PRX QUANTUM 2, 017002 (2021)

Roadmap

Development of Quantum Interconnects (QuICs) for Next-Generation

Information Technologies
David Awschalom,1 Karl K. Berggren,2 Hannes Bernien,1 Sunil Bhave,3 Lincoln D. Carr,4
Paul Davids,5 Sophia E. Economou,6 Dirk Englund,2 Andrei Faraon,7,8 Martin Fejer,9
Saikat Guha,10,11,12 Martin V. Gustafsson,13 Evelyn Hu,14,15 Liang Jiang,1 Jungsang Kim,16,17
Boris Korzh,18 Prem Kumar,19,20 Paul G. Kwiat,21,22 Marko Lončar,14,15,* Mikhail D. Lukin,15,23
David A.B. Miller,9 Christopher Monroe,24,25,26 Sae Woo Nam,27 Prineha Narang,14,15
Jason S. Orcutt,28 Michael G. Raymer,29,30,† Amir H. Safavi-Naeini,9 Maria Spiropulu,31
Kartik Srinivasan,25,32 Shuo Sun,33 Jelena Vučković,9 Edo Waks,25,34 Ronald Walsworth,24,34,35,36
Andrew M. Weiner,3,37 and Zheshen Zhang10,38
1
Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA
2
Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
3
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, USA
4
Department of Physics, Colorado School of Mines, 1500 Illinois Street, Golden, Colorado 80401, USA
5
Photonic & Phononic Microsystems, Sandia National Laboratory, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185, USA
6
Department of Physics, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, USA
7
T .J. Watson Laboratory of Applied Physics, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, USA
8
Kavli Nanoscience Institute, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, USA
9
E.L. Ginzton Laboratory, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
10
College of Optical Sciences, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA
11
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA
12
Department of Applied Mathematics, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA
13
Raytheon BBN Technologies, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA
14
John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
02138, USA
15
Harvard Quantum Initiative (HQI), Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA
16
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA
17
IonQ Inc., College Park, Maryland 20740, USA
18
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91109, USA
19
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, USA
20
Department of Physics and Astronomy, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, USA
21
Department of Physics, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
22
IQUIST, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
23
Department of Physics, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA
24
Department of Physics, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, USA
25
Joint Quantum Institute, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, USA
26
Joint Center for Quantum Information and Computer Science, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland
20742, USA
27
National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, Colorado 80305, USA
28
IBM T. J. Watson Research Center, Yorktown Heights, New York 10598, USA
29
Oregon Center for Optical, Molecular, and Quantum Science, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon 97403,
USA
30
Department of Physics, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon 97403, USA

*
[email protected]
†
[email protected]
Published by the American Physical Society under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license. Further
distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the published article’s title, journal citation, and DOI.

2691-3399/21/2(1)/017002(21) 017002-1 Published by the American Physical Society

DAVID AWSCHALOM et al. PRX QUANTUM 2, 017002 (2021)

31
Division of Physics Mathematics and Astronomy, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California
91125, USA
32
National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, USA
33
JILA and Department of Physics, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA
34
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742,
USA
35
Quantum Technology Center University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, USA
36
Harvard - Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA
37
Purdue Quantum Science and Engineering Institute, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, USA
38
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA

(Received 18 January 2020; accepted 21 October 2020; published 24 February 2021)

Just as “classical” information technology rests on a foundation built of interconnected information-

processing systems, quantum information technology (QIT) must do the same. A critical component of
such systems is the “interconnect,” a device or process that allows transfer of information between dis-
parate physical media, for example, semiconductor electronics, individual atoms, light pulses in optical
fiber, or microwave fields. While interconnects have been well engineered for decades in the realm of
classical information technology, quantum interconnects (QuICs) present special challenges, as they must
allow the transfer of fragile quantum states between different physical parts or degrees of freedom of the
system. The diversity of QIT platforms (superconducting, atomic, solid-state color center, optical, etc.)
that will form a “quantum internet” poses additional challenges. As quantum systems scale to larger size,
the quantum interconnect bottleneck is imminent, and is emerging as a grand challenge for QIT. For these
reasons, it is the position of the community represented by participants of the NSF workshop on “Quantum
Interconnects” that accelerating QuIC research is crucial for sustained development of a national quantum
science and technology program. Given the diversity of QIT platforms, materials used, applications, and
infrastructure required, a convergent research program including partnership between academia, industry,
and national laboratories is required.

DOI: 10.1103/PRXQuantum.2.017002

I. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY that enables nearly all quantum technology, but is very
fragile, making it hard to create and maintain over long
A quantum science and technology revolution is cur- times and across large distances.
rently in the making, which is widely expected to bring QuICs are an integral part of nearly all conceivable
a myriad of scientific and societal benefits. Commensu- quantum information processing systems, including quan-
rate with this promise, large challenges exist in seeing tum computing, quantum sensing, and quantum communi-
the vision become a reality, one of which is the engineer- cation. For example, it can be argued that modular quan-
ing of an essential class of components of any quantum tum computing schemes provide the only viable approach
information system—quantum interconnects (QuICs). that will enable scaling up to truly large numbers of error-
QuICs are devices or processes that allow the transfer of corrected qubits. Since modular approaches are crucially
quantum states between two specified physical degrees of dependent on efficient QuICs, substantial and focused
freedom (material, electromagnetic, etc.), or, more broadly, investment in this vital next stage of quantum comput-
connect a quantum system with a classical one. Figure 1 ing is timely. Similarly, the ability to transmit information
shows a schematic of a network of diverse quantum infor- securely by leveraging the laws of quantum physics, in a
mation systems, central to which is a quantum switch way that it is “future proof” against even the most powerful
(QS)—a device that can route optical signals between dif- quantum computers, is of great national importance. How-
ferent channels while maintaining quantum coherence and ever, the reach of secure fiber-based quantum networks,
entanglement. and the communication rates that they currently allow,
An entangled quantum state of two or more quantum are severely limited by the optical losses in the existing
objects or fields describes their joint state (condition) and quantum interconnects (transmission drops exponentially
thus their statistically correlated measured properties, with in conventional optical fibers). Enhancing these intercon-
correlations that are stronger than possible according to nects with quantum repeaters will extend the reach and
classical physics. Entanglement is the essential resource the rate of quantum communication systems. With recent

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FIG. 1. The broad role of

Switching and QuICs in quantum informa-
Repeater Network tion technology. QS, quantum
switch; QR, quantum repeater
(a device that can relay an
entangled state from one set of
qubits to a distant set without
physically sending an entan-
gled qubit the entire distance);
QMod, modular quantum pro-
cessor; QFC, quantum frequency
converter; RNG, random-number
generator. The QuICs are indi-
cated by bold red arrows or
by wave packets representing
photons.

proof-of-principle demonstrations at hand, this effort is quantum information technology (QIT) must do the same.
ready to be accelerated. Quantum interconnects include a wide range of systems
Large technical hurdles exist to implementing QuICs: and processes that allow the transfer of quantum states
they must transfer the quantum information (quantum between two specified physical degrees of freedom (mate-
states) with high fidelity, fast rates, and low loss, often rial, electromagnetic, etc.). They may also include compo-
across a wide range of energies, and do so in a scalable nents that connect a quantum system with a system that is
fashion. In some cases a viable candidate QuIC approach well described by classical physics for purposes of control-
is well understood, but dedicated engineering effort is ling or reading out information from the quantum system.
needed to implement it, while in others new physical phe- Quantum interconnects present specific challenges, as they
nomena need to be explored to implement a given QuIC. must allow the transfer of fragile quantum states between
An acceleration of research toward the invention and different physical parts or degrees of freedom of the sys-
implementation of QuICs will also greatly boost progress tem. With the recent dramatic progress in individual QIT
in development of materials, devices, systems, and sup- systems for quantum computation, communication, and
porting infrastructure in critical-path areas that support sensing, an urgent need is to push rapidly toward the inte-
the development of practical quantum technologies. Such gration of such subsystems to create core technologies that
research would enable quantum information science and will revolutionize the economy and society in many ways.
technology across a wide range of specialties, with ensuing See Appendix A.
scientific and societal benefits as described in Appendix A. Examples of quantum interconnects include the follow-
This document is a summary of an NSF-sponsored ing:
two-day “QuICs Accelerator Workshop,” which brought
together a representative group of over 30 scientists and
engineers from academia, industry, and national labora-
tories to identify the present roadblocks that need to be • communication channel (optical, acoustic, microwave,
overcome to create functioning QuICs across the necessary etc.) between two quantum systems that can be on
range of QIT platforms. The consensus of the participants the same chip or separated by large distance. Exam-
is that there are concepts and technologies whose devel- ples include an optical cavity, waveguide, or fiber
opment warrants a large, synergistic, and convergent effort connecting two quantum emitters, or cold microwave
involving a range of expertise on a national scale. waveguide connecting two superconducting-qubit
processors;
• quantum memory (e.g., color center, trapped ion,
II. INTRODUCTION
all-photonic cluster-state-based) and the associated
As quantum technology progresses to real-world appli- interface to the communication channel;
cations, a major identified hurdle needs to be overcome: • quantum transducer used to connect qubits of differ-
the development of quantum interconnects (QuICs). Just ent kinds (acousto-optical, spin-photon, spin-phonon,
as “classical” information technology rests on a foundation etc.), or of the same kind but at different energy
built of interconnected information-processing systems, (microwave-optical photon, visible-telecom photon);

