278 THE THYRISTOR-CONTROLLED SERIES CAPACITOR (TCSC)

3. increased responsiveness of power flow in the series-compensated line

from the outage of other lines in the system.

Studies [4] have revealed that with increasing level of fixed-series compen-
sation, even though the losses in remaining transmission lines decrease, the
overall system losses are exacerbated from the enhanced losses in the series-
compensated line. Also, the increased sensitivity or responsiveness of the com-
pensated line to other network outages may cause a line loading that exceeds
the enhanced loadability level of the line itself. These undesirable effects can
be avoided by employing variable levels of series compensation instead of fixed
compensation. Series compensation can be varied, depending on the enhance-
ment of power transfer desired at that time, without affecting other system-per-
formance criteria.

7.1.3 Advantages of the TCSC

Use of thyristor control in series capacitors potentially offers the following
little-mentioned advantages:

1. Rapid, continuous control of the transmission-line series-compensation

level.
2. Dynamic control of power flow in selected transmission lines within the
network to enable optimal power-flow conditions and prevent the loop
flow of power.
3. Damping of the power swings from local and inter-area oscillations.
4. Suppression of subsynchronous oscillations. At subsynchronous frequen-
cies, the TCSC presents an inherently resistive–inductive reactance. The
subsynchronous oscillations cannot be sustained in this situation and con-
sequently get damped.
5. Decreasing dc-offset voltages. The dc-offset voltages, invariably resulting
from the insertion of series capacitors, can be made to decay very quickly
(within a few cycles) from the firing control of the TCSC thyristors.
6. Enhanced level of protection for series capacitors. A fast bypass of the
series capacitors can be achieved through thyristor control when large
overvoltages develop across capacitors following faults. Likewise, the
capacitors can be quickly reinserted by thyristor action after fault clearing
to aid in system stabilization.
7. Voltage support. The TCSC, in conjunction with series capacitors, can
generate reactive power that increases with line loading, thereby aiding
the regulation of local network voltages and, in addition, the alleviation
of any voltage instability.
8. Reduction of the short-circuit current. During events of high short-cir-
cuit current, the TCSC can switch from the controllable-capacitance to
 THE TCSC CONTROLLER 279

the controllable-inductance mode, thereby restricting the short-circuit cur-

rents.

7.2 THE TCSC CONTROLLER

The basic conceptual TCSC module comprises a series capacitor, C, in paral-

lel with a thyristor-controlled reactor, LS , as shown in Fig. 7.1(a). However, a
practical TCSC module also includes protective equipment normally installed
with series capacitors, as shown in Fig. 7.1(b).
A metal-oxide varistor (MOV), essentially a nonlinear resistor, is connected
across the series capacitor to prevent the occurrence of high-capacitor over-

C
I line IC
+ −

T1
LS
IT
T2
(a)

CB

Ld MOV

C
+ −

UHSC
T1
LS

T2
(b)
Figure 7.1 A TCSC module: (a) a basic module and (b) a practical module.
280 THE THYRISTOR-CONTROLLED SERIES CAPACITOR (TCSC)

CF C1 C2 Cn
+ − + − + − + −

0.5L 1 0.5L 1 0.5L 2 0.5L 2 0.5Ln 0.5Ln

Figure 7.2 A typical TCSC system.

voltages. Not only does the MOV limit the voltage across the capacitor, but it
allows the capacitor to remain in circuit even during fault conditions and helps
improve the transient stability.
Also installed across the capacitor is a circuit breaker, CB, for controlling
its insertion in the line. In addition, the CB bypasses the capacitor if severe
fault or equipment-malfunction events occur. A current-limiting inductor, Ld ,
is incorporated in the circuit to restrict both the magnitude and the frequency
of the capacitor current during the capacitor-bypass operation.
If the TCSC valves are required to operate in the fully “on” mode for
prolonged durations, the conduction losses are minimized by installing an
ultra–high-speed contact (UHSC) across the valve. This metallic contact offers a
virtually lossless feature similar to that of circuit breakers and is capable of han-
dling many switching operations. The metallic contact is closed shortly after the
thyristor valve is turned on, and it is opened shortly before the valve is turned
off. During a sudden overload of the valve, and also during fault conditions,
the metallic contact is closed to alleviate the stress on the valve.
An actual TCSC system usually comprises a cascaded combination of many
such TCSC modules, together with a fixed-series capacitor, CF . This fixed-
series capacitor is provided primarily to minimize costs. A conceptual TCSC
system with basic TCSC modules is shown in Fig. 7.2. The capacitors—C1 , C2 ,
. . . , Cn —in the different TCSC modules may have different values to provide
a wider range of reactance control. The inductor in series with the antiparal-
lel thyristors is split into two halves to protect the thyristor valves in case of
inductor short circuits.

