1/2023

Offshore
& Subsea
Technologies

Innovation Brings
Pipeline Back to Normal

Intelligent Solutions
for Inspection of
Challenging Pipelines

An Innovative Approach
to Optimize Trunkline
Cladding Requirements

Offshore pipelines and

stability assessment of
submerged slopes

Numerical prediction of
material properties and
structural response of
JCO-E offshore pipes

Repurposing Hydro
carbon Pipelines to
Transport CO2

10th Anniversary of the ptj

www.pipeline-journal.net e-ISSN 2196‑4300 / p-ISSN 2751-1189

 Lifelong Safety is Everything.

100 years of innovation power. For safeguarding your pipeline.

For protecting people and nature. denso-group.com

100 Years DENSO. Advanced in Sealing.

 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023
editorial

Offshore Pipeline & Subsea

Technologies

A
part from typical technical and operational challenges of
onshore pipelines i.e. 3rd party, corrosions, geohazards;
offshore pipelines and subsea facilities have additional
challenges i.e. logistics and weather-related, ultra-high pres-
sure/temperature for ultra-deep/deep water. Thus, that’s the
reason why the front-end loading (FEL)/design stages are very
crucial for offshore pipelines and subsea systems so that all
challenges/issues are taken into consideration that the pipelines
and subsea facilities can be operated and maintained with utmost
reliability and integrity. Not to mention that comparatively higher Mohd Nazmi bin Mohd Ali Napiah
cost of installation/construction, hook-up, pre-commissioning, Custodian/Head/GTA (Pipeline)
Engineering Department,
commissioning and abandonment for offshore pipelines and sub- Group Technical Solutions
sea facilities require continuous innovations and emerging tech- Project Delivery & Technology Division
nologies so to maintain that any greenfield and brownfield project/
development will be feasible throughout its entire operating life. PETRONAS

Having said, the role of Industrial Revolution 4.0 (IR4.0) could be the
‘game changer’ in the offshore field development that also include
pipelines and subsea technologies. The IR4.0 elements of robotic,
automation, sensors/IOTs, data analytics, advance material and ad-
vance engineering will help O&G companies or operators reduce or
optimise the project/development and operation and maintenance
(O&M) cost. For instance, the use of innovative pipeline joining
method of mechanical interference fit connector has been used in
PETRONAS and several other companies to replace conventional
welding method; and the method could provide similar reliability
and integrity as required by common pipeline codes and standards.

The other example would be the use of fully autonomous robotic in-
line inspection to inspect the condition of O&G pipelines that could
provide a cost-optimization alternative. It needs to be noted that cur-
rent available technologies including the innovations from IR4.0 have
their limitations and operating boundaries; and it is believed that there
are innovators out there that continuously challenging the status-quo
so that we, the O&G companies and its stakeholders could reap the
benefits of any emerging and pacing technologies, moving forward.

Your sincerely,

Mohd Nazmi bin Mohd Ali Napiah

Custodian/Head/GTA (Pipeline)
Engineering Department, Group Technical Solutions
Project Delivery & Technology Division

PETRONAS
Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023

This Issue’s

COMPLETE CONTENT

10 Innovation Brings Pipeline

Back to Normal
R.G. Lie

18 Intelligent Solutions for In-

spection of Challenging Pipe-
lines- Case Study: 10” Rigid
Offshore Oil Riser Inspection
for Wall Thickness and Cracks
A. Enters, T. S. Kristiansen, U. Schneider

26 An Innovative Approach to
Optimize Trunkline Cladding
Requirements for an Offshore
Gas Field Development
Q. Saleem, R. Al-Shiban, M. Al-Mansour,
L.Seong Teh

 Pipeline Technology Journal - ptj

 @pipelinejournal

 www.pipeline-journal.net # #pipelinejournal
 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023

32 Offshore pipelines and

stability assessment of
submerged slopes under
seismic conditions
P. N. Psarropoulos, Y. Tsompanakis,
N. Makrakis

42 Numerical prediction of mate-

rial properties and structural
response of JCO-E offshore
pipes
A. Stamou, I. Gavriilidis, C. Palagas,
E. Dourdounis, N. Voudouris, A. Tazedakis,
S. A. Karamanos1

50 Repurposing Hydrocarbon
Pipelines to Transport CO2:
PETRONAS' Study
F. Aziz, K. A. Karim, Ir. H. Hussien

Company Directory
60
Page 62

Ask
the Experts
6 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023 Pipeline Technology Journal Pipeline Technolog

Chairman
Editorial
Board
www.pipeline-journal.net
[email protected]
Dr. Michael Beller
Director, Global Market Strategy Publisher
Euro Institute for Information
ROSEN Europe
and Technology Transfer GmbH
Marie-Jahn-Straße 20

Members 30177 Hannover, Germany

Tel: +49 511 90992-10
URL: www.eitep.de

ISSN
e-ISSN: 2196-4300
p-ISSN: 2751-1189

Used Copyright Material

P. 1 © Graham Marshall / Sonomatic Ltd

P. 8 © Shutterstock/ivandan
Asle Venas Belkacem Bechka Dr. Khalid A. Al-Jabr
Senior Principle Consultant (PIMS) Reliability Engineering Managing Board
Dennis Fandrich & Marian Ritter
Pipeline Specialist SONATRACH Specialist
Register Court: Amtsgericht Hannover
DNV Saudi Aramco
Company Registration Number:
HRB 56648
Value Added Tax Identification Number
DE 182833034

Editor in Chief
Dennis Fandrich
E-Mail: [email protected]
Tel: +49 511 90992-22
Mahmoud A. Hakim Dr. Marion Max Wedekind Editorial Board
Head of Discipline Erdelen-Peppler Managing Director ptj Editorial Board
Pipeline Engineering SecretaryGeneral DENSO Group Germany Terms of publication
ADNOC Group EPRG Four times a year

Editorial Management
Marian Ritter
E-Mail: [email protected]
Tel: +49 511 90992-15
Constantin Schreiber
E-Mail: [email protected]
Tel: +49 511 90992-20
Dr. Mike Kirkwood Mohd Nazmi bin Steffen Paeper Advertising
Director, Integrity Mohd Ali Napiah Freelance Pipeline Rana Alnasir-Boulos
Engineering Solutions Custodian/Head/Group Consultant E-Mail: [email protected]
Tel: +49 511 90992-19
T.D. Williamson Technical Authority
PETRONAS Editorial Staff
Mark Iden
Daniel Onyango
 Joining YPPE has opened up a
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Exclusive Events - Newsletter - Networking & Development

8 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023
 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023 9

ptc 2023 promotes the development of

young talent in the pipeline industry

The 18th Pipeline Technology Conference (ptc) is set to take

place in Berlin from May 8-11, 2023. Europe's premier address
for pipeline industry professionals will offer a look into the
pipeline future, with a broad range of 1-day seminars, panel
discussions, technical sessions, operator round-tables, award
ceremonies and social events.

ptc 2023 will bring together the industry elite – pipeline opera-
tors, industry leaders, experts, and young talent – to discuss the
latest developments and advancements in pipeline technology.
Key topics for 2023 will include hydrogen, methane emissions,
safety & security, climate adaption, geo-hazards, CO2 transpor-
tation and a regional focus on the booming African continent.

The gathering will also offer a multitude of technical presenta-

tions, including 6 concurrent technical tracks with more than
120 speakers. Participants will have an opportunity to learn from
industry experts, network with peers, and form first-hand im-
pressions of the latest trends and developments in the interna-
tional pipeline industry. All papers will again be published on an
open access basis.

Indeed, a special focus will again be devoted to the area of pro-

moting young talent. ptc 2023 will feature a variety of opportu-
nities for young people to get involved into the organization of
the event and it will host different awards ceremonies for both
students and young professionals. The EITEP Institute is com-
mitted to fostering the next generation of pipeline professionals
and cooperates with different young pipeline professional com-
munities from around the world.

The exhibition will showcase the latest products and services

from leading pipeline operators and service companies. More
than 85% of the exhibition stands are already booked.

Read more pipeline news:

www.pipeline-journal.net
10 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

Innovation Brings Pipeline Back to Normal

Bespoke Technology Solutions Free Stuck
Pig and Enable Valve Replacement,
Allowing Production to Resume
R. G. Lie > T.D.Williamson

Abstract
Before the operator of a gas export pipeline offshore Asia could isolate
the line and replace leaking pig trap valves on their platform and per-
form in-line inspection (ILI), they had to remove a serious obstacle: a
cleaning pig that had stalled just beyond the pig launcher.

Because there is no standard tool for recovering a stalled pig, at least

not without blowing down the pipeline, the operator contracted T.D.
Williamson (TDW), who engineered, tested and deployed a bespoke re-
covery tool. The pig was removed in an operation that resulted in only
five hours of downtime.

TDW then used in-line technology to isolate the pipeline and create a
safe work zone for the valve replacement. TDW also developed a cus-
tomized cleaning pig and a progressive pigging program to ensure the
pipeline was sufficiently clean for both normal operation and ILI.
 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023 11
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

1. Introduction entire pipeline, a financially and environmentally

costly process — it would take engineered-to-order
Day in and day out, year after year, technology keeps up technology to recover the pig.
its end of the pipeline integrity bargain, enabling safe
and efficient operation. Valves open and close effortlessly, And that would be just the first step to bring production
cleaning pigs dispatch wax, water and contaminants, and back to normal.
the sensors of in-line inspection tools capture real-time
data about cracks, dents and other anomalies. It all works 2. Avoiding Shutdown
like a well-oiled machine.
Regular pigging activities are essential to integrity
Of course, nothing in this world is infallible, and the management. For gas export pipelines (GEP), though,
occasional technical hiccup is not uncommon. In most the need is amplified. GEPs transport the entire pro-
cases, though, these problems can be resolved rela- duction between the offshore field and the onshore
tively quickly and with customary intervention. processing terminal — in this case, hundreds of mil-
lions of standard cubic feet (MMSCF) per day. If an-
But when a third-party service provider launched ything causes the pipeline to go offline, the revenue
a 28-inch, bi-directional cleaning pig into a gas ex- stream dries up. That’s an enormous risk no operator
port line offshore Asia, they experienced more than wants to take.
a simple “technical hiccup.” Their pig stalled just be-
yond the launcher isolation valve, stopping halfway To avoid the possibility of shutdown, GEP operators
into the barred production tee that prevents the pig run cleaning pigs daily, weekly or monthly, depending
from traveling down a branch connection. Although on production conditions. Pigging requires fully func-
the pipeline wasn’t completely obstructed, running a tional and well-maintained pipeline components at
pipeline with a pig stopped inside is hardly a realis- both the launching and receiving end of the pipeline,
tic operating scenario, even in the short term. In fact, including pig traps, pig trap valves, and emergency
the operator was rightly concerned that pressure shut down valves (ESDV). If any of them malfunction
and flow around the pig could eventually make a bad it can make pigging very difficult, if not impossible.
thing even worse, pushing the pig in far enough to
block the pipeline entirely and shut down production. In this case, two pig trap valves located on the platform
were not sealing completely, causing pressure buildup
Because there’s no plug-and-play solution for a stalled of the pig launcher during service and preventing reg-
pipeline pig — at least not without blowing down the ular pigging from being carried out. The operator had
planned for their replacement and T.D. Williamson
(TDW) was scheduled to deploy its in-line SmartPlug®
isolation technology to create a safe offshore work
zone while the pipeline remained in service.

Obviously, though, TDW couldn’t launch the SmartPlug

tool with a pig in the way.

With one challenge stacked on top of another, the oper-

ator needed to take action to make the pipeline pigga-
ble. That would allow them to resume normal pigging
operations and perform a long overdue in-line inspec-
tion to check the pipeline’s integrity. They turned the
entire project over to TDW, whose multi-phase re-
sponse began with the development of a bespoke pig
recovery tool.

Figure 1: Bi-directional pig stuck in the barred production tee.

12 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

Ultimately, TDW However, because of the pig’s heavy polyurethane (PU)

disc stack-up, more differential pressure was required
• Created and deployed a specially designed tool to move it compared to a conventional bi-directional
to recover the stalled pig by pulling it back to the pig.
launcher.
The imbalance was evident almost as soon as the pig
• Isolated the offshore section with SmartPlug® was launched. Once the pig entered the barred produc-
technology so the operator could replace the leak- tion tee, the combination of large bypass and high dif-
ing valves, restore the integrity of the gas export ferential pressure created even more bypass around
line at the platform, and safely resume normal the perimeter of the discs. This meant there was no
production. longer enough differential pressure to push the pig
through the tee. When a portion of the front disc pack-
• Developed a tailor-made cleaning pig and progres- age partly disengaged, creating even more bypass, in-
sive pigging plan to prepare the pipeline for the in- sufficient drive on the discs caused the pig to stall.
telligent pig run.
4. Considering the Alternatives
But before they could do any of that, TDW had to fig-
ure out why the other provider’s pig stalled in the first With so much on the line in terms of both integrity
place. management and throughput, the operator wasted
no time considering various recovery strategies. It
3. Hanging in the Balance seemed like it might be possible to use another bi-di-
rectional pig to push the stalled pig back to the on-
Pigging service providers know that a pig can stall dur- shore receiver. However, this would increase the risk
ing operation when a considerable amount of debris of the pig getting stuck farther into the pipeline. For
collects in front of it. To prevent this, they build “by- example, if it became caught in one of the many bends
pass” into the pig by drilling holes into the body or in the subsea tie-in spool connection between the sub-
discs. sea pipeline and platform riser, a challenging subsea
rescue would be required.
Bypass allows product to flow through and ahead of the
pig as it travels through the pipeline, creating turbu- That left the project team with only one viable alter-
lence that flushes the debris or holds it in suspension. native: pulling the stalled bidirectional pig back to the
launcher. While this would eliminate the risks associ-
Designing a pig with bypass requires striking a bal- ated with pushing the pig to the receiver, it was still no
ance. Too little bypass and the pig won’t create enough quick or simple fix. There’s no standard rescue equip-
turbulent flow. Too much bypass and there won’t be ment to do the job.
enough differential pressure behind the pig to drive it
forward.

Most of the time, engineers find the middle ground.

Unfortunately, in this case, the usual yin and yang of
pig bypass design was slightly off. The (somewhat
ironic) result: The bypass became the obstruction.

TDW engineers discovered that the pigging service

provider had modified their bi-directional pig to allow
a relatively large portion of gas to flow through it. On
the face of it, this was not necessarily a negative: It was
intended to allow for optimal turbulence ahead of the
pig.
Figure 2: Lance with support and wheel assembly attached to gripping tool.
 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023 13
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

Instead, TDW engineered, designed, manufactured which was closest to the launcher, did not. When
and tested an application-specific recovery tool at its a hydraulic cylinder was used to push the pig from
Global Solutions Center in Stavanger, Norway. the test rig, every disc flipped but they were par-
tially torn due to high stress and rear disc pack
5. First Things First damage.