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• converter between different qubit-encoding schemes Combination of different elements of QuIC would
or degrees of freedom (e.g., polarization, temporal, enable, for example, links between different processing
spectral encodings of photons); regions in a quantum computing system in which data
• small scale and application-specific quantum computer, qubits are stored in memories (based on, e.g., trapped ions),
e.g., quantum repeater, to extend the reach of quantum and transferred into an alternate form (e.g., supercon-
communication channels; ducting qubits) for fast quantum processing. Such hybrid
• entanglement sources—physical processes that cre- systems will benefit from integrated approaches to con-
ate quantum-entangled states of two or more matter- necting classical systems with quantum systems, e.g., for
based or photonic qubits. delivery of optical signals to trapped ion- and atom-based
quantum computers, clocks, sensors, etc., and to enable
efficient data read out.
As quantum systems scale to larger size, a quantum inter- Finally, it is important to recognize that many infor-
connect bottleneck becomes imminent, and surmounting mation channels, such as an optical fiber or a metallic
it is emerging as a central goal for QIT. In the context stripline, largely act as a conduit that can carry both clas-
of quantum communication networks, a challenging but sical signals and quantum states of the signaling medium
extremely important purpose of an interconnect will be to under appropriate conditions. Thus, classical technolo-
enable the transfer of quantum information (that is, quan- gies and quantum-enabled technologies live in a com-
tum states) across a distance—long or short, depending mon technological ecosystem with large positive feed-
on the application needs. A prime example of a long- back in both directions. For example, classical telecom
sought-after but elusive subsystem of long-range commu- technology has already provided enormous acceleration
nication networks (over distances exceeding hundreds of of quantum-optical-communication research; at the same
kilometers) is the quantum repeater, which would relay an time, the stringent needs of all-optical quantum processors
entangled quantum state across a distance that is not acces- have driven advances in building on-chip reconfigurable
sible using optical fibers only, due to unavoidable signal multimode optical networks, which may benefit classical
losses in the communication channels. At shorter length approaches to information technology. Thus, the dual-use
scales, modular quantum computing schemes, which are paradigm of technology innovation applies to quantum-
likely the only viable many-qubit near-term approaches, inspired developments.
depend crucially on quantum transducers—devices that
convert variations in a physical quantity, such as spin
III. MODULAR QUANTUM PROCESSORS AND
state or superconducting flux, into a transmittable signal.
COMPUTERS
Finally, at the chip-scale level, large numbers of quantum
memories—devices or systems that can maintain a quan- Constructing a large-scale quantum processor is chal-
tum state over long periods of time—implemented, e.g., lenging because of the errors and noise that are inherent in
using trapped atoms or spin systems in solid state, need to real-world quantum systems, as well as the practical engi-
be interfaced using integrated, low-loss and fast on-chip neering challenges that emerge. One promising approach
optical networks in order to realize integrated quantum to addressing this challenge is to utilize modularity—a
repeaters. strategy used frequently in nature and engineering to build
A consensus in the scientific community is that the complex systems robustly. Such an approach manages
technologies needed for quantum computing and quantum complexity and uncertainty by assembling relatively small,
networking are closely intertwined, indicating that con- specialized modules into a larger architecture. Modern
vergent approaches to these challenges will be the most high-performance classical computers and data centers are
productive. For these reasons, it is the position of the constructed by connecting thousands of computers, memo-
community represented by participants of the NSF work- ries, and storage units into an interconnected network, over
shop on “Quantum Interconnects” that accelerating QuIC which complex computational tasks are distributed. These
research is crucial for sustained development of a national considerations have motivated the vision of a quantum
quantum science and technology program. modular architecture, in which separate quantum systems
An important affiliated technology is quantum-enhanced are incorporated into a quantum network via quantum
sensing of a wide range of physical factors: gravitation, interconnects [4,6].
electromagnetism, and environmental factors as well as In a modular architecture, the essential building block
biomedical structure and function. For quantum sensors is the teleportation-based quantum gate, which uses quan-
to reach full capability, in many cases, interfacing them tum entanglement to connect different modules and thereby
with quantum memories and processors and distributing implement nonlocal quantum operations [7–10]. In order
them across space for collective sensing will be required. to connect the modules with each other to perform dis-
Quantum interconnects will play a crucial role in such tributed quantum computation, one has to be able to gen-
distributed sensing applications. erate quantum entanglement between pairs of modules to

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teleport quantum states or quantum gates. Critical figures [21,22]. The advances come from improving the efficiency
of merit of such intermodule entanglement generation are of photon collection from atoms, reducing photon loss
(1) the rate of entanglement generation, (2) the fidelity of in the channels, and using single-photon detectors with
the generated entanglement, and (3) the reconfiguration of higher detection efficiencies. Similar protocols have been
the pairs of modules between which the entanglement is demonstrated in neutral atoms [12,23], nitrogen-vacancy
generated. (NV) color centers in diamond [24] and quantum dots
[25]. In order to ensure that a modular quantum computer
can be constructed, it is important to have fully functional
A. Review of protocols and progress quantum computers as the modules, and the entanglement
Several protocols have been proposed and demonstrated generation rate (quantum communication rate) between
for transporting quantum information between two nodes. the modules must be fast compared to the decoherence
The first is the so-called pitch-and-catch protocol, where rate of the qubits in the modules. Furthermore, efficient
a flying qubit, such as a photon, emitted by a stationary optical interconnects to the modules have to be compat-
qubit (or reflected off a cavity holding a qubit) on the ible with quantum computing within the modules. For
transmitting end, would carry the quantum state over the instance, optical cavities can provide an optical interface
communication channel and transfer it to another qubit to atomic quantum computing modules [26] but it remains
on the receiving end [11]. Heroic experiments have been a challenge to integrate cavities with neutral-atom quantum
performed using atomic qubits in high-finesse optical cav- computing architectures based on Rydberg interactions
ities demonstrating this process [12]. However, the loss in [27] or trapped-ion quantum computing architectures [28].
the photonic channel rapidly degrades the performance of Recently, efficient quantum optical interfaces have been
this scheme, which makes it impractical at optical frequen- realized using integrated nanophotonic devices for both
cies. In superconducting circuits, it is possible to create trapped neutral atoms [29] and diamond color centers [30].
very strong coupling between the transmitting and receiv- In superconducting circuits, the pitch-and-catch pro-
ing qubits with a microwave photon in a transmission tocol is indeed practical using a microwave photon as
line connecting the two modules and featuring negligible an information carrier. The communication between two
loss over the short communication distances involved [13– superconducting qubit modules has been demonstrated by
16]. Therefore, such a pitch-and-catch protocol is more several research groups [13–16]. As long as the communi-
practical in these systems. cation channel has high quality, it should be possible to
The second is a heralded entanglement generation pro- send quantum states, even when the number of thermal
tocol, where a pair of entangled qubits in the two modules photons in the channel is much larger than one [31,32].
is first generated probabilistically using photon emission Therefore, the current demonstrated approaches can be
from the qubits and the detection of emitted photons, then extended to connecting different dilution fridges using high
a deterministic teleportation of the qubit (or quantum gate) quality thermal microwave links.
is accomplished using the generated entanglement as a
resource. In this protocol, first the communication qubit on B. Challenges and research opportunities: modular
each module (such as a trapped ion, neutral atom, atomlike quantum processors
color center in solid-state or quantum dot) emits a pho-
ton in such a way that a degree of freedom of the photon Recently, proof-of-principle demonstrations of deter-
(such as polarization, frequency, phase or time bin, etc.) is ministic teleportation-based quantum gates have been car-
entangled with the qubit. The emitted photons are collected ried out in both superconducting-circuit and trapped-ion
(with finite loss), interfere on a 50:50 beam splitter, and are platforms [33,34]. These demonstrations show a promising
detected at the outputs. The detection event signals a suc- path towards scalable modular quantum computing. How-
cessful generation of entanglement between the two qubits ever, finding a technical development path to fully modular
that emitted the photons. Although the successful execu- quantum computers interconnected via quantum commu-
tion of the protocol occurs only probabilistically, success nication channels is an extremely challenging task, which
is heralded (i.e., confirmed) by detection of two photons at requires substantial advances in basic physical principles,
the output of the beam splitters, and reliable entanglement device (qubit)-level advances, new protocols, integration
can be generated at low-to-moderate rates [9,17]. of modules and interfaces, and coherent operation across
There have been significant advances in generating the modules. Here, we outline some of the research direc-
entanglement between different modules with improved tions towards the realization of scalable, modular quantum
efficiency and fidelity. In trapped-ion systems, the entan- computers. A timeline and set of milestones for modular
glement generation rate has significantly improved from processors is presented in Appendix B.
10−3 [18] to approximately 200 events per second over
the course of the past 12 years [19,20], which enables (1) Improving quantum interfaces: While the
quantum teleportation between different quantum modules existing quantum interfaces between modules have seen

