic
performance of DFIG in all types of ride through conditions. The SMES unit
is still a costly piece of equipment. However, due to the development of high-
temperature superconducting materials, its applications in power systems are
expected to become more viable in the near future (Shiddiq Yunus et al 2013).
 47

controller

Cryogenic
system

coil switch Rectifier Inverter

SMES Unit
DFIG
Grid
3

Wind 3
Turbine

Rotor Side Grid Side

3 Converter Converter
DC Link

Rotor side Grid side

converter converter
control control

Figure 2.14 DFIG equipped with SMES unit

Dynamic sag corrector and compressed air energy storage are some
of the additional techniques for better LVRT (Nicolás Louzán Pérez 2003).
Generally, wind parks are located away from load centers, and therefore,
require high voltage transmission before connecting to the grid. ABB
Company uses HVdc LIGHT technology for this purpose. This voltage-fed
system has the advantages of multi-terminal capability, control of active and
reactive power independently, and mitigation of flicker or grid instability by
fast reactive energy control (Bimal K. Bose 2012).

2.11 REVIEW OF POWER QUALITY REQUIREMENTS

The Information Technology Industry Council (formerly known as

the Computer and Business Equipment Manufacturers Association) first
developed the ITI (CBEMA) Curve (revised 2000) shown in Figure 2.15,
which is the basis of the modern power quality standards. The basic function
causing the power quality problems are given below. The International
Electrical Commission (IEC) is a worldwide organization that prepares and
 48

publishes international standards for all electrical, electronic, and related

technologies. The IEC has defined a category of standards called Electro
Magnetic Compatibility (EMC) Standards that deal with power quality issues
(Daniel J. Ward 2001).

Figure 2.15 ITI (CBEMA) curve

2.11.1 Reclosing

Due to distribution faults or short circuits, the power is

disconnected for short time or long time and then it is reconnected. This is
also called reclosing operation. Because of the circuit reconnection, the power
quality problems will occur.

2.11.2 Voltage Sags in Power Quality

The flow of fault current reduces the voltage at the substation bus
for that phase. The other two phases experience some increase in voltage
 49

(swell). Thus, for a fault in one circuit, the customers on that phase on all
three circuits experience voltage sag until the circuit breaker is opened.

2.11.3 Capacitor Switching

Capacitor switching is an everyday occurrence on a utility system

to achieve better voltage control and reduce loses. Capacitor bank energizing
typically results in an oscillatory voltage transient having a natural frequency
somewhere between 300 and 900 Hz.

2.12 STANDARDS

The IEEE, the main standard making body is American National

Standards Institute (ANSI) of United States, and equipment manufacturer
organizations, such as the National Electrical Manufacturers Association
(NEMA) are some of the other organization in America. The International
Electrical Commission started the work to facilitate power quality in 1996. As
a result, IEC 61400-21 was developed and today most wind turbine
manufacturers provide power quality characteristic data accordingly. It
specifies a method that uses current and voltage time series, measured at the
wind turbine terminals (Juan Manuel Carrasco et al 2006).

2.12.1 Reliability Standards

IEEE Standard 1366 is the guide for Power Distribution Reliability

Indices (PDRI).

2.12.2 Power Quality Standards

ANSI C84.1 establishes acceptable ranges of steady-state voltages

for equipment as well as distribution systems. IEEE Standard 1100 presents
 50

the engineering principles and practices for supplying power and grounding of
sensitive electronic equipment. IEEE Standard 1250 describes the electrical
environment along with various solutions to power quality problems. IEEE
Standard 1159 is followed with a more rigorous and in depth set of definitions
for monitoring power quality.

The standard EN 50160 is the most important one for defining

the quality of the supply voltage. There is also the IEC 61000 series of
technical norms on electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) (Sjef Cobben
2007).

1. IEC 61000-3-6 (1996 - Electromagnetic compatibility

(EMC) Part 3:Limits Section 6: Assessment of
emission limits for distorting loads in MV and HV power

2. IEC 61000-3- Part

3: Limits Section 7: Assessment of emission limits for
fluctuating loads in MV and HV Power Systems.

2.12.3 Harmonic Standard

IEEE Standard 519 is the principal harmonic standard used in the

United States and it recommends the limits of the harmonics. High amount of
harmonic current leads to capacitor bank failures. The intent of IEEE 519 is to
limit harmonic current injection into power systems and ensure voltage
integrity. However, when IEEE 519 is applied to single-phase system
connections, it can become highly impractical. Presently, IEEE Standard 519
1992 addresses harmonic limits at the consumer and service provider
interface. IEC61000-3-2 is also used for harmonic current.
 51

2.12.4 Flicker Standard

The commonly used flicker standard is IEC 61000-3-3 and IEC

61000-3-11.

2.13 POWER QUALITY REQUIREMENTS FOR GRID

INTEGRATION

Grid connected wind turbines are considered as potential sources of

bad power quality and high amount of voltage penetration in the grid. It is a
serious power quality problem. Variable-speed wind turbines have some
advantages concerning flicker, but the forced-commuted inverters present in
the generator causes harmonics and interharmonics problems (Juan Manuel
Carrasco et al 2006).

IEC standard consists of three analyses.

1. Flicker

2. Switching operations

3. Harmonic analysis

2.13.1 Voltage Quality and Flicker

Voltage quality is the main power quality problem. It has two types
i.e

1. Voltage variation

2. Flicker

2.13.2 Voltage Variation

Table 2.3 shows the voltage unbalance limits in the Indian wind
grid code (PRDC 2009).Voltage dips and interruptions that are reductions of
 52

the voltage magnitude at a point in the electrical system below a specified

threshold. Voltage swells that are increases in the voltage at a point in the
electrical system above a specified threshold. Voltage unbalance, that is a
condition in a polyphase system in which the Root Mean Square (RMS)
values of the line voltages (fundamental component), or the phase angles
between consecutive line voltages, are not equal.

Table 2.3 Voltage unbalance limits

Voltage
Unbalance (%)
level(KV)
400 1.5
200 2
<200 3

2.13.3 Flicker

Flicker means voltage magnitude fluctuation or variation. The

flicker may be mitigated by regulating the reactive power with the variation of
the real power. Light flicker, which is produced by rapid amplitude
fluctuations in voltage that typically cause visible changes in light from
electric lighting sources. It has two types

1. Flickers during operation.

2. Flickers of the supply voltage or during switching, that is

produced by changes in power system configurations and/or
loads which normally happen during the time and result in
changes of voltage magnitude.

Specific values are given for fast variations in voltage, short-term

flicker severity, long-term flicker severity and the total harmonic distortion
(Mohamed Machmoum et al 2010).The presence of harmonic and reactive
power in the grid is harmful, because it will cause additional power losses and
 53

malfunction of grid component. FACTS devices are commonly used to

enhance the power quality. The details are available in (Hansen, LH et al
2001).

2.14 POWER QUALITY MEASUREMENT

The fundamental reference for power quality monitoring

instruments is the standard EN 61000-4-30. The measurement and assessment
of the power quality characteristics of the grid-connected wind turbines is
defined by IEC Standard 61400-21 (wind turbine system) prepared by IEC
Technical Committee 88. IEC 61000-4-15 is the standard, which is very
useful for the measurement of flicker (Daniele Gallo et al 2010). IEEE 1459-
2000 standard recommends the use of the positive sequence of the
fundamental component. It is likely that the future second edition of the IEC
61400-21 will do it in a similar manner (Jouko Niiranen 2008).