Engineers envisioned the pulling tool being a wire and • Finally, during the third recovery test, the first of
hydraulic cylinder that would attach to a strong hold in the four polyurethane discs stretched over the
the pig body on one end and a strong hold behind the next three, reducing friction. All four discs flipped
launcher on the other. at a recovery force of 13 tons without touching the
pipeline wall or becoming damaged.
One of the earliest steps in the tool design process
was determining how much recovery force would be With the optimal recovery force a known quantity,
required to pull the pig back safely and successfully. TDW engineers could move beyond their vision to a
The calculation was complicated by the fact that dur- fully realized design.
ing pigging, the pig’s polyurethane sealing discs fold
backwards. To reverse the pig out of the pipeline would 6. Building on the Strong Points
require enough pressure to flip and fold the discs in
the opposite direction. If the discs failed to flip, the pig Engineering a tool to pull a pig out of a pipeline in-
would remain stuck, unless an extreme force was ex- volves making countless decisions, not the least of
erted upon it, with potentially catastrophic results. which is figuring out what part of the pig the recovery
tool will grasp and how it will grip it. After all, unless
To conduct recovery force testing, TDW built a replica the tool has a firm hold on the pig, there’s no way any-
of the offshore pipeline launcher, including the barred thing will budge.
production tee. To make the replica as authentic as
possible, TDW also acquired a pig from the operator The TDW team agreed that the strongest gripping
that was identical to one stalled in the pipeline. points for the recovery tool were the bypass holes,
meaning the same elements that had contributed in
Each test provided a better understanding of how to this case to the pig stalling in the first place would be
achieve a successful recovery. integral to the recovery process.

• For the first test, technicians loaded the opera- As for the tool itself, engineers designed it so spring-
tor’s pig into a straight section of the replica pipe- loaded pulling arms would engage or click in place in-
line that was pressurized to the expected offshore side the bypass holes then a locking mechanism lance
level of approximately 3 bar (43 psi) then propelled would install the recovery tool onto the pig body. The
it using water as the pigging medium. Once again, tool configuration also included:
this pig stalled when it entered the barred tee. At a
recovery force of 3.5 bar to 4 bar (50.7 psi to 58 psi) • Lance support wheel assemblies to centralize the
the discs partially burst instead of flipping, the pig locking lance in the pipe.
didn’t move and there was water leakage across
the outer disc parameter. • A pulling wire arrangement.

• After inspecting the front disc pack, technicians • A hydraulic pulling cylinder furnished by TDW
repressurized the test pipe to 3.5 bar to 4 bar (50.7 that included a “strong hold” anchor point ar-
psi to 58 psi) then reloaded and relaunched the pig. rangement supplied by the operator.
This time it moved a short distance before stall-
ing — about a meter, or 3.2 feet — and water once TDW also decided to use the pinger receptacle inside
again leaked across the disc perimeter. However, the stalled pig as a guidepost for inserting the grip-
the front seal disc pack flipped; the rear disc pack, ping tool into the bypass holes. And to overcome poor
14 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

visibility inside the pipeline, they incorporated a cam- every hour the pipeline would be shut down for the re-
era system into the recovery tool. This would help tech- covery costing the operator valuable production, this
nicians “see” when the gripping tool successfully en- test provided ample confidence that the pig could be
gaged inside the pig rescued on an acceptable timeline.

7. Tested: Technology and Timelines In fact, once onsite, it took only five hours for TDW
crews to:
Engineers returned to the test rig, this time with the
manufactured recovery tool in hand. Their goal was to • Open the quick-opening closure on the launcher.
assess the performance and efficacy of the entire tool,
down to estimating how long the onsite procedure • Assemble the lance and gripping tool and insert
would take. them into the pipeline.

• Lock the pig gripping tools into the pig bypass

holes.

• Hook up the pulling wire.

• Begin the recovery operation.

• Retrieve the pig from the launcher.

All the planning, preparation and innovation had paid

off. Now, with an obstacle literally no longer in their
way, the SmartPlug team could take the project reins
and prepare the line for valve replacement.

8. Creating a Safe Work Zone

Over time, normal wear and tear can take a toll on

valves’ internal seals and seat rings, causing them to
leak. As a result, valve repair or replacement is consid-
ered somewhat routine.

But before any repair or replacement project can take

place, operators first have to choose how they’ll cre-
Figures 3-4: Recovery operation offshore.
ate a hydrocarbon-free work zone. The options are to
depressurize the entire line or isolate just the affected
TDW performed the recovery test using the opera-
section, which is done either by hot tapping and plug-
tor-furnished bidirectional pig, now equipped with
ging or by using in-line technology.
new discs. The engineering team monitored the
amount of force required for the recovery tool to over-
Considering the enormous product volumes that gas
come inertia — the maximum encountered pulling
export lines transport, it’s no wonder operators try to
force on the pig was measured at 15.4 tons or 360 bar
avoid depressurizing them. A prolonged shutdown
(5221 psi) of hydraulic pressure in the pulling cylinder
can run into the millions of dollars and require flar-
— and visually inspected the recovery tool and pig body
ing off several hundred million cubic feet of gas, which
post-test to ensure integrity. The dry run also enabled
is highly undesirable, especially when the world is
TDW to optimize procedures and to record the time
watching its emissions. In this case, around 300
it took to assemble the lance, engage the tool and re-
MMSCFS of inventory loss would incur if the pipeline
trieve the pig under nearly real-world conditions. With
 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023 15
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

was depressurized and, compared to in-line isolation, consequence used to determine risk (risk = probabil-
it would take an additional six or seven turnaround ity x consequence). More than 60 action items were
days, including the time involved to re-pressurize the identified for risk mitigation.
pipeline.
Following factory acceptance testing in Stavanger,
Selecting the TDW SmartPlug in-line isolation system TDW mobilized the SmartPlug tool to the worksite.
Technicians lifted and loaded the tool into the pig trap
then used a treated seawater pumping service to pig it
47 meters (154 feet) to the predetermined location. A
safe isolation was established against the shut-in pres-
sure of approximately 110 bar (1595 psi). Monitoring
the annulus pressure between the two plug modules
for four hours verified each was sealing properly. That
gave the operator and project team the confidence they
needed to begin the valve replacement.

Figure 5: SmartPlug® isolation tool.

helped the operator avoid those losses.

Bidirectionally piggable, SmartPlug technology is intro-

duced into the pipeline via the pig launcher then pro-
pelled by pipeline product or pumps and compressors
to the isolation point, where it is remotely activated.
Internal hydraulics engage the gripping elements and Figure 6: Loading the SmartPlug into the launcher.
the sealing element on the pipe wall then downstream
pressure is reduced to create differential pressure across After a leak test verified the integrity of the new seal
each plugging module, maintaining a fail-safe isolation. rings and valves, TDW equalized the pressure differen-
tial across the SmartPlug tool, unset the plug modules
9. Nothing Left to Chance and pigged the tool back to the launcher using pipe-
line gas pressure.
Safety is always a top priority during pipeline isola-
tions. Personnel injuries, loss of life or asset damage
are all unacceptable.

Before any SmartPlug operation, it’s standard prac-

tice and a DNV Type Approval requirement to collect
technical information about the pipeline and to pre-
pare engineering documents, including design prem-
ises, pipe stress calculations, isolation operation pro-
cedures and a piggability study that assesses the tool’s
ability to negotiate the pipeline safely and be retrieved
from it. Figure 7: Retrieval of the SmartPlug tool from the launcher barrel.

To ensure the risk management of this project, TDW With the stalled pig removed from the pipeline and the
conducted hazard identification (HAZID) and hazard pig trap valves replaced, just one step remained in this
and operability analysis (HAZOP) studies. Engineers multi-faceted project: making sure the operator could
identified and uploaded potential areas of risk into put the stuck pig incident firmly behind them forever.
a risk matrix, with probability of occurrence and
16 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

10. Custom Cleanliness Reduces Risk In progressive pigging, cleaning begins with a less ag-
gressive pig then works its way up. Because this pipe-
While an unusual confluence of technical difficul- line had not been pigged in more than two years and
ties led to the stalled pig, the operational and finan- the last run had returned significant amounts of de-
cial implications were just too great to risk a repeat bris, the progressive pigging program was particularly
occurrence. conservative: if any single pig run removed too much
debris, it would increase the risk of the pig stalling.
After five runs, the pigging program met the operator’s
cleanliness specifications. The operator resumed nor-
mal production and normal pigging, with fully func-
tional valves and sound pipeline components.

Like every other aspect of modern life, technology

plays a major role in the everyday operation of the
world’s pipelines. It’s reassuring to know that when
technical problems occur, innovative, customized
tools and techniques can be put into place to solve
them. In other words, while we all know technology
can save time, money and other assets, there are times
it can also save other technology.

Author
Figure 8: First Vantage pig at launcher

To minimize the possibility of the scenario happening

again, TDW developed a customized cleaning pig to fit
the requirements of the offshore pipeline system.

Based on the proven technology of the VANTAGE®

multipurpose cleaning pig, the bespoke pig incorpo-
rated adjustable bypass, with jetting nozzles to pre-
vent debris from building up during operation. TDW
further boosted its cleaning capabilities by adding
Rolf Gunnar Lie
spring-loaded, angled polyurethane blades. Because T.D. Williamson
the blades also cause the pig to rotate while it trav- Director Sales, Eastern Hemisphere, East
els through the pipeline, the pigging discs experience [email protected]
more uniform wear, meaning they require only rou-
tine maintenance.

TDW also designed a progressive pigging program –

with the customized pig at the centerpiece – to ensure
the offshore section of the GEP was sufficiently clean
for both normal operation and an upcoming in-line in-
spection (ILI). If any dirt or debris interferes with ILI
tool sensors contacting the interior pipe wall, the data
they return can be inaccurate or incomplete.
18 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

Intelligent Solutions for Inspection of

Challenging Pipelines- Case Study: 10”
Rigid Offshore Oil Riser Inspection for
Wall Thickness and Cracks
A. Enters, T. S. Kristiansen, U. Schneider > ROSEN Norway

Abstract
Since the introduction of in-line inspection tools (ILI) more
than 50 years ago, there have always been pipelines that were
considered unpiggable. Typically, it is a combination of various
circumstances relating to pipeline design, operating conditions,
and/or characteristics of the medium that prevents a success-
ful in-line inspection using traditional methods. Today however,
solutions are available which allow the internal inspection of
pipelines formerly deemed “unpiggable”. Special ILI tools can
inspect these challenging or difficult to inspect pipelines.

The system introduced here is capable to measure crack depth and

profile quantitatively, whereby data is collected on the way in and
out, and results are visible in real time. Tethered technologies are
capable of inspecting pipelines with a 6" or larger diameter, and
up to 24 km in length.

This paper will explain the technologies used and the specifica-
tions achieved. Furthermore, the unique ability of the system to
navigate complex pipeline geometry will be explained through a
case study of a 10" offshore oil riser. During this inspection, the
tethered tool safely negotiated a total accumulated bend angle of
1,188° (17 bends) whilst successfully inspecting the pipeline for
wall thickness and cracks.
 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023 19
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

1. Introduction • One or two crawlers/tractors in the front – depend-

ing on the pull forces required – will pull the com-
The pipeline network world worldwide is ageing, there- plete tool into the pipeline and push it back on the
fore, it needs to be maintained and its integrity as- return run.
sessed. This is done since more than 50 years with so-
called in-line inspection tools or inspection pigs (ILI) • The pulling/pushing modules are followed by pro-
for different kind of defects. However, there have al- ject-specific modules:
ways been pipelines that were considered unpiggable.
Typically, it is a combination of various circumstances ◊ For UT geometry and wall thickness with pulse
relating to pipeline design, operating conditions, and/ echo vertical beam technology,
or characteristics of the medium that prevents a suc-
cessful in-line inspection using traditional methods. ◊ For geometrical anomalies as dents, ovalities
However, often there are solutions possible with very and further restrictions, and for metal loss and
special ILI tools for these challenging pipelines. wall thickness defects as pittings, all kind of
metal loss, wall thinning and lamination,
The system introduced here is capable to measure
crack depth and profile quantitatively, whereby data is ◊ For crack detection with shear wave technology,
collected on the way in and out, and results are visible
in real time. Tethered technologies are capable of in- ◊ And/or for crack detection and seizing with
specting pipelines with a 6" or larger diameter, and up TOFD (Time of Flight Diffraction),
to 24 km in length.
◊ For corrosion inspection with eddy current
2. Principle of Tethered Tool technologies.

Although the TUM, which stands for Tethered • Modules for data storage are also part of the tool
Ultrasonic Measurement, is typically tailor-made for train.
a special project, the typical composition consists of
the following: • If the tool is inspecting a pipeline within a clear
product as water or naphtha, a camera can also be

Figure 1: TUM principle

20 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

Figure 2: Conventional ILI tool Figure 3: TUM module

installed in the front of the tool. The sensor carrier is a stiff ring. The main purpose of
the lightweight tool and wheels is to require only very
• For very special tasks even a grinding tool was little pulling forces and almost no friction in order to
added for grinding out internal girth weld pene- be able to inspect longer sections even through many
trations and internal cracks. bends.

• The tool is connected via a cable coming from a Another differentiation against conventional tools is
winch with the control unit. The cable has four that we need big winches to do the job. The picture
functions: to bring the energy to the tool (the shows winches for different lengths, so far successfully
tool does not have a battery pack), to transfer the completed up to 12 km, up to 24 km possible depending
data in real time to the control unit, to control the on the amount of bends, bend angles and pipeline con-
movement of the crawler, and last but not least as figuration (two- or three-dimensional).
a safety line. If the crawler cannot move anymore
and the tool would get stuck, it can be pulled back A series of different crawlers and tractors are available
with up to, for example, 2 tons. for all diameters and forces up to 500 kg pulling force
each; 6" to 48" has been done already, up to 56" can be
The main differences between a conventional, easily prepared. The technologies used as ultrasonic
free-swimming, unidirectional pumped tool and a pulse echo in liquid lines for geometry, wall thickness
tethered bi-directional self-propelled tool are the fol- and crack detection, ultrasonic pitch and catch TOFD
lowing: Conventional tools go from A to B and get their for crack detection, as well as seizing and eddy current
driving pressure via its cups and/or discs. The sensor technologies for corrosion/metal loss in dry/gas pipe-
carrier is typically flexible. The ROSEN TUM tool has lines were all explained many times before. Therefore,
no cups or discs and a lot of bypass. It is extremely we will start straight with the case study.
lightweight, made of titanium and runs on wheels.

Figure 4 and 5: Winches of different lengths

 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023 21
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

Figure 6 and 7: Crawler and tractor

3. CaseStudy: 10" Rigid Offshore Oil Riser

Inspection for Wall Thickness and Cracks

The picture above shows a typical challenging pipe-

line – a riser from platform to subsea – which makes
the use of a conventional tool extremely expensive, be-
cause the pig receiver would need to be fabricated and
installed subsea. Thus, the pipeline inspection would
have to be operated with the assistance of a diving sup-
port vessel. However, there was a better solution.
Figure 8: Offshore platform
It is much easier and cheaper to use the ROSEN TUM
tethered self-propelled bi-directional UT tool which
can perform geometry, wall thickness and crack in-
spection in one go. This tool can be launched and re-
ceived from a trap at that platform without the need for
a diving support vessel and a subsea trap, making it the
right choice for this project.