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DAVID AWSCHALOM et al. PRX QUANTUM 2, 017002 (2021)

dramatic improvements, most systems still have not to each of these systems—including the wavelength and
reached the regime where connection between the mod- bandwidth—can be very different, by several orders of
ules can be utilized for reliable transfer of qubits within magnitude, leading to extremely inefficient interspecies
the timescale required for distributed quantum computa- conversion in the absence of suitable quantum transducers.
tion. For the heralded scheme, we have to continue to (4) Coherent operation of modular quantum com-
improve the entanglement generation rate so that it is puter and distributed algorithms: Even if local quantum
comparable to the local entangling gate operation rate computer modules and the needed quantum interconnects
within a module. While this is not a strict requirement are adequately integrated, distributed quantum computa-
for efficient quantum computation, it means that the cost tion will require operating every module in the system
of distributing a quantum task across the modules would with full quantum coherence among them. This poses chal-
not substantially constrain the execution of the computa- lenges in designing and operating phase-coherent control
tional task. Another topic worth noting is that all quantum systems across the modules, as well as tracking the quan-
interconnects are not perfect in terms of the fidelity of tum phase of every module in the system. Algorithm-level
the distributed entanglement, or the success probability strategies for efficiently distributing the computational task
of the pitch-and-catch scheme. The errors in the quan- over the modular quantum computer based on the per-
tum interconnects must be minimized or corrected, so that formance specifications of various functional components
the distributed quantum computation can succeed with that constitute the system is therefore an important area of
viable probabilities, i.e., so that distributing the computa- research.
tion actually improves performance rather than degrading
it. New protocols and implementation strategies to over-
IV. QUANTUM INTERNET
come the errors in the communication channel need to be
developed. The quantum internet describes a collection of dis-
(2) Integration of modules and interfaces: Seamless tributed quantum nodes, separated by a range of distances
integration of the communication interfaces with the com- over which one desires to perform some quantum com-
putational functions of the modules can introduce some munication protocol that can support, for example, dis-
challenges. For example, in heralded entanglement gen- tributed quantum computation (Sec. III A) or distributed
eration protocols, the qubit-photon entanglement genera- sensing (Sec. III C). For an accessible overview, see
tion protocols can lead to decoherence of nearby qubits Ref. [35]. There are now numerous quantum communica-
storing information. For these systems, novel integration tion and cryptographic protocols identified, including secu-
approaches must be developed so that the communica- rity distribution for encryption [36–43], quantum-certified
tion and local data processing can coexist. For solid-state random-number generation in the form of random-number
qubits (such as superconducting qubits) that use photons beacons and personal devices, secret sharing [44,45],
in the microwave range of the electromagnetic spectrum, quantum fingerprinting [46–48], and other multiparty com-
communication over room-temperature channels becomes putation protocols, such as secure quantum voting, byzan-
impractical. In order to take advantage of modules real- tine agreements, and multiparty private auctions [49]. Of
ized outside the cryogenic environment, frequency up- particular relevance is the possibility of “blind” quantum
conversion of the photonic qubit to the optical spectrum computation [50,51], whereby a remote user can program
is necessary. Quantum transduction techniques to reli- a quantum computer without revealing to its owner the
ably convert microwave photons to optical photons are an algorithm that is run or the computational result, and dis-
important area of research for these applications. tributed quantum processing, whereby two or more quan-
(3) Hybrid modular architectures and intercon- tum computers share entanglement to enable them to act as
nects: The need for modularity can also be driven by the a single larger processor. Because of the distances involved
computational functions, where various qubit technologies (0.1–1000 km), optical photons must be used.
provide opportunities for executing tasks with different Another key aspect of a fully functioning quantum
performance requirements. For instance, memory modules internet is the potential for unconditional information secu-
that contain qubits with very long coherence times could rity—a feature of using quantum information that is not
be implemented on a different platform than processing possible with classical information processing. A further
modules where fast gate times are essential. This potential benefit of using quantum-secured information will be that
tremendous advantage comes with additional challenges. the lifetime of the security is “infinite”; it will be secure
In order to take full advantage of such a hybrid modular against any advances in computation capability that may
architecture it is important to develop interconnects capa- occur in the future. There have been many cryptographic
ble of distributing entanglement between different qubit tasks in which quantum-secured versions have been con-
implementations, for example, superconducting currents ceived. For all of these tasks, quantum interconnects are
or charges, color centers, neutral atoms, ions, or pho- required because of the need to preserve entangled quan-
tons. The spectral characteristics of the photons that couple tum states.

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To realize fully the potential of a quantum internet, completely insecure! A timeline and set of milestones for
significant convergent work is still needed to improve a quantum internet is presented in Appendix C.
the physical hardware. Theoretical work is also required
to develop efficient information-processing techniques to
preserve the quantum information and determine the most (1) Quantum repeaters: To overcome these chal-
robust and secure network connectivity. The development lenges and extend the range of fiber-based entanglement
of quantum-secured devices and protocols could transform distribution beyond a few hundred kilometers, quantum
the cryptographic landscape. repeaters (QRs) are required, but are not yet available.
There are two primary channels over which to transmit Depending on the tools used for suppressing these imper-
the photons: optical fiber and free space. Each of these fections, the quantum information community has iden-
has challenges and opportunities. The former can lever- tified the following three generations of QRs: The first
age the enormous existing network of telecommunication generation of QRs [62,63] uses heralded entanglement
fibers, though then the photons need to be in the telecom- generation and heralded entanglement purification, which
munications band to avoid excessive losses. Even still, can tolerate more errors but requires two-way classical
the transmission through such a fiber will drop exponen- signaling over the entire chain of QRs; such signaling
tially with length, with a typical loss in telecom fiber of then implies that the requisite quantum memory lifetimes
0.2 dB/km. Thus direct transmission of quantum states and coherence times must be substantially longer than the
becomes highly inefficient beyond about 100 km, where round-trip communication times. The second generation
20 dB loss implies only 1% transmission, so that direct of QRs introduces quantum encoding and classical error
transmission of quantum states becomes highly inefficient correction to replace the entanglement purification with
beyond about 100 km. Free-space optical communication classical error correction, handling all operational errors
is far less well developed, but has the advantage that it can [64,65], which is more demanding in physical resources
operate over a much larger range of wavelengths, and the but requires only two-way classical signaling between
losses (due to diffraction) grow only quadratically. Typi- neighboring repeater stations, and consequently further
cally, greater care is needed to reduce background light in improves the quantum communication rate. The third gen-
free-space quantum communication channels; also, there is eration of QRs would use quantum encoding to determin-
typically the added challenge of stabilizing the free-space istically correct both photon losses and operation errors
coupling using pointing and tracking methods, and pos- [66,67]. By entirely eliminating two-way classical signal-
sibly adaptive optics to reduce the effects of turbulence. ing, the third generation of QRs would promise extremely
Nevertheless, many of these challenges have been over- high entanglement distribution rates that can be close to
come in a series of free-space quantum communication classical communication rates, limited only by the speed
demonstrations, between mountains [52,53], over water of local operations, in turn limited by, e.g., photon source
[54] within cities [55–57], from airplanes [58], balloons, rates, detector saturation rates, and timing jitter, etc.
and drones [59] and even using satellites in low-earth orbit One important benchmark for QRs is the repeaterless
[60,61]. While the achieved transmission rates in these bound [68,69], which imposes the fundamental limit of
experiments might have greatly exceeded what would the direct quantum communication protocols. Recently,
have been possible using fiber channels—in one case by there have been significant advances in experimentally
nearly 20 orders of magnitude [60,61], they are still often demonstrating key elements of a QR in an integrated sys-
very low, and methods such as multiplexing or employing tem. An important recent highlight is the experimental
higher-dimensional states (see below) may be needed to demonstration of memory-enhanced quantum communica-
achieve practical rates. tion surpassing a repeaterless bound in a proof-of-concept
laboratory setting, using a solid-state spin memory associ-
ated with silicon-vacancy (SiV) color center integrated in
a diamond nanophotonic resonator [30,70]. This paves the
A. Challenges and research opportunities way towards the demonstration of a full quantum repeater,
To build a fiber-based global network capable of dis- which in turn will enable scalable large-scale quantum
tributing quantum entanglement, there are two main chal- networks.
lenges that have to be overcome. First, optical attenuation (2) Quantum memories: The major challenge for the
during fiber transmission leads to an exponential decrease first generation of quantum repeaters is the development of
in the entangled-pair distribution rate. Second, operational long-lived quantum memories with efficient optical inter-
errors such as channel errors, gate errors, measurement faces, such as addressable color-center nuclear spins with
errors, and qubit memory errors can severely degrade integrated nanophotonics [71], trapped-atomic qubits with
the quality of the distributed entanglement, which at best Purcell-enhanced emission [12,19,23], or superconducting
reduces the quantum advantage and at worst completely circuits with microwave-to-optical transduction. In addi-
eliminates it, e.g., a quantum cryptographic key may be tion, the availability of efficient photon detectors with low