7.3 OPERATION OF THE TCSC

7.3.1 Basic Principle

A TCSC is a series-controlled capacitive reactance that can provide contin-
uous control of power on the ac line over a wide range. From the system
viewpoint, the principle of variable-series compensation is simply to increase
the fundamental-frequency voltage across an fixed capacitor (FC) in a series-
compensated line through appropriate variation of the firing angle, a [5]. This
enhanced voltage changes the effective value of the series-capacitive reactance.
 OPERATION OF THE TCSC 281

C
+ −

L
Figure 7.3 A variable inductor connected in shunt with an FC.

A simple understanding of TCSC functioning can be obtained by analyzing the

behavior of a variable inductor connected in parallel with an FC, as shown in Fig.
7.3. The equivalent impedance, Z eq , of this LC combination is expressed as

冢j qc 冣 ||| ||| ( jqL) c − j qC −

1 || 1
Z eq c (7.2)
1
qL

The impedance of the FC alone, however, is given by − j(1/ qC ).

If qC − (1/ qL) > 0 or, in other words, qL > (1/ qC ), the reactance of the FC
is less than that of the parallel-connected variable reactor and that this combina-
tion provides a variable-capacitive reactance are both implied. Moreover, this
inductor increases the equivalent-capacitive reactance of the LC combination
above that of the FC.
If qC − (1/ qL) c 0, a resonance develops that results in an infinite-capacitive
impedance—an obviously unacceptable condition. If, however, qC − (1/ qL) <
0, the LC combination provides inductance above the value of the fixed inductor.
This situation corresponds to the inductive-vernier mode of the TCSC operation.
In the variable-capacitance mode of the TCSC, as the inductive reactance of
the variable inductor is increased, the equivalent-capacitive reactance is grad-
ually decreased. The minimum equivalent-capacitive reactance is obtained for
extremely large inductive reactance or when the variable inductor is open-cir-
cuited, in which the value is equal to the reactance of the FC itself.
The behavior of the TCSC is similar to that of the parallel LC combination.
The difference is that the LC-combination analysis is based on the presence
of pure sinusoidal voltage and current in the circuit, whereas in the TCSC,
because of the voltage and current in the FC and thyristor-controlled reactor
(TCR) are not sinusoidal because of thyristor switchings. The exact analysis of
this condition is presented in Section 7.5.

7.3.2 Modes of TCSC Operation

There are essentially three modes of TCSC operation [3], [6]–[8]; these are
illustrated in Fig. 7.4 and described in the following text.
282 THE THYRISTOR-CONTROLLED SERIES CAPACITOR (TCSC)

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)
Figure 7.4 Different operating modes of a TCSC: (a) the bypassed-thyristor mode;
(b) the blocked-thyristor mode; (c) the partially conducting thyristor (capacitive-vernier)
mode; and (d) the partially conducting thyristor (inductive-vernier) mode.

7.3.2.1 Bypassed-Thyristor Mode In this bypassed mode, the thyristors

are made to fully conduct with a conduction angle of 1808 . Gate pulses are
applied as soon as the voltage across the thyristors reaches zero and becomes
positive, resulting in a continuous sinusoidal of flow current through the thyris-
 OPERATION OF THE TCSC 283

tor valves. The TCSC module behaves like a parallel capacitor–inductor com-
bination. However, the net current through the module is inductive, for the sus-
ceptance of the reactor is chosen to be greater than that of the capacitor.
Also known as the thyristor-switched-reactor (TSR) mode, the bypassed-
thyristor mode is distinct from the bypassed-breaker mode, in which the circuit
breaker provided across the series capacitor is closed to remove the capacitor or
the TCSC module in the event of TCSC faults or transient overvoltages across
the TCSC.
This mode is employed for control purposes and also for initiating certain
protective functions. Whenever a TCSC module is bypassed from the violation
of the current limit, a finite-time delay, T delay , must elapse before the module
can be reinserted after the line current falls below the specified limit.