The above-mentioned pipeline was chosen by the Figure 9: Platform with riser
operator during a risk assessment of all unpiggable
pipelines they had at this platform. After the assess-
ment, it was categorized as high risk for the operation.
Therefore, an inspection solution needed to be devel-
oped. Different vendors were invited, however, the
ROSEN solution was chosen for further validation. The
special challenge with this pipeline was the amount of
bends (and the total angle). If somebody would like
to try for themselves how the required pulling forces
increase when pulling a thick cable or a garden hose
through a combination of bends, they will notice that
every additional bend adds friction. Therefore, the
amount and angle of bends are in most cases the lim-
iting factor for a tethered inspection. Other vendors
can typically handle between three and four 90° bends.

During the first discussions, the target was to inspect

a section of nearly 200 m including up to eleven 90°
bends and as well as two 2.4° vertical miter bends.
Figure 10: Challenging offshore riser with many bends
22 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

For this riser inspection, the main issue was the pull-
back force of the tool. In case a tethered crawler tool is
losing power, the tool needs to be pulled back via the
winch.

The pulling force of the 10" tractors are approximately

200 kg each and not the limiting factor for the inspec-
tion of this riser.

In order to confirm that the passage and retrieval

through eleven 90° bends is feasible, a tool was devel-
oped and tested successfully in a test loop in our facil-
ity in Bergen, Norway. The main purpose of the tests
was to demonstrate that the tool could be retrieved by Figure 12: Riser test
the umbilical.
Here are some pipeline details:

Based on the friction profile from the test loop (the

• Nom. OD 10.75", length ~17km
pullback forces as function of tool position in the loop),
we could correlate the figures with the riser configura-
• Inspection length >300m
tion. This way, we were able to obtain a figure for the
required pullback forces in case the tool lost power
• Max. depth ~150m
within the riser system. After extensive testing, the in-
spection with UT wall thickness and TOFD for cracks
• Wall thickness 16-18 mm
was conducted successfully and showed good results.

• Medium during production/inspection: crude oil/

4. The Reinspection Project
diesel

A few years later, our company received the contract

• No flow rate during inspection
for re-inspection. This time, the challenge was to crawl
a bit further (+130 m total length >300 m) into the hori-
Again, there has been done a lot of crawler testing
zontal subsea section including another six bends.
prior to mobilization at the ROSEN Norway premises

Figure 11: Test loop in Bergen

 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023 23
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

in Bergen, including measuring:

• Pull and pullback forces with different tandem

crawler configurations in water filled pipe.

• Pull and pullback forces for eight different tool

train configurations in water filled pipe.

Finally, equipment and team were mobilized, and a

temporary trap was installed with stuffing box (cable
penetration) as well as guide wheels for routing the
cable. Further, the winch was placed, the computer
equipment was positioned in a habitat and the func-
tion tests were done. A special stuffing box with cable Figure 13: Trap door with stuffing box and cable feeder
feeder and hydraulic seal closing clamp was designed,
pulling force to ensure that the tool can negotiate
manufactured and tested to 100 bars for these inspec-
through difficult to pass pipeline components like
tions. The cable feeder was designed in order to reduce
slippery valves, tees etc. An ultrasonic sensor carrier
cable friction at the stuffing box location and the hy-
with 160 UT probes was used along with two odome-
draulic seal closing clamp was made in order to make
ters measuring the travelled distance and tool veloc-
the stuffing box “water tight” in case of a sudden pres-
ity. The movement of the odometers triggers the data
sure surge in the pipeline. The winch used had a 1.2
collection.
km umbilical with breaking load of 2,000 kg and nor-
mal pulling force of 1,000 kg. The winch was certified
Therefore, if the tool train stands still, data is not col-
for ATEX zone 2.
lected. However, the inspection can be carried out
with only one odometer working. Moreover, a pur-
Two different tool train configurations were used:
pose-made scanner equipped with TOFD probes is
used to scan any features. Straight beam PE probes are
1) For wall thickness measurements and sonar
installed to position the scanner correctly against girth
(UTWM + Sonar)
welds to be assessed. When deploying TOFD sensors at
corroded features in parent material, the TUM-WT tool
2) For wall thickness measurements and time-of-
position will be used to determine correct positioning
flight crack measurement of the corroded areas
of the TOFD tool.
(UTWM + TOFD)

Finally, the pipeline was shut down, the tool made its
In order to see a blocked pipeline (closed valve or simi-
way into the pipeline for approximately 300 m collect-
lar), a sonar was mounted in the front of the tool. Sonar
ing wall thickness data on the forward and return run.
is used as a method for locating objects in space and
After that, the tool was modified from TUM-Sonar to
under water by means of emitted sound pulses. Two
TUM-TOFD configuration, tested and re-launched
electrical crawlers were run in tandem configuration.
again.
This configuration has been designed for increased

Figure 14: Inspection tool train – TUM-WT-Sonar, the tool with WT + TOFD had one module more
24 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

Figure 15: Experts control tool movement and recorded data

During the run many pull- and pull-back force meas- solution needed to be developed. Different vendors
urements were done on preselected distance in order were invited, the ROSEN tethered solution was cho-
to calculate the friction coefficient of the riser and sen for further validation. Extensive testing (especially
to be sure to be able to return in even the worst case. crawler testing) in a test loop was performed already
Furthermore, during testing and the actual inspec- prior to the first inspection. The successful inspec-
tion activities, two operators were on deck operating tion was repeated some years later with longer inspec-
the umbilical winch, tool train and umbilical etc. and tion distance and more bends to pass (record of totally
two operators in the habitat were in charge or operat- 1,188°), 17 bends in total. The benefits of the tethered
ing the computers: Propulsion & UT/Sonar. During the solution were the following:
second run, the tool stopped at some pre-selected girth
welds to make full circumferential TOFD scans. Scans • The tethered approach avoided the need for sub-
were also conducted in any areas that appeared con- sea launching and associated cost, risk and pro-
spicuous (like splash zones) from the wall thickness duction downtime.
data collected during the first run.
• The unique flexibility of the tethered system al-
After presenting a site report which typically shows lowed for the safe negotiation of complex bend
the most severe detected defects, the equipment and configuration (total accumulated bend angle of
the team were demobilized and the detailed analysis 1,188° where others are restricted to maximum
could be started. The data evaluation team were now three and four times 90°)
able to work with four data sets for wall thickness (two
times forward and two return runs) and two data sets • A tethered system allowed for in-line TOFD inspec-
for the TOFD crack analysis. The full length and cir- tion, which enhanced the accuracy of WT readings
cumference of the targeted pipe section was success- and additionally provided crack inspection.
fully inspected and the collected data were of very
good quality, meeting the required specification. The final report was delivered and the service was
performed to the full satisfaction of the operator, on
5. Summary and Benefits schedule and without any incidents or accidents.
Highly accurate UT and TOFD data allowed for a fit-
As a result of a risk assessment of some offshore un- ness-for-purpose evaluation, specific decision making
piggable pipelines, the riser has been categorized as and the continued safe operation of the riser.
‘high risk’ for the operation. Therefore, an inspection
 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023 25
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

Authors

Abco Enters Thor Ståle Kristiansen Ulrich Schneider

ROSEN Norway ROSEN Norway ROSEN Norway
Senior Sales Manager Managing Director Business Development Manager
[email protected] [email protected] Region World-Wide
[email protected]

Developed by the industry for the industry

LONDON CONGRESS
21st & 22nd September 2023

FOR MORE INFORMATION AND BOOKING VISIT SPTCONGRESS.COM

26 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

An Innovative Approach to Optimize

Trunkline Cladding Requirements for an
Offshore Gas Field Development
Q. Saleem, R. Al-Shiban, M. Al-Mansour, L. Seong Teh > Saudi Aramco

Abstract
Subsea pipelines such as flowlines, trunklines etc. are an integral part of all off-
shore field developments. Sour service conditions as encountered by production
pipelines of gas fields require CRA clad pipe due to high risk of localized corrosion
initiation and penetration rate in carbon steel. This paper presents an innovative
approach to optimize cladding requirements of trunklines of an offshore gas field
development.

This approach involves removal of concrete coating from flowlines as well as from
cladded section of trunklines for enhancing fluid cooling. The cladding length of
each subsea trunkline was significantly reduced as compared to concrete coated
case. The impact of removal of concrete coating on other disciplines required
minor modifications which were outweighed by the reduction in trunkline clad-
ding. The proposed approach was successfully applied to reduce cladding length
of two subsea trunklines by more than 70% which resulted in significant cost sav-
ings and project schedule improvement.
 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023 27
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

1. Introduction considering the maximum service temperature.

Subsea pipelines such as in-field flowlines, trunklines, The means to optimize the cladding requirements of
test lines etc. are an integral part of all offshore field subsea trunklines are very attractive as they can offer
developments. Sour service conditions as encountered significant reduction in project capex costs. This is at-
by production pipelines of gas fields require CRA clad tributed to the fact that the cost of cladded pipe can
pipe due to high risk of localized corrosion initiation be three to five times the bare carbon steel depending
and penetration rate in carbon steel. Production fluid on the pipe size. On the other hand, the cost of inter-
is a wet sour natural gas, containing high concentra- nally FBE coated pipe is only 10-15% higher than that
tion of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide. Oxygen, of bare carbon steel option. The other benefits include
sand or bacteria is not envisaged. Liquid formation significant schedule improvement resulting from the
water production is expected, increasing the bicarbo- clad length reduction and welding time associated
nates, TDS and chlorides content of the aqueous phase. with cladded pipe. From operation and integrity man-
Organic acid and their salts formation is expected as agement point of view, cladding optimization results
well as elemental sulphur. in uncomplicated maintenance which leads to reduc-
tion in opex costs as well as schedule improvement.
Corrosion simulation indicated accelerated corrosion Furthermore, the cladding optimization will also re-
rates with high pitting risks in the water-wetted car- sult in less environmental impact.
bon steel pipeline bottom section due to H2S-CO2 cor-
rosion. Laboratory testing for top-of-the-line corrosion 2. Innovative Approach
(TLC) showed that the TLC risk was high for carbon
steel [1-6]. As a result, the risks of H2S-CO2 corrosion This paper presents an innovative approach to optimize
and TLC should be mitigated by the combination in ef- cladding requirements of subsea trunklines of off-
fective selection of corrosion resistant alloy (CRA) and/ shore gas field developments. This approach involves
or internally coated carbon steel coupled with corro- removal of concrete coating from the in-field flow-
sion inhibition batch treatment. In correspondence lines as well as from the cladded section of trunklines
of the higher temperature sections of the production for enhancing the fluid cooling. Concrete coating ap-
lines and at trunkline inlet, the integrity of coating sys- plied to subsea pipelines has low thermal conductivity
tem is doubtful and CRA cladding is used to prevent which prohibits the heat transfer to sea water and sub-
corrosion. Further downstream, where temperature sequent temperature drop along the pipeline length.
decreases, coating should provide corrosion mitiga- However, the removal of concrete coating can accel-
tion as intended. This is supplemented by batch cor- erate the cooling of the fluid resulting in significant
rosion inhibitor treatment to account for protection of temperature drop along a shorter length of the pipe-
the internal pipeline metal surface that is exposed due line which is highly desirable for the optimization of
to any coating defect and in case of any internal coat- cladding requirements of subsea trunklines. Flow as-
ing integrity issues. surance analyses with and without the concrete coat-
ing are required to establish the trunkline temperature
Consequently, the in-field flowlines are required to profiles to identify the transition point from internal
be cladded as they are exposed to high temperature cladding to internal coating.
which prohibits the use of internally fusion bonded
epoxy (FBE) coated pipe. The production from the This approach requires re-assessment of subsea pipe-
offshore gas fields are transported to land via subsea line on-bottom stability [7-11] and protection require-
trunklines or export lines which see lower temper- ments due to removal of concrete weight coating. The
atures than those experienced by in-field flowlines. exclusion of concrete coating may require either in-
This allows a major length of the trunkline, seeing low crease in steel wall thickness or use of alternative stabi-
temperature, to be internally FBE coated whereas the lization measures to meet the requirements of on-bot-
remaining length is required to be cladded due to high tom stability. Furthermore, pipeline protection is
temperature exposure. Hence, two different types of required to be ensured under impact scenario resulting
internal protection are used in one subsea trunkline from for example due to dropped objects and pull over/
28 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

hooking scenario. In addition, the impact of removal blended with corrosion inhibitor. For sulphur depo-
of concrete coating on other mechanical design activi- sition prevention heavy diesel oil (HDO) is injected at
ties such as free span analysis, bottom roughness anal- each wellhead platform.
ysis, subsea crossings design, pipeline end expansion
& spool analyses and in-service buckling assessment The innovative approach presented in this paper was
is also evaluated. The approach used for optimization applied in two phases. In the first phase, concrete
of trunkline cladding requirements also requires as- weight coating was removed from in-field flowlines
sessing the effect of concrete coating removal on other shown in Figure 1. Consequently, flow assurance anal-
disciplines including materials, welding, internal cor- yses indicated a faster temperature drop along the
rosion, cathodic protection system, pipeline external trunkline length and subsequent significant reduc-
coatings and field joint coatings. tion in cladding length of both trunklines as shown in
Table 1.
3. Application of Innovative Approach
The on-bottom stability analysis as per DNV-RP-F109
The proposed approach was successfully applied to re- [12] of in-field flowlines required increase in steel wall
duce the cladding length of two subsea trunklines of thickness from 16.66mm to 19.05mm to compensate
an offshore gas field development as shown in Figure the removal of concrete coating. Furthermore, pipeline
1. The sour gas from wellhead platforms (WHP) is protection assessment as per DNV-RP-F107 [13] indi-
gathered at two tie-in platforms (TP). From each Tie-In cated that the increased wall thickness provides higher
Platform the gas is conveyed to the onshore facility level of protection than concrete coating. This is attrib-
through a dedicated trunkline. For Hydrate preven- uted to lower permanent dent depth during dropped
tion, a dedicated MEG system is provided and MEG is object impact scenario and higher bending stiffness

Figure 1: Layout of Offshore Gas Field and Onshore Facility

(WHP: Wellhead Platform, TP: Tie-in Platform)
 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023 29
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

