Reproductive system-

It is the biological system made up of all the

anatomical organs involved in sexual
reproduction. It ensures the continuation of
species. Gonads are the primary
reproductive organs which produce the
gametes a pair of Testes produces sperms in
males and a pair of ovaries produces ovum
in females.
Male Reproductive System--
 Reproductive organs include:
a) Primary sex organs
b)Accessory sex organs.
Primary Sex Organs---Testes are the
primary sex organs or gonads in males.
Accessory Sex Organs---Accessory sex
organs in males are:
1. Seminal vesicles 2. Prostate gland
3. Urethra 4. Penis.
Testes are the primary sex organs or gonads in males,
There are two testes in almost all the species. In human
beings, both the testes are ovoid or walnut-shaped
bodies that are located and suspended in a sac-like
structure called scrotum. Each testis weighs about 15 to
19 g and measures about 5 × 3 cm. Testis is made up of
about 900 coiled tubules known as seminiferous
tubules, which produce sperms. It continue as the vas
efferens, which form the epididymis. It is continued as
vas deferens. Vas deferens is also called ductus deferens,
spermatic deferens or sperm duct. From epididymis in
scrotum, the vas deferens extends on its one side
upwards into abdominal cavity via inguinal canal.
Terminal portion of vas deferens is called ampulla .
Ampulla of vas deferens joins ducts of seminal vesicle
of same side, to form ejaculatory duct.
COVERINGS OF TESTIS---Each testis is enclosed by three
coverings.
 Tunica Vasculosa-- It is the innermost covering. It is made up of
connective tissue and it is rich in blood vessels.
 Tunica Albuginea– It is the middle covering. It is a dense fibrous
capsule.
 Tunica Vaginalis– It is the outermost closed cleft like covering,
formed by mesothelial cells.
FUNCTIONS OF TESTES ---They performs two functions:
A )Gametogenic function: Spermatogenesis
B) Endocrine function: Secretion of hormones.
GAMETOGENIC FUNCTIONS --
 SPERMATOGENESIS--- It is the process by which the male gametes called spermatozoa (sperms) are formed
from the primitive spermatogenic cells (spermatogonia) in the testis It takes 74 days for the formation of sperm
from a primitive germ cell. Throughout the process of spermatogenesis, the spermatogenic cells have cytoplasmic
attachment with Sertoli cells.
Sertoli cells supply all the necessary materials for spermatogenesis through the cytoplasmic attachment.
STAGES OF SPERMATOGENESIS -- It occurs in four stages:
a) Stage of Proliferation
b) Stage of Growth
c) Stage of Maturation
d)Stage of Transformation
 Stage of Proliferation--Each spermatogonium contains diploid number (23 pairs) of chromosomes. One member
of each pair is from maternal origin and the other one from paternal origin. The 23 pairs include 22 pairs of
autosomal chromosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes. Sex chromosomes are one X chromosome and one Y
chromosome. During the proliferative stage, spermatogonia divide by mitosis, without any change in chromosomal
number. In man, there are usually seven generations of spermatogonia. The last generation enters the stage of
growth as primary spermatocyte. During this stage, the spermatogonia migrate along with Sertoli cells towards the
lumen of seminiferous tubule.
 Stage of Growth--In this stage, the primary spermatocyte grows into a large cell. Apart from growth, there is no
other change in spermatocyte during this stage.
 Stage of Maturation-----After reaching the full size, each primary spermatocyte quickly undergoes meiotic or
maturation division, which occurs in two phases:
 First phase --In the first phase, each primary spermatocyte divides into two secondary spermatocytes. The
significance of the first meiotic division is that each secondary spermatocyte receives only the haploid or half the
number of chromosomes 23 chromosomes include 22 autosomes and a X or a Y chromosome.
 Second phase--During this phase, each secondary spermatocyte undergoes second meiotic division, resulting in
two smaller cells called spermatids. Each spermatid has haploid number of chromosomes.
 Stage of Transformation--There is no further division. Spermatids are transformed into matured spermatozoa
(sperms), by means of spermatogenesis and released by spermination.
Spermeogenesis is the process by which spermatids become matured spermatozoa.
Spermination is the process by which the matured sperms are released from Sertoli cells into the lumen of seminiferous tubules.
• Spermatogenesis is influenced by: 1. Sertoli cells 2. Hormones 3. Other factors.
• 1. Role of Sertoli Cell in Spermatogenesis Sertoli cells influence spermatogenesis by:
i. Supporting and nourishing the germ cells
ii. Providing hormonal substances necessary for spermatogenesis
iii. Secreting androgen-binding protein (ABP), which is essential for testosterone activity, particularly on spermatogenesis
iv. Releasing sperms into the lumen of seminiferous tubules (spermination).