7.3.2.2 Blocked-Thyristor Mode In this mode, also known as the wait-

ing mode, the firing pulses to the thyristor valves are blocked. If the thyristors
are conducting and a blocking command is given, the thyristors turn off as
soon as the current through them reaches a zero crossing. The TCSC module is
thus reduced to a fixed-series capacitor, and the net TCSC reactance is capac-
itive. In this mode, the dc-offset voltages of the capacitors are monitored and
quickly discharged using a dc-offset control [9] without causing any harm to
the transmission-system transformers.

7.3.2.3 Partially Conducting Thyristor, or Vernier, Mode This mode

allows the TCSC to behave either as a continuously controllable capacitive
reactance or as a continuously controllable inductive reactance. It is achieved
by varying the thyristor-pair firing angle in an appropriate range. However,
a smooth transition from the capacitive to inductive mode is not permitted
because of the resonant region between the two modes.
A variant of this mode is the capacitive-vernier-control mode, in which
the thyristors are fired when the capacitor voltage and capacitor current have
opposite polarity. (Refer to Fig. 7.8, to be discussed later.) This condition
causes a TCR current that has a direction opposite that of the capacitor current,
thereby resulting in a loop-current flow in the TCSC controller. The loop current
increases the voltage across the FC, effectively enhancing the equivalent-capac-
itive reactance and the series-compensation level for the same value of line cur-
rent. To preclude resonance, the firing angle a of the forward-facing thyristor, as
measured from the positive reaching a zero crossing of the capacitor voltage, is
constrained in the range amin ≤ a ≤ 1808 . This constraint provides a continuous
vernier control of the TCSC module reactance. The loop current increases as
a is decreased from 1808 to amin . The maximum TCSC reactance permissible
with a c amin is typically two-and-a-half to three times the capacitor reactance
at fundamental frequency.
Another variant is the inductive-vernier mode, in which the TCSC can be
operated by having a high level of thyristor conduction. In this mode, the direc-
284 THE THYRISTOR-CONTROLLED SERIES CAPACITOR (TCSC)

tion of the circulating current is reversed and the controller presents a net induc-
tive impedance.
Based on the three modes of thyristor-valve operation, two variants of the
TCSC emerge:

1. Thyristor-switched series capacitor (TSSC), which permits a discrete con-

trol of the capacitive reactance.
2. Thyristor-controlled series capacitor (TCSC), which offers a continuous
control of capacitive or inductive reactance. (The TSSC, however, is more
commonly employed.)

7.4 THE TSSC

A TSSC scheme consists of a series connection of multiple TCSC modules

together with a fixed-series capacitor, as shown in Fig. 7.2. The thyristor pairs
operate either in the blocked mode or the bypassed mode, thus acting as
switches that are off or on, respectively. The inductors L1 , L2 , . . . , Ln in Fig.
7.2 are replaced by small current-limiting inductors for suppressing any trans-
ient current flow through the thyristor valves during switching. With each valve
switching, the corresponding series capacitor is either inserted or removed from
the transmission-line circuit.
Many capacitive-reactance steps are made possible by installing capacitors
of different reactances. One such scheme has n − 1 capacitors, each having
a reactance of (0.5X C / n) and one capacitor of reactance 0.5X C . Appropriate
switchings can result in the following combinations of effective reactances:

0.5X C
X eff c p, p c 0, 1, 2, . . . , 2n (7.3)
n

The TSSC offers the following benefits compared to mechanically switched

series capacitors:

1. The thyristor switches allow an unlimited number of operations without

any wear. This capability is used to alter the degree of line compensation
more frequently and to achieve a greater control over the power flow.
2. Exact switching instants (point-of-voltage waveforms) can be selected
with thyristors, which significantly minimizes the switching transients.
In contrast, the switching of mechanical breakers is unsynchronized.
3. A very rapid speed of response, in which the time between the initiation
of a control signal and a capacitor insertion, or bypass, is typically less
than a half-cycle (8 ms for 60 Hz). Thus, in case a major tie-line suffers an
outage, the power-transfer capability of an alterative line can be increased
rapidly through the TSSC.
4. No generation of harmonics.
 ANALYSIS OF THE TCSC 285

5. A possibility that minimizing thyristor-valve losses in a TSSC can be

accomplished by using UHSCs.