Table 1: Cladding Length Reduction from Phase I

during anchor dragging scenario. Along flowline corri- weight coating was removed since this pipeline section
dor spool sections, concrete weight coating was main- (i.e. externally FBE coated with 31.75mm wall thick-
tained as per the recommendations from dropped ob- ness) is already stable against environmental loads
ject study. Along closure and tie-in spools, the concrete and buoyancy without the need of additional stabili-
weight coating was removed since this pipeline section zation weight.
(i.e. externally FBE coated with 19.05mm wall thick-
ness) is already stable against environmental loads and Free span analyses of trunklines indicated an increase
buoyancy without the need of additional stabilization in allowable free span length in both as-laid (tempo-
weight. As part of cathodic protection system design, rary) and operating conditions. The increase in allow-
re-design of flowline bracelet anodes was required due able span length during temporary condition is attrib-
to removal of concrete coating. uted to increase in steel wall thickness and reduction
in total outside diameter. Whereas, the reduction in
In the second phase, concrete weight coating was re- axial compression along the cladded sections dur-
moved from the cladded section of both trunklines ing operation resulted in higher allowable free span
shown in Figure 1. Flow assurance analyses showed length. On-bottom roughness analyses of trunklines
even faster temperature drop along the trunkline showed significant reduction in intervention works in
length and subsequent further reduction in cladding terms of post-lay mattresses and grout bags. The in-
length of both trunklines as shown in Table 2. crease in allowable free span length and reduction of
pipeline vertical uplift contributed to fewer interven-
The on-bottom stability analysis as per DNV-RP-F109 tion works. Crossing design of trunklines identified re-
[1] of trunklines required increase in steel wall thick- duction of pre-lay and post-lay intervention works for
ness from 28.58mm to 31.75mm to compensate the re- crossing configurations.
moval of concrete coating. Furthermore, pipeline pro-
tection assessment as per DNV-RP-F107 [2] indicated Trunkline end expansion analyses showed slight in-
that the increased wall thickness provides higher level crease of end expansion during hydrotest condition
of protection than concrete coating. This is attributed due to the reduction of pipe weight from removal of
to lower permanent dent depth during dropped object concrete coating. On the other hand, the decrease in
impact scenario and higher bending stiffness during end expansion was seen for operating case, which im-
anchor dragging scenario. Along trunkline corridor plies that reduction in temperature has more domi-
spool sections, concrete weight coating was main- nant effect on end expansion than the decrease in pipe
tained as per the recommendations from dropped ob- weight. Trunkline spool assessment indicated lower
ject study. Along closure and tie-in spools, the concrete spool stress levels for the operating condition whereas

Table 2: Cladding Length Reduction from Phase II

30 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

insignificant stress variation was observed for the hy- is always explored given that it can lead to significant
drotest condition. The removal of concrete coating benefits such as cooling of production fluid and con-
led to an increase in carbon steel wall thickness, how- sequent reduction in costly cladding requirements.
ever, it does not have any impact on line pipe manu- Furthermore, it can also increase the pipeline allow-
facturing, welding and non-destructive testing (NDT). able free span length and can lead to significant re-
From internal corrosion perspective, the temperature duction in intervention works required for free span
drop in internally coated sections of trunklines helps corrections, stress hot spots as well as crossing con-
with potential slight mitigation of the fluid corrosive- figurations. As a final step, the effect of concrete coat-
ness and potential increase of the corrosion inhibitor ing removal on other disciplines including materials,
efficiency. welding, internal corrosion, cathodic protection sys-
tem, pipeline external coatings and field joint coat-
As part of cathodic protection (CP) system design, ings shall also be assessed and approval should be
re-design of trunkline bracelet anodes for cladded obtained from engineering department. As demon-
sections was required due to removal of concrete coat- strated in section 3, the alternative approach for op-
ing. The modifications to anode geometry ensured a timizing the cladding length significantly reduced
smother passage over rollers and inside the tension- the final cladding requirements of subsea trunklines
ers during installation thereby reducing any risk of which resulted in:
slippage or damage. Furthermore, the anode gap was
filled with solid PU which ensured further mechani- • Less environmental impact
cal protection to anodes cables and will also increase
the anode resistance to slippage force. Following the • Significant cost savings (Capex and Opex)
modifications, anodes can still be preinstalled in coat-
ing yard and pass through tensioner and roller with- • Schedule improvement
out any problem. CP system design calculations re-
quired anode spacing to be decreased to one anode • Uncomplicated maintenance
every three joints.
• Reduced downtime
The removal of concrete coating from trunkline clad-
ded section has no impact on pipeline external coat- 5. Concluding Remarks
ing which remains the same i.e. fusion bonded epoxy
(FBE). Due to the removal of concrete coating, in- This paper presents an innovative approach to optimize
creased coating break down factor was considered for cladding requirements of subsea trunklines of off-
the cathodic protection design. The viscoelastic mul- shore gas field developments. This approach involves
ti-layer coating on the clad section field joint was re- removal of concrete coating from the in-field flowlines
quired to be replaced by FBE field joint coating sys- as well as from the cladded section of trunklines for
tem to mitigate any potential coating damage during enhancing the fluid cooling. As trunklines were re-
pipe laying. Furthermore, the FBE coating thickness at quired to be cladded only up to the length where fluid
the field joint was required to be modified to 625-1125 temperature was above 120 ºF (and internally FBE
microns from the standard requirement of 625-1000 coated elsewhere), the cladding length of each sub-
microns. sea trunkline was significantly reduced as compared
to concrete coated case. The impact of removal of con-
4. Implementation crete coating on flow assurance, pipeline mechanical
design, cathodic protection and field joint coating sys-
The innovative approach for optimizing the cladding tems was also evaluated. Although some of these ac-
length of subsea trunklines was implemented in com- tivities required minor modifications, however, they
pany standards and procedures by mandating the were outweighed by the reduction in trunkline clad-
methodology presented in this paper to be employed. ding requirements. The proposed approach was suc-
This ensured that the removal of concrete weight coat- cessfully applied to reduce the cladding length of two
ing (if feasible e.g. by slight increase in wall thickness) subsea trunklines by more than 70% which resulted
 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023 31
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

in significant cost savings and project schedule im-

provement. The innovative approach presented in this Authors
paper can be used to significantly reduce the cladding
requirements of subsea trunklines of offshore gas field
developments. The optimization of trunkline cladding
will result in reduction of capex costs as well as sched-
ule improvement will lead to early start up.

6. Acknowledgement

The authors would like to thank Saudi Aramco man-

agement for permission to publish this paper.

Qasim Saleem
References Saudi Aramco
Engineering Specialist
1. Nyborg R. and A. Dugstad, “Top of Line Corrosion and Water
Condensation Rates in Wet Gas Pipelines”, Corrosion 2007. [email protected]
2. Pugh D. V., S. L. Asher and J. Cai, W. J. Sisak, “Top-of-Line Corrosion
Mechanism for Sour Wet Gas Pipelines”, Corrosion 2009.
3. Schmitt G., M. Scheepers and G. Siegmund, “Inhibition of The Top-
of-The-Line Corrosion Under Stratified Flow”, Corrosion 2001.
4. Gunaltun Y. M., T. Elf and A. Belghazi, “Control of Top of Line
Corrosion by Chemical Treatment”, Corrosion 2001.
5. Martin R., “Control of Top-Of-Line Corrosion in A Sour Gas
Gathering Pipeline with Corrosion Inhibitors”, Corrosion 2009.
6. Gunaltun, Y. M. and Larrey, D., "Correlation of Cases of Top
of Line Corrosion with Calculated Water Condensation
Rates", Corrosion/2000, paper # 00071.
7. Andrew C. Palmer, Roger A. King “Subsea Pipeline Engineering,” 2004.
8. EfereboNtubodia, Ibiba Emmanuel Douglas and
EzebuchiAkandu “Comparison of On-Bottom Stability of a
Subsea Pipeline under Different Wave Spectra and Currents,”
American Journal of Engineering Research, 2019.
9. F. Van den Abeele and J. Vande Voorde “Stability of
Offshore Pipelines in Close Proximity to the Seabed,”
6th Pipeline Technology Conference, 2011.
10. Qiang Bai and Yong Bai “Subsea Pipeline Design,
Analysis, and Installation,” 2014.
11. Scott Draper, Hongwei An, Liang Cheng, David J. White and
Terry Griffiths “Stability of subsea pipelines during large
storms,” Philos Trans A Math Phys Eng Sci., 2015.
12. DNV-RP-F109 “On-Bottom Stability Design of Riyadh Al-Shiban
Submarine Pipelines” Der Norske Veritas, 2010.
13. DNV-RP-F107 “Risk Assessment of Pipeline Saudi Aramco
Protection” Der Norske Veritas, 2010. Engineering Consultant
[email protected]

Mana Al-Mansour Lay Seong Teh

Saudi Aramco Saudi Aramco
Engineering Consultant Engineering Specialist
[email protected] [email protected]
32 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

Offshore Pipelines and stability

assessment of Submerged Slopes under
Seismic Conditions
P. PSARROPOULOS1, Y. TSOMPANAKIS2, N. MAKRAKIS2 > 1National Technical University of
Athens, 2Technical University of Crete

Abstract
Depending on the prevailing bathymetrical and geotechnical conditions, the integ-
rity of offshore pipelines is threatened by potential slope instabilities that occur at
the seabed or at the bottom of lakes. In addition, submarine slides are more frequent
in seismic regions. The instability of onshore slopes under seismic conditions is un-
doubtedly a challenging problem in geotechnical earthquake engineering, while the
quantitative assessment of the seismic stability of submerged slopes is even more de-
manding. Consequently, the current study investigates this complex phenomenon of
offshore geotechnical earthquake engineering. After a brief overview of the recent
related work of the authors’ group and the available pseudo-static methods of the lit-
erature, an improved analytical method is proposed. An indicative parametric study
demonstrates that the new approach estimates more accurately the factors of safety,
leading thus to less conservative (i.e., more cost-effective) design of offshore pipelines
near potentially unstable submarine slopes.
 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023 33
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

1. Intorduction softening during the slide process causing progressive

failure and retrogressive sliding, (b) the rapid deposi-
During the last decades, various offshore structures tion, (c) increase of the slope angles due to fault rup-
have been designed and constructed worldwide, while ture of seabed erosion, (d) melting of gas hydrates re-
many more are expected to be developed in the near leasing methane gas and water, (e) wave loading, (f)
future. Offshore structures can be characterized by earthquake-induced shear strains generating excess
rather limited dimensions (e.g., fixed platforms, wind pore pressures and (g) human activities such as drill-
turbines, etc.), while there exist offshore lifelines ing, and construction installation (Locat & Lee, 2002).
crossing hundreds of kilometers (i.e., gas pipelines, For example, Kvalstad et al. in 2005 investigated the
cables, etc.). Typically, such structures are designed to above phenomena for the case of the Storegga slide
face various threatsthat depend on the seabed char- which occurred almost eight thousands years ago and
acteristics and the potential geohazards of the region affected an area of 90,000 km² (see Figure 1).
(Dean, 2010). The main offshore geohazards are sub-
marine slides, faults, strong ground shaking, liquefac-
tion, salt diapirs, shallow gas and dissociation of gas
hydrates, mud volcanoes and hydrodynamic forces
from waves and currents. It is evident that the geo-
technical engineers and engineering geologists must
identify offshore geohazards with respect to potential
triggers, event severity and frequency, potential failure
modes and the probability, as well as the consequences
of a failure (Randolph&Gourvenec, 2011).

In areas that are characterized by moderate to high

seismicity, such as the Mediterranean Sea, offshore
earthquake-related geohazards may have a negative
impact on offshore structures. The prevailing geomor- Figure 1: Location of the Storegga slide offshore
phological and geological conditions in a specific area Norway (after Kvalstad et al., 2005)
(e.g., deep canyons which present slides or rockfalls
or flat areas with very soft sediments), in conjunction Research on understanding the mechanisms and the
with active tectonics, may lead to earthquake-related related risks due to submarine slides has been inten-
geohazards such as: strong ground motion, seismic sified in the past decades, mainly due to the increas-
fault rupture at the seabed, soil liquefaction phenom- ing number of deep-water oil and gas fields that have
ena, volcanic eruptions, and various types of slope in- been discovered and exploited. The impact of subma-
stability at the seabed. rine slides on offshore pipelines has been thoroughly
investigated (Zakeri, 2009).In recent years, elaborate
Submarine slides are common and very effective numerical models have been utilized for the simula-
mechanisms of sediment transfer from the shelf and tion of landslides (Dey et al. 2016).Moreover, different
upper slope to deep-sea basins, in which enormous rheological models have been used to investigate the
volumes of sediments can be transported on very gen- slide movement in analytical or numerical investiga-
tle slopes over distances exceeding tens of kilome- tions (Boukpeti et al. 2012). Useful conclusions can be
ters. Such events can severely damage various off- drawn from data that are continuously collected from
shore structures, such as fixed platforms, pipelines both recent and older submarine slides worldwide
and cables. It is well known that due to excess pore (Camargo et al. 2019).
pressure the risk of offshore landslides is high, even
for slopes with very low inclination, i.e., slope angles Factor of Safety (FS) against slope stability constitutes a
≤ 0.5°(Randolph& Gourvenec, 2011). Potential sources useful engineering tool for structural integrity assess-
for excess pore pressure are: (a) the shear strain in- ment of any structure in the examined region. With
duced contraction with pore pressure generation and respect to seismic slope instability, the horizontal and
34 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

vertical inertial forces that are expected to be devel- depths. Kinematic distress due to submarine geohaz-
oped on the soil mass during a seismic event may de- ards is a critical and frequently unavoidable threat for
crease dramatically the factors of safety, leading thus such pipelines, especially in deep water, where they
to higher risk of failure (Psarropoulos & Antoniou, are laid directly on the seabed under adverse and un-
2014). Usually, slope stability assessment is performed certain conditions. More specifically, submarine land-
via pseudo-static limit equilibrium analyses, which es- slides and debris flows consist a critical geohazard for
timate the factors of safety under seismic conditions offshore pipelines. The investigation of pipe distress
based on certain simplifications. Typically, they are under the above phenomenon can be conducted uti-
based on the assumption that the induced seismic ac- lizing analytical and/or numerical models. Previous
celerations may be represented as equivalent external studies of the authors’ group (e.g., Chatzidakis et al.,
static forces. 2019 & Chatzidakis et al., 2020) have focused on ana-
lytical models which, although can be inferior in terms
This "pseudo-static approach" is popular in engineering of accuracy compared to elaborate numerical models,
practice as it is relatively simple and straightforward exhibit the advantages of faster solution, automated
to implement. Its similarity to the static limit-equilib- calculations and compatibility with a wide range of
rium analyses usually conducted by geotechnical engi- software, while they can be easily implemented into
neers makes computations easy to perform and under- guidelines and applied in practice.
stand. Nevertheless, the accuracy of the pseudo-static
approach is governed by the accuracy with which the The response of offshore pipelines under lateral dis-
simple pseudo-static inertial forces represent the com- tress due to a landslide has been investigated in a lim-
plex dynamic inertial forces that actually occur dur- ited number of studies so far through the development
ing an earthquake (Kramer, 1996). Despite the progres- of analytical and numerical models. Yuan et al. (2012a
sive development of more advanced analytical and/or & 2012b) proposed two analytical models for both sur-
numerical methods, the use of the pseudo-static ap- face-laid and buried offshore pipelines. These studies
proach in seismic slope stability analyses and the in- assumed bi-linear lateral soil resistance and constant
terpretation of pseudo-static factors of safety are ex- axial tension. In the sequence, Yuan et al. (2015) and
tremely useful for offshore engineering and are used Chatzidakis et al. (2019) improved the above method-
in the design of offshore structures. ology by introducing varying axial tension and tri-lin-
ear lateral soil resistance, respectively.
The current paper tries to shed some light to these cru-
cial issues in the field of offshore geotechnical earth- As shown in Figure 2, Chatzidakis et al. (2019) devel-
quake engineering, emphasizing on planar slides oped an analytical methodology for the investigation
under seismic conditions. After a brief overview of the of pipe response under lateral kinematic distress due
recent related work of the authors’ group and a liter- to a submarine slide or a debris flow. The investigation
ature review of the available solutions for static and focuses on deep water conditions where the pipeline
pseudo-static slope stability assessment, an improved is usually laid directly on the seabed. Extra emphasis
analytical expression is proposed for submerged soil is given on the soil resistance, where a tri-linear model
slopes. Subsequently, a parametric study has been con- is used in compliance with the recent DNV GL (2017)
ducted taking into account the main parameters in- guideline. The proposed model was validated against
volved (i.e., the mechanical properties of the geoma- both analytical and numerical models, based on the fi-
terials, the geometry of the slope, and the imposed nite-element (FE) method. Finally, a parametric study
seismic acceleration levels). was carried out for different loading scenarios using
realistic input data for the pipe and soil properties
2. Offshore Gas Pipelines Subjected to taken from the design and geotechnical survey of the
Submarine Landslides Trans Adriatic Pipeline project (TAP, 2013a & 2013b).

