Mammals have the ability to produce a concentrated urine.

The Henle’s loop and vasa recta play a

significant role in this. The flow of filtrate in the two limbs of Henle’s loop is in opposite directions
and thus forms a counter current. The flow of blood through the two limbs of vasa recta is also in
a counter current pattern. The proximity between the Henle’s loop and vasa recta, as well as the
counter current in them help in maintaining an increasing osmolarity towards the inner medullary
interstitium, i.e., from 300 mOsmolL–1 in the cortex to about 1200 mOsmolL–1 in the inner
medulla. This gradient is mainly caused by NaCl and urea. NaCl is transported by the ascending
limb of Henle’s loop which is exchanged with the descending limb of vasa recta. NaCl is returned
to the interstitium by the ascending portion of vasa recta. Similarly, small amounts of urea enter
the thin segment of the ascending limb of Henle’s loop which is transported back to the
interstitium by the collecting tubule. The above described transport of substances facilitated by
the special arrangement of Henle’s loop and vasa recta is called the counter current mechanism
(Figure. 19.6). This mechanism helps to maintain a concentration gradient in the medullary
interstitium. Presence of such interstitial gradient helps in an easy passage of water from the
collecting tubule thereby concentrating the filtrate (urine). Human kidneys can produce urine
nearly four times concentrated than the initial filtrate formed.

Juxta glomerular apparatus (JGA) is a special sensitive region formed by cellular modifications in the distal convoluted tubule and the afferent arteriole at the
location of their contact. The JGA plays a complex regulatory role. A fall in glomerular blood flow/ glomerular blood pressure/GFR can activate the JG cells to
release renin which converts angiotensinogen in blood to angiotensin I and further to angiotensin II. Angiotensin II, being a powerful vasoconstrictor, increases
the glomerular blood pressure and thereby GFR. Angiotensin II also activates the adrenal cortex to release aldosterone. Aldosterone causes reabsorption of Na+
and water from the distal parts of the tubule. This also leads to an increase in blood pressure and GFR.

Resting potential Action potential

When the neuron is at the resting phase, it is the potential difference across membrane When the neuron is triggered, it is the potential difference across the membrane

The exterior side of the neuron is positively charged, while the interior side is The exterior side of the neuron is negatively charged, and the interior side of the neuron is
negatively charged positively charged
+
Permeability of K ions is observed to be more by the plasma membrane of neurons Permeability of Na+ ions is observed to be more by the plasma membrane of the neurons

To maintain the resting potential, the sodium-potassium ATPase pump is activated, It functions in a reverse pattern wherein the sodium-potassium ATPase pump sends Na + ions
sending Na+ ions outside the neuron to the neuron.

(c) Conduction of a nerve impulse along a nerve fibre: Nervous system transmits information as a series of nerve impulses. A nerve
impulse is the movement of an action potential as a wave through a nerve fibre. Action potentials are propagated, that is, self-generated
along the axon. The events that set up an action potential at one spot on the nerve fibre also transmit it along the entire length of the
nerve fibre. The action potential then moves to the neighbouring region of the nerve fibre till it covers the whole length of the fibre.
d) Transmission of a nerve impulse across a chemical synapse: At a chemical synapse, the membranes of the pre- and post- synaptic
neurons are separated by a fluid- filled space called synaptic cleft. Chemicals called neurotransmitters are involved in the transmission of
impulses at these synapses. The axon terminals contain vesicles filled with these neurotransmitters. When an impulse (action potential)
arrives at the axon terminal, it stimulates the movement of the synaptic vesicles towards the membrane where they fuse with the plasma
membrane and burst to release their neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft. The released neurotransmitters bind to their specific
receptors, present on the post- synaptic membrane. This binding opens ion channels allowing the entry of ions which can generate a new
potential in the post-synaptic neuron. The new potential developed may be either excitatory or inhibitory.
 1)The electron transport system (ETS) is found in the inner mitochondrial membrane and aids in liberating and using the energy stored in the NADH+H and +

FADH . 2 2).NADH+ H , formed while citric acid cycle and glycolysis occur, is oxidised by NADH dehydrogenase or complex I.
+

Electrons hence produced are conveyed to ubiquinone via FMN. 3) Similarly, the complex II or FADH synthesised during the citric acid cycle is
2

conveyed to ubiquinone. 4)From ubiquinone, electrons are accepted by the complex III or cytochrome bc , which furthermore gets conveyed to
1

cytochrome c, which serves as a mobile carrier between the cytochrome c oxidase complex and complex III comprising of cytochrome a and a with copper3

centres (complex IV) additionally. 5) When electrons are transferred from each complex, simultaneously other processes occur, such as production of
the ATP from ADP and the inorganic phosphate through the action of ATP synthase (complex V). 6) This amount of ATP production is dependent
on the molecule that has been oxidised. 3 ATP molecules are generated by the oxidation of 1 molecule of NADH, while 1 FADH molecule, upon oxidation,
2

produces 2 ATP molecules.

Q)What is amphibolic pathway in respiratory pathway Ans--Organic substances such as fats, carbohydrates, proteins, etc., liberate energy when they are
disintegrated in the respiratory pathway. This phenomena is said to be catabolic in nature. The respiratory process that serves as a catabolic pathway for the
respiratory substrates also serves as an anabolic pathway to produce different metabolic products and secondary metabolites. Thus, the respiratory pathway
serves as a catabolic and anabolic pathway. Therefore, the respiratory pathway is an amphibolic pathway.

Glycolysis Fermentation

It is the first step in aerobic respiration, and it is common to both aerobic and anaerobic modes of respiration. It is anaerobic respiration which does not require Oxygen.

It produces pyruvic acid. It produces lactic acid and ethanol.

It produces two molecules of NADH for every glucose molecule. Uses NADH generated during glycolysis.

It forms two ATP for every glucose molecule. It does not produce ATP.