The TSSC scheme is quite satisfactory when only stepwise control of

transmission-line reactance is considered adequate. However, when continuous
control is desired, the other variant—the TCSC—is employed.

7.5 ANALYSIS OF THE TCSC

The analysis of TCSC operation in the vernier-control mode [3] is performed

based on the simplified TCSC circuit shown in Fig. 7.5. Transmission-line cur-
rent is assumed to be the independent-input variable and is modeled as an exter-
nal current source, iS (t). It is further assumed that the line current is sinusoidal,
as derived from actual measurements demonstrating that very few harmonics
exist in the line current. However, the analysis presented in the following text
may be erroneous to the extent that the line current deviates from a purely sinu-
soidal nature. Operating conditions resulting in this phenomenon are rare, and
the expressions derived in the following text are used widely.
The current through the fixed-series capacitor, C, is expressed as

dvC
C c iS (t) − iT (t) . u (7.4)
dt

The switching variable u c 1 when the thyristor valves are conducting, that is,
when the switch S is closed. On the other hand, u c 0 when the thyristors are
blocked, that is, when switch S is open. The thyristor-valve current, iT (t), is
then described by

vc (t )
+ −

S iT (t )

iS (t )

Figure 7.5 A simplified TCSC circuit.

286 THE THYRISTOR-CONTROLLED SERIES CAPACITOR (TCSC)

LdiT
c vC . u (7.5)
dt

Let the line current, iS (t), be represented by

iS (t) c I m cos qt (7.6)

Equations (7.4) and (7.5) can be solved with the knowledge of the instants of
switching. In equidistant firing-pulse control, for balanced TCSC operation, the
thyristors are switched on twice in each cycle of line current at instants t 1 and
t 3 , given by

b
t1 c − (7.7)
q
p−b
t3 c (7.8)
q

where b is the angle of advance (before the forward voltage becomes zero). Or,

b c p − a; 0 < b < bmax (7.9)

The firing angle a is generated using a reference signal that can be in phase
with the capacitor voltage. The thyristor switch S turns off at the instants t 2 and
t 4 , defined as

j
t2 c t1 + (7.10)
q
j
t4 c t3 + (7.11)
q

where a is the conduction angle, which is assumed to be the same in both the
positive and the negative cycle of conduction. Also,

j c 2b (7.12)

Solving the TCSC equations (7.4)–(7.6) results in the steady-state thyristor cur-
rent, iT , as

iT (t) c
k2
k2−2 [
Im cos qt −
cos b
cos kb
cos q r t ; ] − b ≤ qt ≤ b (7.13)

where
 ANALYSIS OF THE TCSC 287

1
qr c f (7.14)
LC
h h
qr 1 . 1 XC
kc c c (7.15)
q qL qC XL

and X C is the nominal reactance of the FC only. The steady-state capacitor

voltage at the instant qt c − b is expressed by

Im X C
vC1 c (sin b − k cos b tan kb) (7.16)
k2 − 1

At qt c b, iT c 0, and the capacitor voltage is given by

vC (qt c b) c vC 2 c − vC1 (7.17)

The capacitor voltage is finally obtained as

冢− sin qt + k cos kb sin q t冣 ;

Im X C cos b
vC (t) c r − b ≤ qt ≤ b (7.18)
k2 − 1
vC (t) c vC 2 + Im X C (sin qt − sin b); b < qt < p − b (7.19)

Because the nonsinusoidal capacitor voltage, vC , has odd symmetry about the
axis qt c 0, the fundamental component, V CF , is obtained as

p/ 2

∫
4
V CF c vC (t) sin qt d(qt) (7.20)
p 0

The equivalent TCSC reactance is computed as the ratio of V CF to I m :