As aforementioned, offshore natural gas pipelines The main findings of this investigation can be summa-
are large-scale infrastructures which may extend for rized as follows:
hundreds of kilometers and reach hundreds of meters
 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023 35
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

a) • The difference between simulat- 3. Optimal Route Selection with the Minimum
ing tri-linear and bi-linear lateral soil Risk of Landslides
resistance is apparent, since bi-linear soil re-
sistance overestimates lateral deflection and Another recent work by the authors (Makrakis et al.,
underestimates pipe axial strains for small de- 2022) has presented a smart decision-support tool
flections. Moreover, the proposed model can in- which focuses on the optimal route selection of off-
vestigate the response of a pipe for a wider range shore lifelines, and especially high-pressure gas pipe-
of axial tensions. The computational cost is small lines, against the potential earthquake-related geo-
for both models. hazard of submarine landslides. This investigation
combines the advanced capabilities of GIS with effi-
• Larger drag force and landslide width result in big- cient (semi-)analytical models, in order to realistically
ger displacements and in a longer part of the pipe- assess the response of offshore pipelines when sub-
line that is exposed to lateral movement. jected to axial or oblique loading due to submarine
b)
slides.

In this case the pseudo-static slope stability analysis

has been utilized which is widely used in engineer-
ing practice in order to assess the seismic response
of slopes. The calculated Factor of Safety under pseu-
do-static conditions (FSPS) indicates whether the exam-
ined slope is stable(i.e., FSPS ≥ 1) or unstable (i.e., FSPS<
1) under seismic conditions. The following analytical
formula, that was firstly introduced by Morgenstern
(1967) and further modified by Haneberg et al. (2013)
among others, has been used:
Figure 2: Analytical model description (a) and soil resistance models (b)

However, for constant drag force and increasing

landslide width, the laterally dislocated part of the
wherec represents the soil cohesion, while φ and θ de-
pipeline normalized with respect to the landslide
note the friction and slope inclination angles, respec-
width is constant.
tively. Moreover, z represents the depth of the seabed
sediments, and γ΄ denotes the buoyant unit weight
• The fact that tensile strains occur along the long-
of the soil, which is equal to γ^'=γ-γw, where γ and
est part of the pipe in all cases, is considered bene-
γw are the unit weight of soil and water, respectively.
ficial, since such pipelines are vulnerable to com-
Finally, k refers to the pseudo-static seismic coeffi-
pressive strains due to local buckling phenomena.
cient, which quantifies in a simplified manner the im-
Compressive strains appear for small drag forces
pact of horizontal inertial force due to horizontal seis-
and especially for small landslide widths; hence,
mic excitations.
it is recommended to avoid regions with potential
narrow landslide areas.
In reality, a vertical seismic excitation also exists,
which leads to a vertical inertial force, but it is usually
• In all examined cases, the pipeline material re-
neglected as its impact is considered marginal (Kramer,
sponse remained elastic, i.e., no plastic strains oc-
1996). To perform the seismic stability assessment of
curred and compressive strains were lower than
offshore slopes, a proper value for the pseudo-static
the critical limit for local buckling.
horizontal seismic coefficient, k, has to be selected ac-
cording to the acceleration levels of the examined re-
A similar work has been presented by Chatzidakis et al.
gion that correspond to the selected seismic scenari-
(2020),investigating the more general case of oblique
o(s). As reported by Melo & Sharma (2004), due to the
loading conditions.
36 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

flexibility of soil slopes, the peak acceleration values of offshore pipelines should be performed for a se-
that occur during an earthquake are instantaneous, vere seismic scenario (e.g., 2475-year return pe-
thus, seismic coefficients used in common engineer- riod) due to the high importance of such critical
ing practice correspond to much lower acceleration infrastructure.
values compared to the anticipated peak accelerations.
Under this perspective, k, can take constant values • Larger axial force and landslide length result in
ranging from 0.05 to 0.25, or it can be a ratio (1/3 to 1/2) greater compressive axial force for the pipeline
of maximum accelerations. As shown in Figure 3, the routings which cross vertically the unstable slopes
application of the proposed smart tool in the Adriatic and are examined against axial distress.
Sea results in five alternative pipeline routings, which
are compared with the constructed route of TAP. The • Pipeline routings which cross the hazardous
proposed routes differ in length, but also in the way areas under a certain angle are examined against
they cross the seismically unstable slopes of the ex- oblique distress, and the maximum tensile and
amined region, as well as the areas characterized by compressive strains for the examined crossing an-
steep inclination. Nevertheless, it should be stressed gles, landslide widths and impact forces, are below
that the comparison with TAP route is indicative, due the acceptable limits.
to the lack of all data and the resulting simplifications.
• The safest pipeline route has taken into account
both the slopes with large inclination, as well as
the slopes that are unstable for the 2475-year re-
turn period scenario.

The presented results highlight the capability of the

smart tool to successfully support the engineers in
quantifying both the geohazard and the pipeline re-
sponse in order to design a route, considering the
critical and non-critical areas that should be avoided
or crossed under certain conditions/restrictions.
Optimal route selection could noticeably reduce the
length and the consequent cost of a lifeline, while in-
Figure 3: Application of the smart decision-support tool in the Adriatic Sea for creasing safety levels. In any case, in complex real-life
the optimal routings of offshore pipeline subjected to axial or oblique loading projects the procedure of optimal route selection is not
a straightforward task. Consequently, it should not be
The main findings of this study are the following:
based on engineering judgment and design experi-
ence, since it can be achieved in a more efficient man-
• The examined area in the southern Adriatic Sea is
ner via less subjective decision-support tools.
prone to offshore geohazards and especially sub-
marine landslides, mainly at the eastern Adriatic
4. Slides on Infinite Planar Surfaces
Sea near Albania.

A translational slide is actually a movement of the

• Under static conditions the submarine slopes are
upper mass of soil or sediments above a planar sur-
stable even at the steep inclination zones, in con-
face parallel to the surface of either the ground or the
trast to seismic conditions, where the factor of
seabed, under the assumption that it has an infinite
safety significantly decreases, regardless of slope
length. The movement of the soil may be represented
inclination.
in a simplified manner by a rigid block sliding on an in-
clined planar surface. Considering a vertical segment
• The 475-year return period scenario is not criti-
of a soil slope inclined at an angle θ, characterized by
cal compared to the one for the 2475-year return
height z, thickness h (=z·cosθ), and unit length in the
period, which results in unstable slopes near the
third direction, four different cases can be examined:
Albanian coastline. Hence, optimal route selection
(a) soil slope under static conditions, (b) submerged
soil slope under static conditions (with a horizontal
water table above the slope), (c) soil slope under seis-
mic conditions, and (d) submerged soil slope under
seismic conditions. In the general case of a soil slope
under static conditions, the factor of safety is given by
the following well-known expression:

where γ, c and φare the unit weight, the cohesion and

the angle of internal friction of the soil, respectively.

Assuming the unit weights of the soil above and below

the water table (bulk and saturated unit weights) to be
the same, γ, the weight W' of a submerged segment
ABCD will be:

where γ^' (=γ-γ〗_W)is the effective unit weight, de-

rived by subtracting the unit weight of water, γw, from
γ. Repeating calculations, the overall factor of safety
under static conditions and assuming a horizontal
water table above the slope is given by:

It is noted that if, apart from the weight W = α·z·γ, a

vertical buoyancy force AW = α·z·γw exists, Eq. (4)
is derived. Assuming that the segment ABCD (with
weight W = γ·α·z) is subjected to a horizontal seismic
excitation (which is represented via a pseudo-static
seismic coefficient k), the aforementioned equations
should include an additional horizontal inertial force
E = k·W. Note that in reality a vertical seismic excita-
tion also exists, which leads to a vertical inertial force.
Nevertheless, its impact is considered to be less impor-
tant, and therefore it is usually neglected.

Under this perspective, the factor of safety under pseu-

do-static conditions is given by:

In the special case that k = 0 (i.e., static conditions),

FSPS = FSST and Eq. (5) converges to Eq. (2).
38 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

Figure 4. Rotation of the model in order to change the orientation of the resultant force WE to vertical.

a)

b)
Figure 5: Factor of Safety for a planar slide for submerged seismic conditions using (a) the conventional approach and (b) the proposed formula.
 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023 39
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

As aforementioned, the pseudo-static seismic coeffi- In the general case the factor of safety under pseu-
cient k is a fraction of peak acceleration at the surface do-static conditions of a submerged soil slope is given by:
of the seabed. The selection of the proper k value(s)
should take into account the acceleration levels at the
seismic bedrock, in conjunction with the potential ag-
gravation due to the presence of soft sediments and/or Based on well-known trigonometric equations, and tak-
topographic irregularities of the examined region. In ing into account that δis equal to arctan(k), the follow-
addition, it is noted that offshore lifelines are designed ing equation is obtained for the factor of safety under
for long-term conditions, i.e., a large return period is pseudo-static conditions of a submerged soil slope:
used, a fact that results in higher values of k.

When the segment ABCD is submerged and subjected

to a horizontal seismic excitation, the impact of ver- Note that Equation (8) is analogous to Equation (5) that
tical buoyancy and the horizontal inertial force Ε are corresponds to the case of an onshore dry slope under
taken into account. Note that E is equal to k·W, where pseudo-static conditions, with γ in Equation (5) being
W (= m·g) is the weight of the body. This hypothesis replaced by γ’. Figure 5depicts the Factor of Safety (FS)
is undoubtedly valid, since the inertial forces are ap- for a planar slide for submerged seismic conditions
plied to the mass of the body, regardless of the grav- using: (a) the conventional approach and (b) the pro-
itational field and the hydrostatic conditions. In the posed formula. Various cases of geometry (h), soil
general case, the factor of safety under pseudo-static properties (c and φ) and applied acceleration (k) have
conditions of a submerged soil slope is given by: been examined. It is evident that the new approach
leads to higher FS, being thus less conservative.

6. Conclusions
Note that Eq. (6) coincides with Eq.(1) which has been
used in the aforementioned study of Makrakis et al. The instability of the seabed during earthquakes is a
(2022). critical issue in offshore engineering, as it can threaten
the safety and/or the serviceability of offshore and/
5. Improving Seismic Stability Assessment of or near-shore structures. Typically, seismic slope sta-
Submerged Slopes bility assessment is performed using pseudo-static
methodologies based on certain simplifications that
The aforementioned methodology was introduced in convert the dynamic problem to an equivalent static
the '60s (e.g., see Morgenstern, 1967)in order to assess one. Under this perspective, the current study has fo-
the stability of cohesive submarine slopes under seis- cused on the stability of submarine slopes under seis-
mic conditions and has been adopted in several sci- mic conditions.
entific publications. Furthermore, several research-
ers have used the above equations, while others have More specifically, a thorough investigation of the avail-
used them for pipeline routing (Haneberg et al., 2013). able analytical solutions of the literature has revealed
Nevertheless, this formula is erroneous since the pres- that they do not include all forces caused by the applied
ence of a horizontal inertial force E can be combined horizontal acceleration. This fact can lead to inaccurate
with the vertical gravitational force W. As shown in slope stability assessment. More specifically, the pre-
Figure 4, the outcome of W and E is an inclined force sented results demonstrate that existing approaches
WE, and therefore, an equivalent model can be devel- substantially underestimate the factors of safety, espe-
oped, in which the coordinate system has been rotated cially for moderate to high acceleration levels. In other
so that the force WE is vertical. The angle of the afore- words, the slopes that have been assessed in the past
mentioned rotation,δ , is equal to arctan(k).In this case, may not be so vulnerable as they are considered to be,
the equivalent weight W' is equal to the volume V (= leading thus to conservative and costly design solutions
α·z·γ'=l·cosθ·z·γ') multiplied with the corresponding for offshore and/or near-shore structures and lifelines.
modified unit weight γ' Ε=γ'∙√(1+k2 ). For instance, in the case of a pipeline the obtained small
40 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