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dark counts is crucial, with significant advances needed in of a photon without observing it or changing its quan-
reducing the cost, integration, etc. tum state. In this way, any memory can be converted
(3) Spectral-temporal encoding: It is now generally to a heralded quantum memory, which enables one to
recognized that practical rates of entanglement distribution know whether a photon has successfully been transmitted
can likely be achieved only by employing high levels down the entire length of a communication channel; such
of channel multiplexing (e.g., spectral, temporal, spatial) knowledge greatly reduces the required number of quan-
to enhance success probabilities; for instance, quantum tum memories, since one is only needed in cases where
signals are simultaneously sent at multiple nearby wave- the quantum signal is successfully transmitted through the
lengths or in multiple time bins. Although each spectral or optical channel.
temporal channel has some probability of failure or loss, With the emerging demonstrations of quantum
the likelihood that all would be unsuccessful decreases repeaters, it will be important to optimize them to over-
with the number of multiplexed channels. However, one come realistic imperfections through use of robust archi-
needs a mechanism to demultiplex into a single spectral- tecture and encoding. It is also urgently needed to develop
temporal mode; alternatively, they are each coupled to their novel quantum-network applications and appropriate cor-
own quantum-memory qubit, but then some mechanism responding performance metrics, such as entanglement
for identifying and coupling a particular pair of success- fidelity, throughput, latency, resource overhead, etc. These
fully “loaded” quantum registers is needed. The use of performance metrics should also guide the device design
such temporal multiplexing has recently enabled a 30× and fundamental investigation of relevant physical plat-
enhancement in the success rate of a two-photon quan- forms.
tum communication protocol [72]; the advantages become
exponentially larger for protocols requiring higher num-
V. QUANTUM-ENHANCED SENSORS
bers of qubits. The benefits of multiplexing arise only if
the quantum interconnects that implement the multiplexing Quantum sensing technology has made significant
and demultiplexing have high fidelity and low loss. progress over the last few decades and has given rise
Another emerging strategy is to use qudits, the higher- to atomic clocks [80], magnetometers [81], and iner-
dimensional counterparts to qubits, e.g., using three time tial sensors [82] that operate at the standard quantum
bins to encode numbers 0, 1, and 2, and arbitrary superpo- limit (SQL), where the relative uncertainty
√ in measur-
sitions thereof. Just as it does for classical communication, ing some parameter scales as 1/ N , where N is the
such encoding increases the information-carrying capac- number of copies of the system, e.g., the number of pho-
ity of a photon by log(d), where d is the dimensionality, at tons being detected; at the SQL systematic errors have
the expense of more complex measurements and manipula- been suppressed to the extent that the measurement is
tions. Recent research shows that such higher-dimensional dominated by quantum-mechanical uncertainty. With the
encoding can enable more efficient quantum error correc- tremendous advances in the theoretical and experimen-
tion [73]. Finally, encoding multiple qubits (or even their tal aspects of quantum information science over the last
higher-dimensional counterparts, qudits) onto a single pho- decade, new quantum resources, such as quantum mem-
ton can yield intrinsic robustness to loss: because all of ories and entangled particles, can now be harnessed to
them are guaranteed to be lost or transmitted together, enhance further the performance of quantum sensors. Also
the net success probability can be greatly enhanced. For known as quantum metrology, quantum-enhanced sensing
instance, the probability that a channel with 99% loss is aimed at taking advantage of these emerging quantum
will successfully transmit a three-photon three-qubit state resources to outperform the SQL and achieve unprece-
is only 10−6 ; in comparison, a single-photon three-qubit dented sensing performance. As a remarkable instance
state experiences the loss only once, i.e., with a 1% suc- of quantum-enhanced sensing, the Laser Interferometer
cess probability. The concept of qubit entanglement also Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) utilizes nonclas-
generalizes to hybrid entanglement [74], between different sical squeezed light to enable a measurement sensitivity
degrees of freedom of a single photon, e.g., polarization below the SQL [83]. Quantum-enhanced sensing has also
and spatial mode, and hyperentanglement [75], between been proven to be a powerful paradigm for a variety of
multiple corresponding degrees of freedom of two pho- scenarios, including magnetic sensing with quantum mem-
tons, e.g., polarization and time bin [71], or time bin ories [84], quantum-illumination target detection [85],
and frequency bin [76,77]. One critical need is a method sub-SQL atomic clocks [86], and nanomechanical sensors
to transduce such higher-dimensional quantum states into [87].
qubit memories and qubit-based quantum processors [78] Most existing quantum-enhanced sensing demonstra-
(4) Efficient measurements: Finally, all three gen- tions leverage nonclassical resources to improve the mea-
erations of QRs can be greatly enhanced by including surement performance at a single sensor, but many real-
efficient quantum nondemolition (QND) measurements world applications rest upon a network of sensors that
[79]—a measurement that records the successful passing work collectively to undertake measurement tasks. Notable