V CF X C2 2b + sin 2b
X TCSC c c XC −
Im (X C − X L ) p

4X C2 cos2 b (k tan kb − tan b)

+ (7.21)
(X C − X L ) (k 2 − 1) p

Alternatively, the net reactance of the TCSC in per units of X C , denoted by

X net (c X TCSC / X C ), can be expressed as
288 THE THYRISTOR-CONTROLLED SERIES CAPACITOR (TCSC)

1.5

1
Inductive
0.5
XTCSC (pu on XC )

−0.5
Capacitive
−1

−1.5
100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
a (deg.)

Figure 7.6 Variation of the TCSC reactance with firing angle a.

XC j + sin j 4X C cos2 (j / 2)
X net c 1 − +
(X C − X L ) p (X C − X L ) (k 2 − 1)

. [k tan(kj / 2) − tan(j / 2)] (7.22)

p
The variation of per-unit TCSC reactance, (X TCSC / X C ), as a function of fir-
ing angle a is depicted in Fig. 7.6. It is noted from Eq. (7.21) that a parallel
resonance is created between X L and X C at the fundamental frequency, corre-
sponding to the values of firing angle ares , given by
pq
ares c p − (2m − 1) ; m c 1, 2 (7.23)
2q r

or alternatively,
pq
bres c (2m − 1) ; m c 1, 2 (7.24)
2q r

The different resonances can be reduced to one by a proper choice of k c

(q r / q) in the range 908 < a < 1808 or 0 < b < 908 . For instance, in the Kayenta
TCSC [10], [11], the choice of inductance as 0.0068 H (henries) across the
15-Q (ohms) series capacitor (C c 177 mF) results in only one resonance at a
c 1438 . If, however, the inductance is 0.0034 H, two resonances at a c 1608
and at a c 1018 will occur.
 ANALYSIS OF THE TCSC 289

At the resonant point, the TCSC exhibits a very large impedance and results
in a significant voltage drop. This resonant region is avoided by installing limits
on the firing angle. The typical value of the firing angle resulting in resonance
is 1458 . Filters are provided in the synchronizing and timing circuits, ensuring
that any transients or distortions in the ac system voltage do not affect the TCSC
control-system performance. Nevertheless, it is clear that the vernier operation
of the TCSC can only enhance the apparent reactance in both capacitive and
inductive domains. It is not possible for the TCSC to reduce the reactances.
Because the TCSC is used mainly as a capacitive device, the convention is to
define positive reactance as capacitive and negative reactance as inductive—just
the opposite of the convention used in circuit analysis and load-flow studies.
The implication of different values of X net can be given in terms of the root
mean square (rms) value of line current I line [6]. For instance,

X net c +1 pu implies that the thyristors are not conducting.

X net c +2 pu implies that the thyristors are fired so that the resulting
circulating current in the FC–TCR loop causes a 60-Hz
voltage of 2.0 . X C I line pu to appear across the FC, which
lags behind the line current by 908 (i.e., capacitive).
X net c − 1 pu implies that the thyristors are fired so that the resulting
circulating current in the FC–TCR loop causes a 60-Hz
voltage of 1.0 . X C I line to appear across the FC, which leads
the line current by 908 (i.e., inductive).

The rms-capacitor voltage V C , the rms-capacitor current, I C , and rms-thyris-

tor current, I T , are plotted in Fig. 7.7(a) as functions of the reactor in per-
unit conduction [6]. In the capacitive mode, I C > I T ; in the inductive mode,
I C < I T . The resulting circulating current in the capacitive mode causes the
capacitor current, capacitor voltage, and (consequently) the apparent capacitive
reactance to increase with the thyristor conduction. The corresponding varia-
tion of the TCSC net reactance X net with per-unit reactor conduction is also
superimposed for comparison in Fig. 7.7(b) [6]. The permissible range of the
firing angle is therefore determined by the FC voltage and current ratings.
The TCSC voltage, line current, capacitor current, TCR current, and valve
voltage for the capacitive-vernier and inductive-vernier modes are depicted in
Figs. 7.8(a) and (b), respectively; the actual TCSC voltage and thyristor current
for different operating points in the capacitive and inductive regions are plotted
in Fig. 7.9(a) and (b), respectively [6]. In Fig. 7.9(a), the solid line indicates
the TCSC operating in the blocked-thyristor mode, with an X net of 1 pu; the
dashed lines indicate the thyristor current values, giving X net c 1.5 pu and 2
pu. In Fig. 7.9(b), the solid line indicates the bypassed-thyristor mode, with an
X net c − 0.15 pu; the dashed lines indicate the thyristor current levels, giving
X net c − 0.5 pu and − 1 pu.
290 THE THYRISTOR-CONTROLLED SERIES CAPACITOR (TCSC)