values of factors of safety would lead to increased de-

sign requirements, expensive mitigation measures, or
even rerouting.
Authors
Conclusively, the proposed modification of factor of
safety calculations can be considered as a significant
improvement, while the parametric study has high-
lighted the impact of various factors on the instabil-
ity of a submarine slope from an engineering perspec-
tive. Future extension could adopt more elaborate soil
constitutive models and examine other failure types,
e.g., planar slides of finite length and circular slides. In
addition, apart from pseudo-static approaches, the in-
clusion of all potential buoyancy forces should also be
Prodromos Psarropoulos
studied under real dynamic conditions, where all com- National Technical University of Athens
ponents of acceleration vary with time. Structural & Geotechnical Engineer
[email protected]
References
1. E.T.R. Dean, Offshore geotechnical engineering: Principles and
practice, Thomas Telford Limited, London, UK, 2010.
2. M. Randolph, S. Gourvenec, Offshore geotechnical engineering,
Spon Press, London, UK, 2011. doi:10.1201/9781315272474.
3. J. Locat, H.J. Lee, “Submarine landslides: Advances and challen-
ges,” Can. Geotech. J. 39 (2002) 193–212. doi:10.1139/t01-089.
4. T.J. Kvalstad, L. Andresen, C.F. Forsberg, K. Berg, P. Bryn, M. Wangen, “The
Storegga slide: Evaluation of triggering sources and slide mechanics,” Mar.
Pet. Geol. 22 (2005) 245–256. doi:10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2004.10.019.
5. A. Zakeri, “Submarine debris flow impact on suspended (free-
span) pipelines: Normal and longitudinal drag forces,” Ocean Eng.
36 (2009) 489–499. doi:10.1016/j.oceaneng.2009.01.018.
6. R. Dey, B.C. Hawlader, R. Phillips, K. Soga, “Numerical mo-
delling of submarine landslides with sensitive clay layers,”
Geotechnique. 66 (2016) 454–468. doi:10.1680/jgeot.15.P.111.
7. N. Boukpeti, D.J. White, M.F. Randolph, “Analytical modelling of the
steady flow of a submarine slide and consequent loading on a pi-
peline,” Geotechnique, (2012). doi:10.1680/geot.10.P.001.
8. J.M.R. Camargo, M.V.B. Silva, A.V.F. Júnior, T.C.M. Araújo, “Marine geohazards: A
bibliometric-based review,” Geosci. 9 (2019) 100. doi:10.3390/geosciences9020100.
9. P.N. Psarropoulos, A.A. Antoniou, “Designing onshore high-pres- Yiannis Tsompanakis
sure gas pipelines against the geohazard of earthquake-induced
slope instabilities,” Pipeline Technol. J. 2/2014 (2014) 66–85.
Technical University of Crete
10. S.L. Kramer, Geotechnical earthquake enginee- Professor of Computational Dynamics
ring, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, USA, 1996.
11. D. Chatzidakis, Y. Tsompanakis, and P. N. Psarropoulos, “An impro- & Earthquake Engineering
ved analytical approach for simulating the lateral kinematic dist- [email protected]
ress of deepwater offshore pipelines,” Appl. Ocean Res., vol. 90, no.
April, p. 101852, 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.apor.2019.101852.
12. D. Chatzidakis, Y. Tsompanakis, and P. N. Psarropoulos, “A semi-analy-
tical approach for simulating oblique kinematic distress of offshore pi-
pelines due to submarine landslides,” Appl. Ocean Res., vol. 98, no.
February, p. 102111, 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.apor.2020.102111.
13. Yuan F, Li L, Guo Z, Wang L (2015). “Landslide impact on submarine pipeli-
nes: Analytical and numerical analysis,”Journal of Eng. Mech. 141: 04014109.
14. Yuan F, Wang L, Guo Z, Shi R (2012a). “A refined analytical model for landslide or deb-
ris flow impact on pipelines.Part I: Surface pipelines,”Appl. Ocean Res., 35: 95–104.
15. Yuan F, Wang L, Guo Z, Xie Y (2012b). “A refined analy-
tical model for landslide or debris flow impact on pipelines.Part
II: Embedded pipelines,”Appl. Ocean Res., 35: 105– 114.
16. DNV GL AS (2017). Pipe-soil interaction for submarine pi-
pelines. Recommended practice DNVGL-RP-F114.
17. Trans Adriatic Pipeline (2013a). ESIA Albania Section 4 – Project Description.
18. Trans Adriatic Pipeline (2013b). ESIA Italy - Annex 7 Baseline
data and maps: Appendix 11 Geotechnical report - Shallow geo-
technical survey - Part A soil parameters for design. 2013.
19. N. Makrakis, P.N. Psarropoulos, D. Chatzidakis, Y. Tsompanakis, “Optimal
route selection of offshore pipelines subjected to submarine lands-
lides,” The Open Civil Engineering Journal, 16, e187414952209160,
2022. https://doi.org/10.2174/18743315-v16-e2208190.
20. N. R. Morgenstern, “Submarine slumping and the initiation
of turbidity current,” in Marine Geotechnique, A. F. Richards, Nikolaos Makrakis
Ed. University of Illinois Press, 1967, pp. 189–220. Technical University of Crete
21. W. C. Haneberg, B. Bruce, and M. C. Drazba, “Using qualitative slope
hazard maps and quantitative probabilistic slope stability mo- Surveying & Earthquake Engineer
dels to constrain least-cost pipeline route optimization,” in Offshore
Technology Conference, 2013, pp. 1–11, doi: 10.4043/23980-ms.
[email protected]
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B.C., Canada August 1-6, 2004 Paper No. 369, 2004, p. 15.
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42 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

Numerical prediction of material

properties and structural response of
JCO-E offshore pipes
A. Stamou1, I. Gavriilidis1, C. Palagas2, E. Dourdounis2, N. Voudouris2, A. Tazedakis2,
S. A. Karamanos1 > 1 University of Thessaly, 2 Corinth Pipeworks

Abstract
The present paper presents the application of advanced finite element tools to
predict the influence of cold-forming on material properties and collapse re-
sistance of steel JCO-E pipes. Results are obtained for a thick-walled 30-inch-di-
ameter pipe, corresponding to diameter-to-thickness ratio value less than 20.
The numerical simulations are supported by experimental tests determining
the material properties of steel pipe and steel plate, which are used for form-
ing the JCO-E pipe, and accounts for the influence of heat-treatment on pipe
material and its effects on collapse capacity is discussed. The numerical results
are also correlated with recent full-scale collapse experiments performed in
C-FER, while both experimental data and numerical results are compared with
the DNV-ST-F101 standard predictions, and suggestions on the value of fabri-
cation factor are made, considering the material strength recovery due to heat
treatment. Finally, the influence of heat treatment on material strength recov-
ery and the collapse capacity is discussed.
 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023 43
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

1. Introduction finite element model. The steel plate thickness is 39

mm. Furthermore, its structural response under ex-
Large diameter and thick-walled line pipes, which are ternal pressure is calculated and compared with the
candidates for both deep offshore applications, are results obtained by a three-dimensional (3D) analysis
mainly manufactured by cold forming and expanding that simulates the full-scale experiment performed in
long plates. In this process the plate is deformed sig- C-FER [3]. The beneficial effect of heat treatment on
nificantly in the inelastic range of its material, and a the compressive strength of pipe material and on the
circular configuration (pipe) is obtained from the in- collapse strength of the pipe is also examined. The nu-
itial flat configuration (plate) through the following merical predictions of the collapse pressure are also
sequential steps: (a) crimping of plate edges, (b) “J” compared with the predictions of DNV-ST-F101 [4] for-
phase, where the forming tool (punch) forms the one mula. Finally, the variation of mechanical properties
side of the plate through a series of consecutive punch- through the pipe thickness is discussed and its influ-
ing steps and the plate obtains a J-shape, (c) “C” phase, ence on the external pressure capacity of the pipe is
where the other side of plate is deformed by the punch investigated.
in a manner symmetrical to that followed in J phase,
(d) “O” phase, where a quasi-round configuration is 2. Numerical modelling
obtained, (e) welding stage where the plate ends are
welded, and (f) expansion phase where a mechanical 2.1 Description of JCO-E manufacturing process
expander is used to expand the pipe and finally obtain The JCO-E manufacturing process is simulated using
the desired characteristics. These cold-forming steps a quasi-two-dimensional (2D) finite element model
affect the geometry, such as cross-sectional ovality and referred to as “Model 1”. In this model, the inelastic
wall thickness, and the material properties of the final response of the steel plate material is described with
product [1]. a user-defined material subroutine (UMAT) which
employs a nonlinear kinematic hardening plasticity
Previous works have reported the effects of cold-form- model developed and implemented by the research
ing manufacturing process on the material prop- team in previous works [5]. The finite element model
erties of the finished line pipe, and outlined the re- simulates rigorously the final line pipe product from
duced collapse capacity of cold-formed pipes when the initial flat configuration of plate to the series of
compared with the seamless pipes [1]. During the ex- consecutive mechanical steps, and the final circular
pansion phase of JCO-E, the pipe material is plasti- configuration of pipe after unloading from the expan-
cally deformed in the circumferential direction, lead- sion stage. The numerical analysis is performed using
ing to reducing the compressive strength of the pipe ABAQUS/Standard finite element package [6].
material, due to Bauschinger effect. The compressive
strength of pipe material is an important factor that The forming parameters for simulating the JCO-E man-
controls the structural performance of pipeline under ufacturing process of the 30-inch-diameter line pipe
external pressure loading conditions, and thus it is of have been provided by Corinth Pipeworks S.A. (CPW).
major concern in offshore applications. However, it is More specifically, geometric parameters, such as the
possible to alleviate the material strength degradation dimensions of the plate, the forming dies, the punch,
with mild heat treatment of the line pipe during the the expander segments, and kinematic parameters,
coating cycle of the pipe [2], resulting in higher exter- such as initial positions and displacements of each
nal pressure capacity. part, constitute the basic input information for sim-
ulating the fabrication process in a realistic manner.
The present paper continues the authors’ research on
collapse performance of “heat treated” and “as fabri- A 3D schematic representation of the JCO-E manu-
cated” JCO-E pipes [3], focusing on the influence of facturing process is shown in Figure 1. The crimping
cold-forming process on the geometric and the ma- stage is simulated by considering the inner die (upper)
terial properties of the fabricated pipe. The manu- fixed and letting the outer die (lower) move upwards,
facturing process of a thick-walled 30-inch-diameter and subsequently bend the plate edges up to a desired
line pipe is simulated using a two-dimensional (2D) deformation level. The stage is completed by drawing
44 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

back the outer die, causing the plate to unload elas- to those imposed in a real pipe mill, and therefore the
tically. Figure 1 presents the J-C-O steps (b, c and d in out of plane deformation during the process is taken
Figure 1) that follow after crimping step in the numer- into account. More specifically, twelve elements have
ical analysis. In these steps, the plate is subjected to been used in the through thickness direction of plate,
several punching steps, which are forcing the plate to and the size of elements in the circumferential direc-
progressively deform under local bending and unload- tion is chosen equal to 16% of thickness. The contact
ing conditions across the plate width. The number of between the plate and the rigid surfaces is modelled
punching steps is the same between the two crimped using a “master-slave” algorithm with frictionless con-
edges (J and C steps). Final punching occurs at the cen- tact property; in the contact pair the undeformed rigid
tre of plate width, so that a quasi-circular configura- bodies of dies and tools represent the master surfaces,
tion is obtained after unloading. Followingly, the two whereas the deformable plate constitutes the slave sur-
plate edges come into contact by applying a mechani- face. Special care is given during the JCO steps to avoid
cal load on their lateral surfaces. The subsequent step the relative motion between the punch surface and the
of welding is not performed in the current simula- upper side of plate during punching.
tion, since the welding process induces small residual
stresses in the pipe and therefore, it has negligible ef- 2.2 Material model
fect on the buckling pressure of the pipe, as demon- The sequence of punching steps across the plate width
strated in a previous study [7]. The last step of the man- during the JCO process results in significant plastic
ufacturing process is the expansion stage, as shown deformation of the plate. Each punching step imposes
in Figure 1, where twelve expander segments are dis- local bending, and therefore the outer and the inner
placed outward in the radial direction, expanding the part of the plate wall is deformed under tension and
pipe, so that the pipe diameter size is controlled. compression, respectively. Furthermore, the expan-
sion step strengthens the pipe material of the outer
In the 2D finite element analysis of the manufacturing pipe wall further in tension, making it vulnerable to
process, the forming tools and dies are modelled as an- reverse loading, due to the Bauschinger effect. Since
alytical rigid surfaces, whereas four-node reduced inte- reverse loading conditions exist at the outer part of the
gration generalized plane strain continuum elements pipe wall, when external pressure is uniformly applied
(denoted as CPEG4R in ABAQUS/Standard) are used in on the pipe surface, an appropriate plasticity model
the deformable plate, so that the conditions are similar should be employed to account for the Bauschinger

Figure 1: Schematic representation of JCO-E manufacturing process; (a) Crimping, (b) J-phase, (c) C-phase, (d) O-phase, (e) Expansion.
 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023 45
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

effect, simulating the material response under reverse Figure 4c. The final gap is depicted in Figure 4d and
or cyclic loading stress paths. Herein, a Von Mises is significantly lower than the one obtained after the
model with plasticity nonlinear kinematic/isotropic O-step (Figure 4a). The initial gap (Figure 4a) and the
hardening is employed, and is described in more de- final gap (Figure 4d) are in accordance with measure-
tail by Chatzopoulou et al. [5]. ments with actual 30-inch-diameter pipe provided
by CPW. At the end of the extra punching step, the
A series of experiments, which are representative of final gap (Figure 4d) is closed and the two plate edges
the deformation history during the JCO-E manufac- are kept in contact, using a “no separation” contact
turing process, have been carried out to determine algorithm.
the material properties of the X60 steel grade mate-
rial of the plate and calibrate the plasticity model. The
experimental procedure consists of tension-compres-
sion-tension loading on specimens extracted from the
steel plate at different locations and orientations fol-
lowing the recommendations of SEP 1240 [8]. Figure
2 presents the experimental stress-strain curve of the
X60 steel plate material and the corresponding numer-
ical fit from the plasticity model.

Figure 3: Plate deformation during JCO manufacturing

process prior to welding; von Mises contour plot.

The nearly circular pipe configuration obtained after

gap closing and welding is referred to as JCO pipe, as
shown in Figure 5a. Subsequently, expansion of the JCO
pipe is performed, as shown in Figure 5b, using twelve
expander segments that move radially outwards. The
final configuration of pipe, obtained after removing
the expander segments, is referred to as “JCO-E pipe”
and corresponds to the final product of the fabrication
Figure 2: Experimental curve of the X60 steel plate,
and the corresponding numerical fit. process, as shown in Figure 5c. The amount of expan-
sion induced in the pipe is quantified in terms of the
3. Numerical results so-called “expansion strain” (εE), expressed by:

3.1 Simulation of JCO-E manufacturing process

The deformation configurations of the plate during
the manufacturing process are shown in Figure 3 for
the initial crimping step and the subsequent “J”, “C” where CE and CW are the lengths of pipe circumference
and “O” steps. In the present numerical analysis, fif- after (Figure 5c) and before (Figure 5a), the expansion
teen punching steps are applied during the JCO steps. phase respectively. The expansion strain expression
After removal of forming tool (JCO punch), a secondary adopted in the present study is also adopted in per-
forming tool referred to as “finishing press” (Figure 4) vious works [1], [5], [7]. The expansion strain value
is used to reduce the gap by imposing two extra bend- should be considered as a permanent strain of the
ing steps on the two crimped sides of the plate con- final line pipe shape. The expansion strain applied
figuration after the O-step, as shown in Figure 4b and on the JCO pipe of Figure 5, is equal to 1.30%, which
46 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

process and the structural strength of the pipe under

external pressure loading. Following the step of un-
loading from expansion (JCO-E pipe), uniform exter-
nal pressure is applied on the outer surface of the pipe.
During the pressurization step, the modified Riks’ al-
gorithm is employed to capture the maximum pres-
sure at the onset of collapse and trace the post-buck-
ling response.