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examples for such a setting include wireless sensor net- quantum sensor network, photonic multipartite entangle-
works [88], phased arrays [89], and long-baseline tele- ment tailored for a specific networked sensing task is first
scopes [90]. In this regard, the quantum internet presents produced by a photonic quantum chip at a central node.
unique opportunities for quantum sensors to utilize shared Each arm of the photonic entangled state is then transmit-
entanglement to boost the performance in networked sens- ted to a quantum sensor located in the quantum internet. As
ing tasks. The following section discusses the concept, in the matter-based quantum sensor network, the quantum
promising research avenues, and application space for internet takes advantage of quantum repeaters to compen-
interconnected quantum sensors. sate for entanglement distribution loss so that high-fidelity
photonic multipartite entanglement is maintained. At each
quantum sensor node, a high-efficiency low-noise quantum
transducer converts the information carried by the object of
A. Interconnected quantum sensors interest into the photonic domain so that quantum measure-
Extensive studies have been dedicated to using bipar- ments on the photonic multipartite entanglement unveil the
tite (two-party) entanglement as a resource to overcome the global property of the interrogated object.
SQL at a single sensor. In one step forward, recent theoret-
ical works on quantum-enhanced sensing based on multi- B. Challenges and research opportunities
partite entanglement show that interconnecting distributed
quantum sensors to form an entangled sensor network can Apart from the need for a quantum internet as a back-
probe global parameters at the Heisenberg limit, i.e., at bone, a number of technical accelerations will be critical
an estimate uncertainty that scales favorably compared to for the construction of entangled quantum sensor net-
the scaling for a network of independent sensors. Specifi- works. A timeline and set of milestones for quantum
cally, Ref. [91] proposed a quantum network of clocks that sensors is presented in Appendix D.
enjoys boosted precision and security over conventional
classical clock networks. More generally, two theoreti- (1) Device concepts: Matter-based quantum sensor
cal frameworks for distributed quantum sensing based networks are composed of any of a diverse range of useful
on, respectively, discrete-variable [92,93] and continuous- sensors. Examples, not exhaustive, include sensors of mas-
variable multipartite entanglement have been formulated sive particles, photons, magnetic fields, electric fields, tem-
[94]. On the experimental front, a proof-of-concept dis- perature, gravity, pressure, and chemical processes. Such
tributed quantum sensing experiment demonstrated the sensor networks require efficient light-matter interfaces
utility of multipartite continuous-variable entanglement or interconnects to create entanglement between quantum
for enhancing the measurement sensitivity for estimat- sensors and photonic modes. In an ideal situation, estab-
ing global phase shifts. To demonstrate the prospect for lishing entanglement between multiple matter-based quan-
interconnected quantum sensors in real-world applications, tum sensors at the quantum repeaters calls for deterministic
Ref. [95] reported an entangled rf-photonic sensor network multipartite Bell measurements with near-unity efficiency.
in which distributed rf sensors harness their shared multi- Such a measurement can be realized by first transferring
partite entanglement to enhance the precision of estimating the quantum states of photons into those of solid-state
the properties, e.g., the angle of arrival, of an incident rf qubits, followed by fault-tolerant quantum computation on
wave across all sensor nodes. a special-purpose small-scale quantum computer. As a nec-
In the context of a quantum internet, quantum sensors essary ingredient, the outcomes of the Bell measurements
distributed over a distance will be able to establish high- need to be communicated to different quantum sensor
fidelity entanglement to achieve measurement sensitivities nodes in real time, by fast electronic processing and a
beyond the SQL. Potential application scenarios for large- low-latency classical communication network. Since most
scale entangled quantum sensor networks would encom- matter-based quantum sensors operate with read-out in the
pass high-precision astronomical observation [90,96] envi- visible to the near-infrared spectral range, high-efficiency
ronmental and health monitoring, positioning, navigation, low-loss quantum frequency converters are required to
and timing. Two possible means of building up entangle- shift the wavelengths of photons into the telecommunica-
ment shared by quantum sensors are the following: (1) A tion window for long-haul communication via a quantum
matter-based quantum sensor first entangles with a pho- internet.
tonic mode, which is then transmitted through the quan- The device requirement for the photonic quantum
tum internet equipped with quantum repeaters to ensure sensor network encompasses envisaged programmable
high-rate long-distance entanglement distribution. Entan- photonic quantum chips (PQCs) to generate appropriate
gling photonic quantum measurements are performed at photonic multipartite entangled states. Each PQC would
the destination quantum repeater nodes to establish mul- entail low-loss waveguides and couplers, high Q-factor
tipartite entanglement between matter-based quantum sen- ring resonators, and single quantum emitters that provide
sors. (2) As an alternative method to form an entangled needed (“non-Gaussian”) resources for universal quantum

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information processing. The produced photonic multipar- VII. DEVICES AND SYSTEMS
tite entangled states need to be inserted into optical fibers
Future quantum computers and networks will require
through couplers with near-unity transmissivity. The PQCs
unprecedented connectivity over distances ranging from
should also provide classical controls to precompensate the
micrometers to hundreds or even thousands of kilometers.
dispersion and other imperfections incurred in the trans-
Such diverse connectivity will put significant demand on
mission. At each quantum sensor node, high-efficiency
quantum interconnects, requiring, for example, the scal-
quantum transducers convert the physical information con-
able fabrication and integration of a large number of
tained in the microwave, mechanical, or magnetic domains
components in compact optoelectronic chips.
into modulations on the visible photonic quantum states.
In particular, integrated (on-chip) device technologies
To ensure high performance for the quantum sensor net-
are likely to play a number of important roles in imple-
work, it is important for the quantum transducers to
menting quantum interconnects. The general ability to
achieve high efficiency while minimizing additional loss
enhance interactions through control of the electromag-
and noise.
netic density of states in suitably engineered geometries
To extract information carried by the photons, high-
enables a wide variety of physical resources to be real-
efficiency quantum-limited homodyne, heterodyne, or
ized, while the manufacturing technologies used to create
direct measurement detectors are subsequently utilized.
such geometries can be predicted to reach the level of
These detectors ideally will be integrated on the same
scaling and integration required. Here we outline the dif-
PQC as are the quantum transducers to obviate addi-
ferent QuIC technologies needed, and then discuss specific
tional coupling and conversion losses. Recent advances
device and material platforms in which these technologies
in the fabrication and integration of quantum devices
should be developed.
based on widely used optoelectronic materials such as
Quantum interconnects will provide the links between
lithium niobate [97] point to a promising platform for inter-
various quantum devices to realize large-scale systems. We
connected quantum sensors. Further technology accelera-
organize interconnects into three primary categories:
tions would lead to a versatile photonic quantum sensing
platform capable of accommodating hundreds to thou-
sands of elements with different functionalities on the (1) Interconnects between bosonic and atomic systems:
same PQC. The role of such interconnects is to interface bosonic
(2) Sensor network architectures: architectural per- fields with atoms for a variety of applications. Here
spective, the engineering of multipartite entangled states “bosonic fields” include a variety of harmonic-
for a large-scale quantum sensor network consisting of a oscillator systems that are suitable to carry quantum
large number of sensors remains an open problem, due information across distance, such as optical photons,
to the complexity of multipartite entanglement. In this mm waves, microwaves, and acoustic phonons.
regard, machine-learning tools would be useful for identi- “Atomic” systems should be broadly interpreted to
fying near-optimum entangled states for networked sens- encompass all forms of matter systems including
ing problems. A recent theoretical study shows that the neutral cold atoms, trapped ions, Rydberg-excited
optimum entangled state and measurement configuration atoms, cold molecules, quantum dots, color centers,
can be found by training photonic quantum circuits by a impurity bound excitons, superconducting Joseph-
support-vector machine and a principal component ana- son devices, etc. Examples include transfer of quan-
lyzer, for data classification and data compression tasks tum information from atomic memories to photons
at a physical layer [98]. Further investigations would for quantum networks, read-out of phase informa-
incorporate the machine-learning framework into quan- tion in quantum sensors, transfer of microwave exci-
tum devices and the quantum internet under develop- tations from transmon qubits to microwave cavities,
ment to accelerate the performance, scale, and application etc.
scope. (2) Interconnects between two bosonic photonic plat-
forms: The role of these interconnects is to
impedance match two bosonic platforms or
information-encoding schemes in order to achieve
interconversion or to combine various quantum sys-
VI. CONVERGENT ACCELERATION tems. Examples include quantum frequency conver-
OPPORTUNITIES
sion of optical and microwave signal to the telecom,
An acceleration of technical research toward invention temporal-waveform conversion that enables opti-
and implementation of quantum interconnects will greatly mal interfacing of heterogeneous quantum nodes,
boost progress in quantum information science and tech- quantum transduction between optical photons and
nology across a wide range of specialties. Particularly acoustic phonons, and connections between pho-
important needs and goals are summarized here. tonic systems that use different encodings (e.g.,

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time-bin, frequency-bin, wave-packet shape, coher- B. Photonic-photonic interconnects