VC, IC IT
2

0
(a)

Capacitive
2

1
Unavailable
0

−1

Inductive
−2

−3

0.01 0.1 1
Reactor Per-Unit Conduction
(b)
Figure 7.7 Variation of the TCSC voltage, currents, and reactance with per-unit TCR
conduction: (a) currents (pu on I line ), voltage (pu on X C . I line ); (b) X net (pu on X C ).

7.6 CAPABILITY CHARACTERISTICS

Although TCSC design is based on the application requirements, the operational

limits are determined by the characteristics of different TCSC components. The
important limits are described in the following list:

1. Voltage limits, of which the maximum amount across any operating equip-
ment (including series capacitors) is determined by the equipment’s insu-
lation level. The constraint on voltage may vary with the duration of volt-
age application. For short durations (typically less than 2 s), the overvolt-
age limit of the MOV is more critical than that of the capacitor.
 CAPABILITY CHARACTERISTICS 291

Ea TCSC Voltage
150
100
50
kV

0
−50
−100
−150
4 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06

IAPH Line Current

2
1
kA

0
−1
−2
4 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06

ICA Capacitor Current

6
4
2
kA

0
−2
−4
−6
4 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06

IRA TCR Current

4
2
kA

0
−2
−4
4 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06

EVA Valve Voltage

150
100
50
kV

0
−50
−100
−150
4 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06
Time

Figure 7.8(a) TCSC waveforms in the capacitive mode of operation (a c 1508 ).

2. Current limits, which may need to be imposed on the currents in the

thyristor valve, FC, and surge inductor to prevent overheating. Harmonics
also cause heating and therefore have a constraining effect on the TCSC
operation.
3. Firing-angle limits of the thyristors, which must be carefully restricted so
that the TCSC does not venture into the resonant region (even temporar-
ily).
292 THE THYRISTOR-CONTROLLED SERIES CAPACITOR (TCSC)

Ea TCSC Voltage
25
15
5
kV

−5
−15
−25
5 5.01 5.02 5.03 5.04 5.05 5.06

IAPH Line Current

2
1
kA

0
−1
−2
5 5.01 5.02 5.03 5.04 5.05 5.06

ICA Capacitor Current

2
1
kA

0
−1
−2
5 5.01 5.02 5.03 5.04 5.05 5.06

IRA TCR Current

4
2
kA

0
−2
−4
5 5.01 5.02 5.03 5.04 5.05 5.06

EVA Valve Voltage

25
15
5
kV

−5
−15
−25
5 5.01 5.02 5.03 5.04 5.05 5.06
Time

Figure 7.8(b) TCSC waveforms in the inductive mode of operation (a c 1308 ).

7.6.1 The Single-Module TCSC

The capability characteristics of a single-module TCSC in the voltage
line–current plane is depicted in Fig. 7.10 [6]. These characteristics are illus-
trated for continuous-time applications, short-duration implementations (30
min), and 1–10 s. In both capacitive and inductive zones, the operation is gener-
ally constrained between the minimum and maximum reactance limits. Certain
other voltage-, current-, and harmonic-related limits also exist that constrain the
operating range, as described in the following text.
304 THE THYRISTOR-CONTROLLED SERIES CAPACITOR (TCSC)

installations, is typically around 0.133 [6]. The natural frequency of

the FC and the reactor typically ranges between 120 and 150 Hz. The
Kayenta TCSC installation uses 145 Hz; the Slatt TCSC substation,
127 Hz [15], [16].