In JCO-E pipes, the expansion strain εΕ is an important

parameter with significant influence on the resistance of
pipes under external pressure. The effect of expansion
on the collapse pressure (Pco) of the JCO-E pipe under con-
sideration is shown in Figure 6, considering a wide range
of expansion strain values (εΕ). For small values of εΕ (up
to 0.7%), P_co is an increasing function εΕ. For εΕ values
ranging between 0.7% and 1.8%, the Pco value remains
Figure 4: Deformation sequence of JCO pipe under nearly constant. It is worth noticing that the maximum
the finishing press; von Mises contour plot.
collapse pressure is equal to 37.9 MPa at 1.69% expansion
is an approximate value of the actual expansion mag- strain, whereas at 1.30% strain (an approximate value of
nitude of the 30-inch-diameter pipe fabricated in the the expansion strain used in the pipe mill) the Pco value is
pipe mill. Considering this amount of expansion, the only 1% lower. Increasing the εΕ value beyond 1.8% the
inner diameter of the JCO pipe at 0, 45 and 90-degree collapse pressure reduces, as shown in Figure 6. This is
locations from the weld seam is 675mm, 675mm and attributed to the Bauschinger effect, which decreases
679mm, respectively, while the corresponding values the circumferential compressive strength. Also note that
of the JCO-E pipe are 687mm, 686mm and 686mm. the maximum allowable expansion strain, according to
The numerical predictions of the inner diameter of DNV-ST-F101 standard [4], is 1.50%, which falls within
both configurations (JCO and JCO-E) are in very good the optimum range of expansion.
agreement with actual measurements at the corre-
sponding locations. The effect of expansion strain on the geometric
configuration of line pipe is also investigated. The
residual cross-sectional ovality (O ο ) of the pipe
at the end of the fabrication process is measured,
using the following expression:

where Dmax and Dmin are the maximum and minimum

values of the outer diameter, and D is the nominal
value of the outer diameter. The interaction between
the cross-sectional ovality and the applied expansion
Figure 5: Deformation sequence of expansion phase, resulting
in the final pipe geometry of the JCO-E pipe; von Mises contour strain is shown in Figure 6 for the 30-inch-diameter
plot. (a) Before expansion (JCO pipe), (b) at maximum expansion JCO-E pipe under consideration. The results demon-
(here εE=1.3%), (c) final stage after unloading (JCO-E pipe). strate that the cross-sectional ovality after the JCO
stage before expansion, is approximately equal to
3.2 Effect of expansion on the geometry and,
0.6%. Subsequently, increasing the expansion strain,
pipe structural integrity in deep water
the cross-sectional ovality of the pipe decreases. This
The finite element model presented in section 2 is capa-
reduction is observed up to about 1.3% expansion
ble of simulating rigorously the JCO-E manufacturing
 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023 47
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

Figure 6: Effect of expansion on residual cross-sectional ovality (Oο)

prior to pressurization and the corresponding collapse pressure (Pco). Figure 7: Effect of expansion strain on the average wall thickness
of the JCO-E line pipe, compared with the plate thickness.
strain, reaching a value lower than 0.05%, while fur-
ther increase of expansion strain has negligible effect model (Model 2), accounting for the material proper-
on the ovality of the JCO-E pipe. ties of the as-fabricated (AF) and the heat-treated (HT)
conditions.
Figure 7 presents the average thickness of the JCO-E
pipe under consideration (final product) with re- Material stress-strain curves have been obtained ex-
spect to different expansion levels and is also com- perimentally from uniaxial compression tests on cou-
pared with the initial thickness of plate (39mm). pon specimens extracted and machined from the outer
The numerical results demonstrate that the aver- part of AF and HT pipes in the circumferential direc-
age wall thickness of the line pipe decreases with tion. The experimental curves at 90, 180 and 270-de-
increasing expansion strain in a quasi-linear man- gree locations around the circumference are averaged,
ner, due to “Poisson” effect in the inelastic range of and the corresponding responses are shown in Figure
steel material. The results also show that the thick- 8. Furthermore, the stress-strain curve of the X60
ness of the JCO pipe (before expansion) is reduced grade steel (plate material) is shown in Figure 8. The
by 0.1mm with respect to the initial plate thick- Bauschinger effect, due to reverse loading, is clearly
ness, and this is due to local bending induced by the shown in Figure 8 in terms of the reduced proportional
punching steps during the J-C-O phases, as shown limit of the AF and the HT curves, compared with the
in Figure 7 at zero expansion strain. plate material curve. Additionally, the comparison
between the AF and the HT curve demonstrates the
3.3 Effect of mild heat beneficial effect of mild heat treatment on material
treatment on pipe collapse capacity strength (material strength recovery).
The collapse performance of JCO-E line pipes under ex-
ternal pressure has been studied in a previous work by The experimental and numerical results on the col-
the authors [3]. In that work, the effects of mild heat lapse pressure are summarized in Table 1. The re-
treatment on the compressive strength of the line pipe sults include the numerical collapse pressure ob-
material and on the collapse pressure were examined. tained from Model 1 described in Section 2, at 1.30%
This heat-treatment corresponds to a typical coating expansion strain, which is an approximate value of
process of the line pipe. A thermally-treated pipe, man- the expansion strain used in the pipe mill. The col-
ufactured by CPW, with the geometric and material lapse pressure values obtained from the two numeri-
characteristics of the 30-inch JCO-E pipe under con- cal models are in good agreement. Furthermore, the
sideration was subjected to full-scale collapse test [3]. numerical prediction of the full-scale collapse pres-
The collapse test procedure was also numerically sim- sure is also very successful. Finally, Table 1 shows
ulated, using a three-dimensional (3D) finite element that the collapse pressure is increased by 13% for
48 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

the case of the heat-treated pipe, compared with the

as-fabricated pipe.

Table 1: Experimental and numerical results of

collapse pressure results (in MPa).

The collapse capacity of the 30-inch-diameter JCO-E

pipe is also quantified using the DNV-ST-F101 design
standard [4]. The results are presented in Table 2 for
two values of fabrication factor (afab) namely 0.85 and 1
to account for the as-fabricated (AF) and heat-treated
(HT) material properties. The collapse pressure predic-
tions using the specification formula appear to be con- Figure 8: Averaged experimental compressive stress-strain curves at the outer
part of pipe before and after the heat treatment, and plate material curve.
servative compared to the experimental and numeri-
cal results of Table 1, and this is attributed to the high values beyond 1.8%, the collapse pressure decreases. The
value of ovality parameter proposed by the standard average wall thickness of JCO-E pipe is computed for dif-
(0.5%). ferent values of expansion strain, and the results indicate
a quasi-linear dependance of pipe wall thickness on the
4. Conclusions expansion level.

The manufacturing process and the collapse perfor- The collapse pressure calculated from Model 1 com-
mance of a thick-walled 30-inch-diameter JCO-E pipe pares very well with the collapse pressure from a
(D/t≈20) is investigated, using advanced numerical tools. three-dimensional (3D) model that simulates the full-
A two-dimensional (2D) finite element model is used scale collapse test (Model 2). Using Model 2, the effect
(Model 1), which simulates the manufacturing process of of mild heat treatment on the collapse pressure is in-
the JCO-E pipe and predicts its collapse pressure. The ge- vestigated, considering the stress-strain curve before
ometric characteristics of the fabricated pipe predicted by (AF) and after heat treatment (HT). The results show
Model 1 are in very good agreement with measurements that P_co in the HT pipe is increased by 13%, compared
provided by the pipe mill. The effects of pipe expansion to the AF pipe, verifying the beneficial effect of heat
on its geometric characteristics and on its external pres- treatment. Collapse pressure predictions obtained
sure capacity are also examined. Increasing the expan- from the DNV-ST-F101 collapse formula are compared
sion level up to about 0.7%, the cross-sectional ovality of with the numerical and experimental results. The
the fabricated pipe is reduced and the corresponding col- comparison shows that the DNV-ST-F101 formula pro-
lapse pressure is increased. For expansion strain values vides reasonable yet conservative collapse pressure
between 0.7% and 1.8%, the value of collapse pressure predictions for the pipe under consideration.
remains nearly constant, whereas for expansion strain

Table 2: Collapse pressure predictions (in MPa) using the DNV-ST-F101 [4] collapse formula for the as-fabricated (AF) and heat-treated (HT) conditions.
 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023 49
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

5. Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Dr Konstantinos

Antoniou for his help and contribution on the first
stages of the present investigation. Authors
References
1. K. Antoniou, G. Chatzopoulou, S. A. Karamanos, A. Tazedakis, C. Palagas
and E. Dourdounis, “Numerical Simulation of JCO-E Pipe Manufacturing
Process and Its Effect on the External Pressure Capacity of the Pipe,” Journal of
Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering, vol. 141, no. 1, p. 011704, 2019.
2. F. Arroyo, R. F. Solano, L. Mantovano, F. B. de Azevedo, H. Alves, D.
Swanek, R. Silva and H. Ernst, “Qualification of UOE SAWL Linepipes
with Enhanced Collapse Resistance for Ultra Deepwater Applications,”
in Proceedings of the ASME 2013 32nd International Conference on
Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering, Nantes, France, 2013.
3. I. Gavriilidis, A. G. Stamou, C. Palagas, E. Dourdounis, N. Voudouris, A.
Tazedakis and S. A. Karamanos, “Collapse testing and analysis of JCO-E steel
pipes,” in 17th Pipeline Technology Conference, Berlin, Germany, 2022.
4. Det Norske Veritas, “Submarine pipeline systems,”
STANDARD DNV-ST-F101, Hovik, Norway, 2021.
5. G. Chatzopoulou, S. A. Karamanos and G. E. Varelis, “Finite element analysis of
UOE manufacturing process and its effect on mechanical behavior of offshore
pipes,” International Journal of Solids and Structures, vol. 83, pp. 13-27, 2016.
6. H. Hibbitt, B. Karlsson and P. Sorensen, “ABAQUS: Theory manual,
Version 2016,” Dassault Systèmes Simulia Corp, Providence, RI, 1992. Aris Stamou
7. K. Antoniou, “Numerical simulation of JCO-E line pipe manufacturing and its
influence on the mechanical behavior and strength of offsore pipelines,” PhD
University of Thessaly
Thesis, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Thessaly, Volos, 2021. Ph.D. candidate
8. SEP 1240, “Testing and Documentation Guideline for the Experimental
Determination of Mechanical Properties of Steel Sheets for CAE [email protected]
Calculations,” 1st edition, Institute VDEh, Dusseldorf, Germany, 2006.

Ilias Gavriilidis Christos Palagas Efthimios Dourdounis

University of Thessaly Corinth Pipeworks Corinth Pipeworks
Post-Doctoral Researcher Engineering and Technology Manager Head of Technical Analysis
[email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Nikos Voudouris Athanasios Tazedakis Spyros A. Karamanos

Corinth Pipeworks Corinth Pipeworks University of Thessaly
Research & Development Senior Manager Chief Technology Officer Professor of Structural Mechanics
[email protected] [email protected] [email protected]
50 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

Repurposing Hydrocarbon Pipelines to

Transport CO2: PETRONAS' Study
F. Aziz, K. A. Karim, Ir. H. Hussien > PETRONAS

Abstract
PETRONAS is considering pipeline repurpose option for one of its CCS projects
in Malaysia. One of the opportunities identified is to repurpose existing gas ex-
port pipelines, 24in and 30in with combined distance of 200km from offshore
to onshore. Existing technical frameworks from available standard and inter-
nal resources for pipeline repurpose have been reviewed.

This is to provide complete approach to pipeline repurpose. Qualitative risk as-

sessment (QRA) for pipeline repurpose is presented by discussing technical rec-
ommendations made by the feasibility study team.

This feasibility study involves CO2 characterization, review of existing hydrau-

lics analysis, fitness for service (FFS) result review, Battelle Two Curve Method
(BTCM) check against existing pipeline toughness and sour compatibility
check. Existing pipeline capability limits are established to provide clarity if
PETRONAS able to transport CO2. Further analyses are identified accordingly
to address the established limits.
 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023 51
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

1. Introduction Group Technical Solutions (GTS), the engineering arm

of PETRONAS, together with asset owner initiated a
In 2020, PETRONAS has embarked on its Net Zero study to determine the feasibility of repurposing the
Carbon Emission (NZCE) by 2050 target. The mission pipelines. The mechanical properties of the pipelines
sets the company's business activities to be carbon neu- are listed in Table 1.
tral by 2050. Among efforts conducted by PETRONAS
to achieve the target is the implementation of carbon This paper will share the assessment approach as well
capture and storage (CCS). as the findings by achieving below objectives:

One of the proposed CCS projects is to sequester vol- I. To identify approach employed for pipeline repur-
ume of CO2 in Table 1. CO2 will be injected into depleted pose and to map with existing internal technical
gas reservoir offshore peninsular Malaysia. The de- framework.
pleted reservoir is part of the earliest gas complex de-
veloped by PETRONAS which consists of: II. To highlight qualitative risk assessment (QRA) rec-
ommendations for pipeline repurpose scenario
I. 1 no Central Processing Platform (CPP) and outcomes of CO2 fluid characterization study.

II. 2 nos wellhead platform (WHP) III. To elaborate technical challenges associated with
pipeline repurpose.
III. 1 no 24in x 50km gas pipeline from CPP to collec-
tor platform IV. To provide high level costing of newly built
pipeline.
IV. 1 no 30in x 150km gas export pipeline from collec-
tor platform to onshore gas terminal V. To discuss way forwards for CCS detail engineering
including study and validation.

Table 1: Pipeline Mechanical Properties and Proposed Volume

52 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

2. CO2 Pipeline Repurpose Technical guideline is timely to cater increasing demand of pipe-
Framework line repurpose studies within PETRONAS. The meth-
odology is illustrated in Figure 1 which existing pipe-
In general, there are two main existing standards for line integrity assessment and integrity reassessment
design and operation of CO2 pipeline namely DNV- & physical modification are the integral parts of the
RP-F104(1) and BS 27913(2) which outline basic require- methodology.
ments of designing CO2 pipeline which encompasses
description of CO2 properties, concept development Pipeline integrity assessment comprises evaluation of
and specific design criteria, materials and pipeline de- pipeline integrity against various threats which can
sign, construction, and operation. be external corrosion, internal corrosion, stress cor-
rosion cracking, manufacturing defects, construction
2.1 Repurpose Approach as per DNV-RP-F104 defect, equipment failure, weather condition and ex-
While BS27913 provides only general statement of ternal load, third party damage and incorrect opera-
compliance to pipeline repurpose, DNV has laid out tions. However, corrosion is one of the biggest prob-
essential steps to repurpose existing pipeline which lems contributing to leaks and ruptures of pipelines.
covers: Typically, all metal loss defects are treated the same
as corrosion defect that is gauged by assigning safe
I. Existing pipeline integrity assessment working pressure related to the defect and to be com-
pared against MAOP. This ratio is referred as Estimated
II. Hydraulics study Repair Factor (ERF).