ent or squeezed-state, or polarization-state). The future quantum internet will likely be composed of
(3) Interconnects between two atomic platforms: Here, a broad range of disparate systems that must interact and
quantum interconnects mediate long-range interac- exchange quantum signals. The most viable candidate for
tions between atomic systems. Examples include interacting different quantum systems across a distance is
entanglement of quantum memories separated by via photonic channels. But these diverse quantum systems
large distances, hybrid quantum systems com- emit photons with diverse frequencies and temporal shapes
posed of different matter qubits [99], microwave and durations, necessitating quantum interconnects that
interconnection of transmon qubits in superconduct- couple photons with different properties. Important exam-
ing devices, development of low-loss switches and ples include quantum frequency conversion to telecom,
architectures to connect arrays of quantum systems microwave-to-optical conversion, and spectral bandwidth
to each other in a scalable fashion, etc. conversion.
Below we describe the various requirements for these The choice of interconnects largely depends on the
different QUIC applications. distance scale over which such quantum interconnects
operate. Microwave photons may be suitable for intra-
A. Atomic-photonic interconnects chip and interchip links within a mK environment where
thermal background is suppressed, but are unlikely to
Quantum information relies on a broad array of matter- be used for connections over much longer length scales.
based quantum systems to store and manipulate quan- Telecommunication-band photons remain the information
tum coherence. Such matter systems include single atoms carrier of choice for long-distance networks based on opti-
[27], quantum dots [100], color centers [24,101,102], rare- cal fiber, while long-distance free-space links and shorter
earth ions [103–108], defect-bound excitons, and super- metro-area networks may be amenable to optical photons
conducting Josephson devices [109], to list a few. These in different frequency bands. While most visible photon
systems provide a variety of essential functionalities in frequencies will be suitable for relatively short distance
quantum information that include single-photon sources networks (e.g., to connect nodes within a distributed quan-
[110], quantum memories [103,111], quantum sensors, and tum computer), there is also the potential to work with
photon storage devices. millimeter-wave and terahertz frequency photons for suffi-
An essential role of quantum interconnects is to inter- ciently short links.
face these matter systems with optical photons, the unique Quantum frequency conversion (QFC) devices, e.g.,
carriers of quantum signals across long distances. Intercon- based on three- or four-wave nonlinear optical mixing
nects used to form shorter-distance networks, e.g., inside [115–118] or direct frequency shifting using electro-optic
a room, or on a chip, may use lower-frequency pho- modulation [119], enable the spectral translation of a quan-
tons (e.g., mm-wave [112] or microwave [113]) or even tum state of light to targeted frequencies with high effi-
acoustic phonons [114] to accomplish the analogous con- ciency, low added noise, and sufficient bandwidth. QFC
nectivity function. The quantum interconnect must provide devices are needed to enable quantum interconnects that
strong interactions in order to mediate quantum state trans- link the most suitable matter qubits for a given application
fer, entanglement, or other uniquely quantum resources. across the relevant length scales and photonic communi-
Typically, such functionality entails using optical cavities cation medium [120]. For networks consisting of homo-
or waveguides to enhance light-matter interactions into geneous nodes, these QFC devices may primarily consist
the single-photon regime. These photonic structures must of down-conversion and up-conversion units that are ide-
support high quality factors and small mode volumes to ally seamlessly integrated with the photonic qubits that are
attain the desired interaction strengths. Furthermore, these directly coupled to the matter qubits. For networks con-
devices often have to operate at short wavelengths (vis- sisting of heterogeneous nodes, it is likely that QFC needs
ible and near-IR), which puts additional constraints on to be combined with coherent temporal-spectral wave-
the materials used. Another important requirement of such form manipulation, to ensure optimal coupling to matter
interconnects is low insertion loss. Low-loss operation is qubits that may have significantly different acceptance
particularly important in quantum applications where the bandwidths and lineshapes.
loss of a single photon can destroy the quantum state of Another approach to linking matter qubits over distance
the entire system. Finally, there is the issue of compatibil- is through the use of intermediate entangled-photon-pair
ity of the interconnect hardware with the atomic systems. sources that are engineered to create one photon at a fre-
Many atomic systems operate in millikelvin cryogenic quency suitable for direct interaction with the matter qubit
environments with miniscule acceptable heat loads, and (e.g., at 637 nm for a NV– center in diamond), and another
extreme sensitivity to quasiparticles generated by optical at the relevant frequency for transmission across the physi-
absorption. Scalable atomic-photonic interconnects must cal interconnect channel (e.g., 1550 nm for a long-distance
be able to scale within these constraints. fiber link). Through entanglement swapping, such sources

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can be used to entangle distant quantum nodes, though if devices are important for realizing the crucial local inter-
those nodes are heterogeneous, it is likely that some form connect between a matter qubit and a photonic qubit. For
of waveform reshaping will also be needed, e.g., using solid-state qubits, this often involves engineering of suit-
“time-lensing” methods [121]. able photonic cavities or waveguides to ensure that, for
Multiplexing and demultiplexing of optical pulses based example, emitted photons entangled with spins are effi-
on their temporal mode identity (wave-packet shape) can ciently funneled into a single desired collection channel.
also play an important role [122]. As mentioned above, by It is critically important that the fabrication processes that
providing a high-dimensional state space for single-photon create such photonic structures, which sometimes have
packets, temporal modes offer higher information content features at the 100-nm-length scale, do not induce excess
per photon. The ability to demultiplex light into temporal- dephasing or spectral diffusion that will limit the coherence
mode components offers increased signal-to-noise ratio properties of the matter qubit. Such issues are increas-
in photon-starved communication links, such as can be ingly being addressed through design constraints on the
envisioned in deep-space communication [123]. separation of the matter qubit from an etched surface,
surface-passivation techniques, and electrical-charge stabi-
C. Atomic-atomic interconnects lization methods. Hybrid integration of materials that host
Given that near-future quantum computers and networks quantum emitters with materials that support scalable fab-
will likely be composed of modular units of a few tens rication of photonic devices [128] may also be beneficial
to hundreds of matter qubits (atoms, solid-state defects, to the atomic-photonic interconnects.
superconducting devices, photonic, etc.) that can perform For photonic chip integration of trapped neutral atoms,
small-scale quantum information tasks, scaling to larger ions, and cold molecules, protecting qubit coherence in
systems will require interconnection of multiple modu- a platform with a wide enough transparency window to
lar components. Photonics provides an ideal approach to accommodate the short wavelength photons associated
achieve this interconnectivity. For example, the current with these systems is paramount. For trapped ions, this
state of the art in fully controlling trapped-ion qubits may require new electromagnetic designs that limit delete-
involves of the order of 30 ions; scaling up to hundreds rious effects on the electrostatic traps; similar approaches
of ions will require using light for interconnecting sepa- may be needed for systems like Rydberg atoms, which are
rate modules each containing around this number of ions. unlikely to be brought close (within the evanescent tail)
Industrial quantum computers have recently reached 53 to a guided-wave photonic structure. Other atomic sys-
qubits [124], but scaling up to hundreds to thousands of tems, in particular single neutral atoms and cold molecules,
qubits on a single chip is presently well out of reach. can be loaded and trapped within the evanescent field of
A scalable optical interconnect for atomic modular photonic devices, enabling an efficient matter-photon qubit
nodes requires the ability to route photons efficiently interconnect. Recent progress with optical tweezer traps in
and provide high-fidelity multiphoton interference. This Rydberg chains and small collections of neutral atoms and
multiphoton interference provides the necessary quantum molecules offer a key challenge for quantum interconnects.
step to generate effective atom-atom interactions at a
distance. Interconnects should ideally combine photonics 2. Photonic-photonic interconnects
with detectors and other components to provide a com-
plete on-chip solution for large-scale modular quantum Several different nonlinear nanophotonic platforms are
information processing. Additional functionality such as being developed within the QuIC community to enable the
filtering, on-chip quantum frequency conversion, and mul- QFC and entangled photon-pair interconnect approaches
tiplexing will significantly enhance the scalability of the needed to realize photonic interconnects across different
total system. In many other circumstances where the atoms frequency bands. A table listing the variety of integrated
possess large material-strain susceptibility [125], acoustic quantum photonics platforms is presented in Appendix E.
phonons might be particularly suitable to mediate inter- In practice, the most mature technology is based on
actions between two or multiple atomic qubits on a chip cm-scale quasi-phase-matched nonlinear media [129] such
[126]. as periodically poled lithium niobate (PPLN) waveguides,
where internal conversion efficiencies approach 100% and
D. Integrated quantum photonics platforms signal-to-background levels in excess of 100:1 are achiev-
able for single-photon-level inputs. In its current state, this
1. Atomic-photonic interconnects waveguide technology is not directly amenable to dense
Several different photonic platforms naturally host integration within photonic circuits (the optical mode field
atomiclike systems, including diamond (color centers) diameter and bend radius are similar to those of an opti-
[84], GaAs and InP (quantum dots), and SiC (color cen- cal fiber), nor is it directly amenable to direct integration
ters) [110,127] and various transparent crystals doped with with single quantum emitters or a variety of other inte-
rare-earth ions [103,106] or transition metals. Integrated grated photonics technologies. Its further development