2. Role of Hormones in Spermatogenesis– It is influenced by many hormones, which act either directly or indirectly: gives the hormones essential for each
stage of spermatogenesis.
• Hormones necessary for spermatogenesis are: ----Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH),Testosterone, Estrogen , Luteinizing hormone (LH),
Growth hormone (GH), Inhibin, Activin .
 Follicule-stimulating hormones– It is responsible for the initiation of spermatogenesis. It binds with Sertoli estrogen and androgen-binding protein
from Sertoli cell
 Testosterone – It is responsible for the sequence of remaining stages in spermatogenesis. It is also responsible for the maintenance of spermatogenesis.
Testosterone activity is largely influenced by androgen-binding protein.
 Estrogen -- It is formed from testosterone in Sertoli cells. It is necessary for spermeogenesis.
 Luteinizing Hormones- In males, this hormone is called interstitial cell stimulating hormone. It is essential for the secretion of testosterone from Leydig
cells.
 Growth Hormone---It is essential for the general metabolic processes in testis. It is also necessary for the proliferation of spermatogonia. In pituitary
dwarfs, the spermatogenesis is severely affected.
 Inhibin- It is secreted by Sertoli cells. In females, it is secreted by granulosa cells of ovarian follicles. Its secretion is stimulated by FSH. Inhibin plays an
important role in the regulation of spermatogenesis by inhibiting FSH secretion through feedback mechanism. FSH secreted from anterior pituitary
induces spermatogenesis by stimulating Sertoli cells. It also stimulates the secretion of inhibin from Sertoli cells. So, when the rate of spermatogenesis
increases, there is a simultaneous increase in inhibin secretion also. Inhibin in turn, acts on anterior pituitary and inhibits the secretion of FSH, leading to
decrease in the pace of spermatogenesis.
 Activin- It is secreted by Sertoli cells and Leydig cells. Activin has opposite actions of inhibin. It increases the secretion of FSH and accelerates
spermatogenesis.
• Sperm –It is the male gamete (reproductive cell), developed in the testis. It is also called spermatozoon Matured
sperm is 60 μ long. Total count of sperm is about 100 to 50 million/mL of semen. Sterility occurs when the sperm
count falls below 20 million/mL. After ejaculation the survival time is only about 24 to 48 hours at a
temperature equivalent to body temperature. Rate of motility of sperm is about 3 mm/minute
• Structure of Sperm--
• Sperm consists of four parts--- a)Head b) Neck c)Body d)Tail.
 Head of sperm is oval in shape , Anterior portion of head is thin. It is covered by a thin cell membrane and it is
formed by a condensed nucleus with a thin cytoplasm. Anterior two thirds of the head is called acrosome or galea
capitis.
Acrosome-- It is the thick cap like anterior part of sperm head. It develops from Golgi apparatus , Acrosome also
contains Hyaluronidase and proteolytic enzymes, which are essential for the sperm to fertilize the ovum.
 Neck- -Head is connected to the body by a short neck. Its anterior end is formed by thick disk-shaped anterior end
knob, which is also called proximal centriole. Posterior end is formed by another similar structure known as
posterior end knob. It gives rise to the axial filament of body. The neck and body of sperm are together called
midpiece.
 Body – It is consists of a central core called axial filament, covered by thin cytoplasmic capsule. Axial
filament starts from posterior end knob of the neck. It passes through the body and a perforated disc called end disk
or end ring centriole. Finally, the axial filament reaches the tail as axial thread. In the body, the axial filament is
surrounded by a closely wound spiral filament consisting of mitochondria.
 Tail of the sperm consists of two segments:
i. Chief or main piece: It is enclosed by cytoplasmic capsule and has an axial thread.
ii. Terminal or end piece: It has only the axial filament.
• Applied Physiology---
 Aspermia -- lack of semen.
Azoospermia - lack of sperm in semen. It is a congenital disease. It is also caused by
excess use of corticosteroids and androgens.
Oligozoospermia-- low sperm count with less than 20 million of sperms/mL of semen.
Oligozoospermia causes infertility.
Hematospermia-- It is the appearance of blood in sperm. It occurs due to infection of
urethra or prostate. It is also common in congenital bleeding disorder.
Azoospermia - lack of sperm in semen. It is a congenital disease. It is also caused by
excess use of corticosteroids and androgens
 Teratozoospermia -- Presence of sperms with abnormal morphology.