III. Safety evaluation As such for pipeline repurpose would consist of:

IV. Integrity reassessment & pipeline modification I. Determination of remaining life of pipeline based
on the remaining wall thickness against corrosion
Corrosion defects are assessed in item i and iv that rate.
involve estimating remaining life of pipeline using
standard pipeline fitness for service (FFS) method. As II. Predicting subsequent metal loss based on new op-
opposed to using actual corrosion rate upon years of erating condition with CO2 followed by determina-
previous operation, the corrosion rate for repurpose tion of remaining life of the pipeline at the end of
pipeline is derived from CO2 corrosion analysis for intended life extension period.
specific operating cases. For pipeline repurpose, the
new operating parameters are determined by hydrau- 3. Risk Assesment and related Repurpose
lics study analyzing design cases which are normal op- Analyses
eration, shutdown, and start-up. An important input
to hydraulics study is fluid characterization study 3.1 Qualitative Risk Assessment
whereby CO2 stream compositions are analyzed to de- Qualitative risk assessment (QRA) has been performed
velop its phase envelope based on various EoS. by project team to provide clarity on the technical risks
that are collectively agreed by the stakeholders. The
Analysis on sudden release of CO2, dispersion (on- QRA was carried out based on available information
shore) and dilution (offshore), is an integral part of the Pipeline 1 and Pipeline 2. The recommendations made
safety evaluation. The results of the analysis become are as follow:
the basis for operator to reassign the location class of
the pipeline. I. Rec #1: Significant presence of H2S seriously af-
fects pipeline material compatibility as the
2.2 PETRONAS Existing Internal pipelines are not designed as sour service.
Technical Framework Preliminary assessment is required to determine
An internal guideline of PETRONAS pipeline life ex- appropriate sour region as per NACE MR-0175(4)
tension (PLES) methodology has been established. The recommendation.
 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023 53
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

Figure 1: PETRONAS Framework on Pipeline Life Extension Study (PLES)

54 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

II. Rec #2: Charpy impact testing was performed at considered and incorporated in the phase envelope.
10°C as opposed to API5L recommendation, 0°C. Pipeline operating conditions developed in the steady
Charpy re-testing may be required. Battelle Two state hydraulics analysis was then mapped accordingly
Curve Method (BTCM) is required to analyze if the in the phase envelope.
toughness is sufficient to resist running ductile
fracture (RDF). Based on fluid characterization result in Figure 2,
composition with 4mol% of H2 have the largest area
III. Rec #3: Repurpose may involve pressure testing. of 2-phase region compared to other studied compo-
Using water as a testing medium may initiate cor- sitions. This condition imposes operational challenge
rosion if the drying is not properly done. Worst, which the bubble point at 0°C is found to be around
water will stubbornly retain in corroded profile 80barg compared to 50-60barg for other studied com-
of the pipeline. Hence, technical rationalization positions. Hence, to select operating window to trans-
is required to determine the criticality of pressure port CO2 with 4mol% H2 can be challenging. Hence, it
testing. Alternative fluid may be used instead of has been advised that H2 content to be limited to 2mol%
water for the pressure test medium. (max), named as worst-case phase envelope. All other
impurities such as N2, Ar, CH4 are not impacting the
IV. Rec #4: Thermodynamics behavior of CO2 must be phase envelope as greatly as H2.
established to understand the phase behavior of
CO2 across pipeline length. 3.2.2 Steady State Hydraulics Result

3.2 Hydraulics Analysis Steady state hydraulics analyses were initially per-
3.2.1 CO2 Fluid Characterization formed without the constraint of pipeline repurpose.
The analyses were modelled based on 200km pipeline
The proposed development concept is expected to re- with a landing pressure of 65barg during the early in-
ceive CO2 from 2 main sources namely inherent and jection life. This has caused the results to be tailored
post-combustion. For the purpose of this study, 2 main for sizing of newly built pipeline only. For pipeline
compositions have been analyzed namely 99% CO2 sizes ranging from 8-inch to 24inch, the highest re-
(base fluid) and 96% CO2 with impurities sensitivity quired departing pressure is 200barg.
(worst-case).
The results of the hydraulics analyses were mapped
Base case specification is sourced from foreign CO2 on 96mol% CO2 composition case with 2mol% H2.
supply where PETRONAS plans to provide transpor- Solubility line for 500ppm and 100ppm water specifi-
tation and storage service (T&S-as-a-service) to for- cations are also incorporated in Figure 2. The operat-
eign emitters. For the worst-case scenario, the compo- ing conditions are outside of water dewpoint of both
sition has been established based on overwhelmingly water limits. Also, it is away from hydrate line. Hence
CO2 condition with sensitivity of impurities including this CO2 composition would be manageable within the
N2, Ar and H2. required operating pressure range for pipeline sizes
from 8-inch to 24inch.
Four equation-of-states (EoS),GERG-2008, PR78, SRK,
CPA had been tested which then compared against 3.2.3 Hydraulics Sizing Sensitivity
Span & Wagner. The comparison was made to estab-
lish accuracy against density of pure CO2. As a result, The proposed pipeline sizes for Option 1-4 are 8, 10,16
GERG-2008 persistently demonstrated smallest vari- and 18in respectively. However, the sizes of Pipeline 1
ance of 0.01% against pure CO2 density during export, and Pipeline 2 are larger, 24in and 30in.
arrival and depressurization (seabed) cases.
Hydraulically, bigger pipeline size would have lesser
Hence, GERG-2008 EoS had been chosen to further pressure loss and able to deliver larger volume. Since
establish phase envelope of CO2 stream composi- the existing pipeline sizes are larger, supposed there
tion. Water limits of 500ppm and 100ppm have been would be no issue to match intended CO2 volume in
 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023 55
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

Figure 2: Various composition phase envelope & worst-case phase envelope

Pipeline 1 and Pipeline 2. Further hydraulic analysis 3.3.1 Integrity Condition of Pipeline 1 & Pipeline 2
is required to determine backpressure for 150km and
50km in 30in and 24in respectively. Hence the depart- In general, Pipeline 1 reported low defects of as
ing pressure would be much lower than 200barg for shown in Figure 3. The lowest Psafe is 150barg with
any of the proposed flowrate, desirably below MAOP the earliest year Psafe to be challenged is 2028. The
of 130barg. We reckon for the lowest flowrate, the re- contributing defects are all due to internal corrosion
quired departing pressure is most likely to be within and cluster of worse defects are distributed into sev-
the strength of existing pipeline. eral KPs. They are within KP35-44, KP59, KP71, KP79
and KP 156 with remaining lives vary from 2028 to
3.3 Current Integrity Assessment: 2043. Majority of the defects are axial slotting and
Fitness for Service (FFS) pinhole types.
As a well-established company, PETRONAS has devel-
oped an end-to-end web-based pipeline integrity man- Based on 2014 fitness-for-service (FFS) exercise, the
agement system, i-PIMS, which integrates full integ- lowest Psafe is 134barg with the earliest Psafe to be
rity cycle of a pipeline from fitness-for-service (FFS), challenged is in 2024. Contributing defects are due to
linear referencing, risk assessment to integrity man- internal and external corrosion. Cluster of worse de-
agement plan (IMP) of respective pipeline.Fitness for fects are distributed into two locations, at the start and
Service (FFS) assessment of 30in and 24in pipelines at the end of the pipeline, KP0.02-KP0.13 and KP 40-43
has been retrieved from i-PIMS. FFS inputs are sourced respectively. Based on FFS assessment result, the re-
from the latest intelligent pigging (IP) inspection re- maining life of worse defects vary from 2024 to 2035
sults, 2013 and 2014 respectively. and majority of the worse defects are external.
56 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

Figure 3: Psafe of Pipeline 1 and Pipeline 2 (excerpt from i-PIMS, PETRONAS)

3.4 Resistance to Running Ductile Fracture I. Direct proportional relationship between CVN
(RDF): Battelle Two Curve Method (BTCM) value and initial release pressure for 65°C and 55°C
Running ductile fracture (RDF) is a prominent fail- cases. The higher the initial release pressure, the
ure mode for CO2 pipeline. RDF is initiated when CO2 higher the CVN value required to resist the driv-
is quickly depressurized from pipeline that causes ing force.
temperature to drop drastically as energy is released.
Consequently, the pipe material become brittle and II. As the release pressure increase, CVN of 1000J is
easily torn longitudinally. obtained from the calculation which may indicate
insufficient pipe thickness to resist RDF.
There are 2 forces related to RDF. The driving force that
tears open the pipe due to internal pressure release i.e. III. As opposed to item i, an unusual CVN trending of
depressurization and the toughness of the pipe mate- for 20°C case has been mapped. The CVN value is
rial that resist the tearing from propagating. inversely proportional to initial release pressure.

In this study, the driving and resistance forces are cal- IV. Due to item iii, a thorough review of internal cal-
culated using PETRONAS’ internal calculation pro- culation program may be required following find-
gram, enhanced Battelle Two Curve method (e-BTCM). ing of item iii.
As the team sighted mill certificate dated 1983, it was
found that Charpy test was carried out at 10°C. As the 3.5 Preliminary Sour Material
current API SPEC 5L(3) requires Charpy test to be car- Compatibility Assessment
ried out at 0°C, retesting using actual pipe sample is A preliminary sour assessment has been performed by
strongly proposed. considering 130barg MAOP as the highest operating
pressure of the pipeline with 200ppm and 9ppm H2S
Figure4 shows the results of e-BTCM calculation by concentration. The results are mapped as per Figure 5.
incorporating actual SMYS (441-448MPa), UTS (570-
590MPa), CVN value (154.8J at base metal) and DWTT As shown, 9ppm of H2S concentration will produce
value (756.6J). It appears that: H2S partial pressure PH2S of 0.117kPa whereby 9ppm
 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023 57
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

Figure 4: Pipeline 1 BTCM Result

can be well adopted as the H2S limit. To stretch it fur-

ther to the limit, 20ppm will result PH2S of 0.26kPa.
With 200ppm of H2S concentration would certainly re-
quire treatment prior to flow into the pipeline.

3.6 Technical Discussions

Above sections demonstrate the result of preliminary
assessments performed by the study team. The results
provide further technical clarity on the feasibility of
pipeline repurpose.

Qualitative risk assessment (QRA) which attended by

all stakeholders is an effective exercise to gauge the
overall technical risks and recommendations to ad-
dress them accordingly. With risk assessment in place,
probability of pipeline repurpose to fail is minimized.
Figure 5: Preliminary Sour Assessment. (Figure excerpt from NACE MR 0175)

Currently, existing hydraulics analysis only consider would require new set of corrosion assessment with
newly built pipeline case that requires departing pres- credible design cases e.g. insufficient drying case and
sure up to 200barg to transport dense phase CO2 for normal operating case.
200km distance with the highest proposed size as 18in.
Given the size of Pipeline 1 and Pipeline 2 are 30in and Pipeline 1 and Pipeline 2 remaining life can be fur-
24in respectively, the study team believe there is an ther extended by repairing the worst defect locations
opportunity to further reduce pipeline operating pres- respectively. Consequently, the remaining life can be
sure below MAOP. extended between 1o-20 years. The result of the cor-
rosion analysis consequently set the requirement for
The integrity status of Pipeline 1 and Pipeline 2 is well operational control measures, monitoring as well
understood. The remaining life of both pipelines are as repair strategies. This must be performed prior
estimated based on corrosion rate of existing natural to the decision of using the existing pipeline for CO2
gas product. To obtain remaining life for future use, it transportation.
58 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

To meet the requirement to resist RDF can be chal- The assumptions are:
lenging. We are in the view that the input parameters
and ambient temperature are not within the capac- I. Pipeline size of 18in x 19.05mmWT
ity e-BTCM software. Further discussion would be re-
quired with the software owner. As of current, it ap- II. Carbon steel, non-sour, LSAW.
pears that rather than flowing in dense phase, it may
be wise to consider flowing in gas phase and further III. Distance of 200km from onshore CCS Hub to off-
re-compression is required at the injection site. This shore injection site.
must be proven with cost comparison of purchasing
additional compressor against laying new 200km IV. Shore approach construction included.
pipeline. The cost discussion can be found in subse-
quent section. Material compatibility to H2S only ap- V. Using s-lay installation method. Conservative lay-
plicable to 9ppm H2S concentration of 130barg MAOP. rate assumption of 1.8km/day.
The H2S limit for the system is 20ppm.
VI. Pipeline life 25 years with 4 nos of intelligent pig-
3.7 Pipeline Cost Estimation ging operation.
As explained above this section presents budgetary
estimate of an 18in offshore pipeline EPCIC project. High level costing in Table 3 should provide guidance
Awareness on the pipeline cost shall assist decision to compare against installing and operating compres-
maker to decide on the right direction of CCS facility sor option. Also, it can be the input to cost benchmark-
concept. ing exercise typically performed in CCS project.

Table 2: Superiority of coextruded Tapes

Table 3: Cost Estimation for Newly Built Pipeline

 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023 59
RESEARCH • DEVELOPMENT • TECHNOLOGY

4. Conclusion
Authors
Existing technical frameworks of pipeline repurpose
provide sufficient guidance for design engineer to in-
itiate the feasibility study. The framework is devel-
oped to address technical and safety integrity of exist-
ing pipeline. PETRONAS framework of PLES can also
be harmonized with repurpose framework suggested
by DNV-RP-F104. The feasibility study is useful to es-
tablish the limit of existing pipeline capability against
future use. With limits in place, detail analysis can be
identified accordingly to shed more clarity to pipeline
repurpose. Upon completion of detail analysis, tech-
nical authority should be able to decide either to pro- Faisal Aziz
ceed or not to proceed on repurpose option. Although PETRONAS
Sales lead for Pipeline of the Future program
the current results have not given clear positive direc-
[email protected]
tion, the economic values would justify advancing the
study with further technical analyses, material testing
and upgrade scope capability of existing software.

Studying the feasibility of pipeline repurpose should

be the priority when opportunity arises. This can be
motivated from challenging economic driver of a CCS
development project. Unlike build new option, the
technicalities of pipeline repurpose is not as straight-
forward. Thus, expert judgement will be required
whereby in this case RDF and requirement of mate-
rial testing. As reader may find different and unique
circumstances when dealing with repurpose, at mini- Khairul Anuar Karim
mum this paper should provide general idea on how to PETRONAS
Head of Pipeline Engineering with GTS
approach pipeline repurpose option. [email protected]

5. Acknowledgement

We would like to acknowledge several key parties

who have made important contribution to this study.
Among them are Upstream Centre of Excellence (COE),
CO2 Focus Area Group of Project Delivery & Technology
(PD&T), Flow Assurance Centre (FAC). Also, thanks to
Group Technical Solutions (GTS) of PETRONAS that
pushes every boundary to deliver the best technical
solutions within PETRONAS and outside to a larger
industry.
Ir. Hayati Hussien
References PETRONAS
Custodian of Pipeline Engineering with GTS
1. DNV-RP-F104: Design and operation of carbon dioxide pipeline
2. BS ISO 27913: Carbon dioxide capture, transportation and geo-
[email protected]
logical storage- Pipeline transportation system
3. API SPEC 5L Linepipe Specification
4. NACE MR-0175 Materials for use in H2S-containing en-
vironments in oil and gas production.
60 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023
ask the experts

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the Experts
Who are the Experts?
The experts are nominated in close cooperation with our partners.

DNV is the global independent expert in assurance and risk

management. Driven by our purpose, to safeguard life, prop-
erty and the environment, we empower our customers and their
stakeholders with facts and reliable insights so that critical
decisions can be made with confidence. Backed by over 150
years of experience and a global team of energy experts, DNV
works with operators, suppliers, governments and industry
associations to safeguard life, property and the environment, and to
support progress across the entire pipeline industry. We are recognized as the leading
advisor in the development and delivery of on- and offshore pipeline services, providing tech-
nical expertise and competence across all phases of an asset’s lifecycle from inception,
design and development to operation, maintenance, life extension and decommissioning.

Over the past century, DENSO Group Germany has built a

reputation founded on experience, quality and reliability in
corrosion prevention and sealing technology. Just a few years
after the company was founded in 1922, DENSO Group Germany
revolutionised corrosion prevention across the world with the
DENSO®-Tape (Petrolatum-Tape), which was already patented in
1927 as the worldwide first product for the passive corrosion pre-
vention of pipelines. Since then, DENSO Group Germany establishes and guarantees the high-
est quality standards with technically trend-setting products. Research, development and
production take place exclusively in Germany. Today, DENSO is a global group of compa-
nies that, in spite of its international reach, still strives to deliver sustainable custom solu-
tions and provide personal service to its customers. The group’s core business consists
of the development and production of co-extruded 3-ply PE/Butyl-Tapes, Heat Shrink-
able Sleeves, Petrolatum-Tapes & Mastics, Jetty Pile Protection Systems, Polyurethane
Coatings and Bitumen profiles. The group’s high quality products - made in Germany -
are applied in countless rehabilitation projects and new pipeline constructions world-
wide. No other company has a longer experience in corrosion prevention for pipelines.
 Pipeline Technology Journal - 1/2023 61
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