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is important from the perspective of providing hardware nanomechanics, while modular approaches based on free-
for near-term networking efforts and for implementing space cavities [143] coupled to electromechanical systems
strategies that realize waveform conversion via nonlinear have shown the best performance thus far in terms of
optics. efficiency, albeit over moderate bandwidths and without
Integrated nanophotonic platforms based upon geome- adequately low noise. Another way to mediate the interac-
tries with high refractive-index contrast (typically cre- tion between optical and microwave photons is via atomic
ated using thin-film nonlinear optical materials on a low ensembles simultaneously coupled with high cooperativity
refractive-index substrate such as SiO2 ) can enable QFC to photonic and microwave resonators. In this context,
and waveform-conversion approaches using manufactur- rare-earth-doped media are particularly well suited as
ing approaches that can be highly scalable and enable microwaves can be coupled to either Zeeman or hyperfine
complex integration with other photonic circuit function- transitions in ensembles exhibiting very narrow inhomo-
alities, including beam splitters and filters. For second- geneous lines [144,145]. Unlike QFC between optical
order nonlinear processes, thin-film lithium niobate on wavelengths, there has to this point been no full demon-
insulator (LNOI) [130,131] and AlN [132] have shown stration of QFC between microwave and optical wave-
particular promise, given their wide optical transparency lengths where, for example, nonclassical photon statistics
window, very low optical losses [133,134], appreciable or quantum interference are shown to be preserved.
nonlinear coefficients, and amenability to nanofabrica- From the above, it is evident that a wide variety of
tion processes. For third-order nonlinear processes, silicon material platforms are likely needed to address the full
nitride has risen to the forefront of many related classi- range of quantum-interconnect challenges. One approach
cal applications (e.g., compact frequency comb genera- to combining the best attributes of multiple systems is
tion), and QFC of quantum dot single photons and photon heterogeneous integration of multiple materials into a com-
pairs using silicon-nitride nonlinear resonators has recently mon platform. For example, rather than developing new
been demonstrated [118,135]. III-V semiconductors such QFC resources in III-V materials or diamond, heteroge-
as GaP [136] and AlGaAs and wide-bandgap materials neous integration [146] with Si3 N4 , AlN, or LN would
such as SiC [102] and diamond also possess strong opti- enable a direct coupling of the matter-photonic qubit inter-
cal nonlinearities [137], but have not yet achieved the face with the QFC interface. Several approaches, including
level of performance of the aforementioned systems. How- full wafer bonding, die bonding, transfer printing, and
ever, their ability to directly host matter qubits (e.g., color pick-and-place device transfer, are being considered by the
center or quantum dot spins) is of significant benefit to community to realize this functionality.
integration.
For all of these platforms, the basic strategies for
achieving efficient frequency conversion are generally
VIII. SUPPORTING TECHNOLOGY
conceptually well-understood, and fabrication techniques
are developed. However, there are still many challenges A wide range of supporting technologies will be critical
in realizing connections between the ultrawide frequency to enabling the variety of QuICs discussed in this docu-
separations [138] (e.g., UV telecom), and understanding ment, and their sustained development is crucial. A few
the relevant noise-generation mechanisms (impurity-based examples are highlighted in this section.
fluorescence, Raman scattering, spontaneous parametric Almost all quantum computing and quantum commun-
processes, to name a few) is an ongoing process [139,140]. ication approaches—which require the ability to make
Materials supporting a second-order nonlinearity often measurements of a quantum state—use devices that per-
exhibit an appreciable electro-optic effect [97], which form best at cryogenic temperatures, where thermal noise
enables fast (tens of picoseconds) reconfigurable switch- can be avoided. For example, in quantum communication
ing operations. For scenarios in which slower speeds are systems, optical detectors are an essential component, and
adequate (e.g., MHz switching bandwidths), thermo-optic cryogenic superconducting nanowire single-photon detec-
and microelectromechanical switches can be considered, tors are currently the state of the art (in terms of efficiency,
though the former do not function well at cryogenic tem- noise, and timing jitter), and have demonstrated efficien-
peratures. cies as high as 98%, [147], timing jitter below 3 ps, [148]
Microwave-to-optical QFC typically requires access to and noise below 1/s, [149] though notably not in a single
physical processes distinct from those described above, device. In addition, superconducting quantum computing
with the exception of electro-optic platforms [141] that do requires operation at ultralow temperatures to maintain
provide natural links between the two frequency bands, qubit integrity. In most of these systems, achieving such
though the extent to which such links can be sufficiently low temperatures requires the use of helium. For temper-
low noise in practice is not known. Piezoelectric media atures below 0.8 K, the use of helium-3 is also required.
[114,142] such as LNOI, AlN, GaP, and GaAs are being Unfortunately, helium is a strategically important, nonre-
considered for microwave-to-optical QFC mediated by newable natural resource, and is becoming scarcer.

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In the past decade, there has been significant technolog- This is challenging due to unavoidable signal losses in the
ical progress to use mechanical coolers using recyclable communication channels. At shorter length scales, diffi-
helium gas as a refrigerant to get to sufficiently low tem- culties associated with connecting hundreds or thousands
peratures. These new cryocooling systems, however, were of qubits point to the importance of modular quantum-
not developed to meet the needs of the quantum informa- computing schemes—likely the only viable many-qubit
tion community. While the cost, size, weight, and price approach in the near term. Therefore, QuICs, which will
(C-SWAP) are sufficient for research purposes, widespread support modular and distributed QIT systems, are emerg-
adoption in commercial applications will be hampered by ing as a grand challenge for QIT. Yet, they have received
the high C-SWAP. Convergent research into the develop- significantly less attention from the funding agencies and
ment of efficient, long-life, lightweight coolers with low from the research community than the quantum hardware
vibration will provide a critical enabling technology for systems they are connecting.
accelerating progress in quantum science and technology. It is the position of the community, as represented by
In addition, the research and development of robust, participants of the NSF workshop on QuICs, that invest-
inexpensive, low-noise, and stable lasers would accelerate ment in a national-scale QuICs program is a high pri-
both research and commercialization of quantum infor- ority. Given the diversity of QIT platforms, materials
mation science and technology. For optical wavelengths used, applications, and infrastructure required, a conver-
that overlap with existing large markets (e.g., telecom- gent research approach and partnership between academia,
munications), compact lasers already exist. However, for industry, and national laboratories is required for these
wavelengths that are of interest for atomic and artificial efforts.
atomic systems (e.g., quantum dots, defects in diamond, The focus of the envisioned QuICs program should be:
SiC), significant effort is spent by the research commu- (1) a small number of well-supported “Convergent Devel-
nity to optimize and stabilize custom-built lasers to the opment Teams” comprised of specialists from academia,
level of performance needed to enable quantum appli- industry, and national laboratories, to address specific
cations. Unfortunately, the reliability, stability, and cost QuIC challenges, to create prototype quantum intercon-
of these lasers are not at a level for widespread adop- nects and application developments; (2) a focused inter-
tion by researchers or early adopters. There is tremendous disciplinary effort aimed at the development of scalable
opportunity to accelerate progress with multidisciplinary integrated quantum photonic platforms for QuICs—such
research into making better-targeted lasers. an effort should include synthesis of emerging quantum
A number of additional supporting technologies, includ- materials, fabrication, and packaging of integrated quan-
ing high-speed low-power cryocompatible classical digital tum photonic devices, and development of novel ultralow
and analog electronics, will also be necessary, and thus loss optical fibers; (3) a QuIC test bed where researchers
warrant development efforts. Similarly, development of would gain access to the equipment and expertise needed
noncryogenic counterparts of currently cryogenic tech- to test their own hardware (e.g., qubits, optical squeez-
nologies is important. For example, development of single- ing modules, frequency conversion modules, entanglement
photon counters such as efficient, high-rate linear-mode or sources, transducers, sensors, detectors, lasers, etc.), and
avalanche-mode photodiodes, could substantially simplify thus carry out research in a convergent environment. The
the task of creating scalable repeater technologies [150– program will drive the advancement of a quantum infor-
152]. For example, recent developments in Si avalanche mation science and technology ecosystem that combines
photodiodes have led to saturation rates exceeding 160 research and technology development with commercial
Mcps in a single device, with a timing jitter as low as 32 and educational elements. This will result in new uni-
ps [153]. Many of these developments would also bene- versity degrees (e.g., quantum engineering), creation of
fit classical computation and communication systems, and student internships in industry, and retraining of current
as such are examples of the dual-use paradigm of technol- industry employees, thus resulting in an appropriately
ogy innovation in which quantum-inspired advances assist skilled workforce.
classical technologies and vice versa. The goals discussed here for accelerating progress in
quantum interconnects resonate with the goals of two other
IX. CONCLUSIONS
recent related NSF Accelerator Workshops—Quantum
As the size of quantum systems grows, in terms of the Simulators and Quantum Computers [154,155].
number of qubits in the case of quantum computers, or
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
physical size and spatial separation in the case of quantum
networks, so do the challenges related to connecting dif- The authors acknowledge NSF OIA-1946564 Grant
ferent parts of the system while maintaining quantum “Project Scoping Workshop (PSW) on Quantum Inter-
entanglement across it. For example, long-range commu- connects (QuIC)” that provided financial support for the
nication networks rely on establishing, distributing, and workshop. The participants are thankful to Ms. Kathleen
maintaining entanglement across thousands of kilometers. L. Masse from John A. Paulson School of Engineering

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DEVELOPMENT OF QUANTUM INTERCONNECTS. . . PRX QUANTUM 2, 017002 (2021)

at Harvard University for help with organization of the A commentary paper in Science [2] co-authored by two
workshop. participants in the QuIC Workshop, along with a co-author
of the NSTC report cited above, summarizes several of
DISCLAIMER the societal benefits that QIT can bring: “A fully func-
Any subjective views or opinions that might be tioning quantum computer would radically enhance our
expressed in the paper do not necessarily represent the capabilities in simulating nuclear and high-energy physics;
views of the U.S. Department of Commerce, the U.S. designing new chemicals, materials, and drugs; breaking
Department of Energy, or the United States Government. common cryptographic codes; and performing more spec-
ulative tasks such as modeling, machine learning, pattern
APPENDIX A: SOCIETAL BENEFITS OF recognition, and optimizing hard logistical problems such
QUANTUM-ENABLED TECHNOLOGY as controlling the electric energy grid or traffic control sys-
tems [3].” And, “Using qubits instead of conventional bits
In September 2018 the National Science and Tech- makes it possible to create shared randomness between
nology Council released a report, “National Strategic parties while knowing whether the communication channel
Overview for Quantum Information Science,” which has been compromised by an eavesdropper. This enables
stated, “Through developments in [quantum information sending information securely. Quantum communication
science], the United States can improve its industrial base, can also allow secure communication between multiple
create jobs, and provide economic and national security parties, and for interconnecting large-scale quantum com-
benefits” [1]. Among the intentions of the national effort puters via a quantum internet [4,5].” Finally, the Science
outlined by the OSTP report are to: “Focus on a science- paper also states that the next generation of quantum-based
first approach that aims to identify and solve Grand sensors is projected to outperform current sensing tech-
Challenges: problems whose solutions enable transforma-
nologies, for example, in geo-exploration and GPS-free
tive scientific and industrial progress;” and to “Provide
navigation, biological and medical research, and diagnos-
the key infrastructure and support needed to realize the
tic technology.
scientific and technological opportunities.”

APPENDIX B: TIMELINE AND MILESTONES FOR MODULAR PROCESSORS (see Sec. III A)

Three year Five year Ten year

Homogeneous Connection of two fully func- Connection of four fully Manufacturable quantum com-
qubit-qubit tional quantum computer mod- functional quantum computer puter modules with quantum
Interconnects ules with a quantum inter- modules with a reconfig- interfaces that can scale to
connect. Intermodule entangle- urable quantum interconnect. over 100 modules. Intermodule
ment distribution rate better Intermodule entanglement entanglement distribution rate
than 10× decoherence rate and distribution rate better than better than 1000× decoherence
1% of the local gate rate. 100× decoherence rate and rate and 100% of the local gate
10% of the local gate rate. rate.
Transduction Demonstration of tunable quan- Demonstration of intercon- Connection to quantum inter-
with non-native tum interconversion between version between microwave net.
photonic channels disparate photons (e.g., tunable and optical photons with high
visible-to-telecom or optical- fidelity, SNR, and bandwidth.
to-microwave, including band-
width conversion).
Heterogenous Interface between atom- and Entanglement between two dif- QC performance in a multin-
qubit-qubit solid-state-based memory to ferent types of quantum proces- ode cluster that goes beyond
interconnects non-native flexible and tunable sor (various atomic and solid- the capability of any individ-
photonic channel. state memory qubits). ual node, and also beyond those
individual nodes connected by
a classical network.

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DAVID AWSCHALOM et al. PRX QUANTUM 2, 017002 (2021)

APPENDIX C: TIMELINE AND MILESTONES FOR QUANTUM INTERNET (see Sec. III B)

Three year Five year Ten year

Major Detected photonic entanglement Quantum repeaters with Forward error-corrected
achievements rate beyond 108 ebits/sec error correction against photonic quantum states
operation errors for one-way repeaters
Distance and rates Entangled quantum memory over Verifiable quantum entan- Quantum networks reach-
>10 km distance glement distribution over ing transcontinental scales
>100 km at >1 M-ebits/sec; of thousands of km
distillable entanglement
rates >100k-ebits/sec
Capability of Quantum repeater node via entan- Active error correction Full error correction
repeater nodes glement swapping beyond direct against operation errors; against loss and operation
transmission many-party protocols errors; hybrid nodes with
demonstrated in fielded different functions.
quantum networks
Number of Quantum networks with >3 mem- Networks of >10 quantum Networks with >100 of
repeater nodes ory nodes and >10 user nodes repeaters and quantum com- repeater nodes
puters in superposition
Free-space Constellation of 3−5 mobile plat- Entanglement swapping Transcontinental entan-
quantum network forms demonstrated between space earth glement distribution via
quantum-memory-enabled
satellite
Quantum network Quantum-secured communication Network-based quantum Blind Quantum Comput-
applications rate exceeding 1 MB/sec over metrology ing
100 km

APPENDIX D: TIMELINE AND MILESTONES FOR QUANTUM SENSORS (see Sec. III C)

Three year Five year Ten year

Matter-based Entanglement-enhanced sensing in Entanglement-based distributed Sensors connected to quantum
quantum sensors local registers (e.g., multinuclear solid-state sensors (e.g., instan- internet.
or electron-nuclear spin entangle- tiated via spin-photon entangle-
ment around or within a color cen- ment)
ter). Demonstration of entanglement-
assisted clock synchronization
(in one room—easier, across the
world—geography is more chal-
lenging).
Photonic quantum Scale up to ten entangled photonic Fully reconfigurable on-chip Scale up to approximately 100
sensors sensors in an integrated platform. entangled photon sources oper- entangled sensors.
Development of various trans- ating at different frequencies and Integrate with the quantum inter-
ducers including high-efficiency entangled degrees of freedom. net for long-distance entanglement
rf-Photonic and optomechanical Integrated on-chip transducers distribution to sensors.
transducers. >95% chip-to-fiber coupling effi- Use quantum error correction to
Improvement of chip-to-fiber cou- ciency. enhance sensitivity.
pling efficiency to approximately New entanglement-enhanced Incorporating entangled sensors
80%. sensing approaches for classical into existing classical sensing
Applications include rf, inertial, noise rejection, high resolution, infrastructures.
mechanical sensing, etc. etc. Long-baseline telescope enabled
Entanglement-enhanced multia- by quantum repeaters.
perture telescopy.
DEVELOPMENT OF QUANTUM INTERCONNECTS. . . PRX QUANTUM 2, 017002 (2021)

APPENDIX E: INTEGRATED QUANTUM PHOTONICS PLATFORMS (see Sec. IV A 4)

Single Tuning and

Transparency Nonlinear Demonstrated quantum-emitter Qubit switching
Platform window coefficients optical loss integration integration mechanism
Silica >140 nm Weak Ultralow Not native Not native Thermo-optic
Silicon nitride >350 nm Moderate Low Not native Not native Thermo-optic or
microelectrome-
chanical systems
(MEMS)
Silicon on >1000 nm Strong Medium Nascent (Se defects) Electron spin Thermo-optic or
insulator qubits free-carrier or
MEMS
LiNbO3 on >300 nm Strong Low Rare-earth Not native Electro-optic or
insulator moderate incorporation piezoelectric
AlN >200 nm Moderate Low Not native Not native Electro-optic or
moderate piezoelectric
GaAs on insulator >750 nm Strong Medium InAs quantum dots Single electron or Piezoelectric
strong hole spins
SiC on insulator >400 nm (4H) Moderate High Via electron-beam Single electron or Electro-optic,
moderate irradiation, ion nuclear spins piezoelectric, dc
implantation Stark shift
Diamond on >250 nm Moderate Medium Ion implantation, Single electron or Strain
insulator CVD nuclear spins
Si or GaAs on >300 nm Low Rare-earth Electron or dc Stark shift,
rare-earth- incorporation nuclear spin Zeeman shift
doped qubits
oxides

probabilistic ion-photon mapping, Quantum Inf. Comput.

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