7.10 MODELING OF THE TCSC

A TCSC involves continuous-time dynamics, relating to voltages and currents

in the capacitor and reactor, and nonlinear, discrete switching behavior of thyris-
tors. Deriving an appropriate model for such a controller is an intricate task.

7.10.1 Variable-Reactance Model

A TCSC model for transient- and oscillatory-stability studies, used widely for
its simplicity, is the variable-reactance model [17], [18] depicted in Fig. 7.22. In
this quasi-static approximation model, the TCSC dynamics during power-swing
frequencies are modeled by a variable reactance at fundamental frequency. The
other dynamics of the TCSC model—the variation of the TCSC response with
different firing angles, for example—are neglected [10], [12], [14].
It is assumed that the transmission system operates in a sinusoidal steady
state, with the only dynamics associated with generators and PSS. This assump-
tion is valid, because the line dynamics are much faster than the generator
dynamics in the frequency range of 0.1–2 Hz that are associated with angular-
stability studies.
As described previously, the reactance-capability curve of a single-module
TCSC, as depicted in Fig. 7.11, exhibits a discontinuity between the induc-
tive and capacitive regions. However, this gap is lessened by using a multi-
mode TCSC. The variable-reactance TCSC model assumes the availability of a
continuous-reactance range and is therefore applicable for multimodule TCSC
configurations. This model is generally used for inter-area mode analysis, and
it provides high accuracy when the reactance-boost factor (c X TCSC / X C ) is less
than 1.5.

ref X aux X fixed

X max
IL X ref + X des X TCSC + X total X total
Power-Scheduling 1 −1
∑ 1 + sTTCSC ∑
VTCSC Controller + + Z base pu
+ X min
X mod
Modulation
Controller

u
Figure 7.22 A block diagram of the variable-reactance model of the TCSC.
 MODELING OF THE TCSC 305

7.10.1.1 Transient-Stability Model In the variable-reactance model for

stability studies, a reference value of TCSC reactance, X ref , is generated from a
power-scheduling controller based on the power-flow specification in the trans-
mission line. The reference X ref value may also be set directly by manual control
in response to an order from an energy-control center, and it essentially repre-
sents the initial operating point of the TCSC; it does not include the reactance of
FCs (if any). The reference value is modified by an additional input, X mod , from
a modulation controller for such purposes as damping enhancement. Another
input signal, this applied at the summing junction, is the open-loop auxiliary
signal, X aux , which can be obtained from an external power-flow controller.
A desired magnitude of TCSC reactance, X des , is obtained that is imple-
mented after a finite delay caused by the firing controls and the natural response
of the TCSC. This delay is modeled by a lag circuit having a time constant,
T TCSC , of typically 15–20 ms [19]. The output of the lag block is subject to
variable limits based on the TCSC reactance-capability curve shown in Fig.
7.14. The resulting X TCSC is added to the X fixed , which is the reactance of the
TCSC installation’s FC component.
To obtain per-unit values, the TCSC reactance is divided by the TCSC base
reactance, Z base , given as

(kVTCSC )2
Z base c (7.29)
MVAsys

where kVTCSC c the rms line–line voltage of the TCSC in kilovolts (kV)
MVAsys c the 3-phase MVA base of the power system

The TCSC model assigns a positive value to the capacitive reactance, so X total
is multiplied by a negative sign to ensure consistency with the convention used
in load-flow and stability studies. The TCSC initial operating point, X ref , for
the stability studies is chosen as

X ref c X total − X fixed (7.30)

The reactance capability curve of the multimodal TCSC shown in Fig. 7.14
can be simply approximated by the capability curve shown in Fig. 7.23. This
figure can be conveniently used for the variable-reactance model of TCSC, and
the capability curve that the figure depicts includes the effect of TCSC transient-
overload levels.
It should be noted that the reactance limit for high currents is depicted in Fig.
7.23 as a group of discrete points for the different modules. During periods of
overcurrent, only some TCSC modules move into the bypassed mode, for the
bypassing of a module causes the line current to decrease and thus reduces the
need for the remaining TCSC modules to go into the bypass mode. However,
for the case of modeling, only one continuous-reactance limit—denoted by a
306 THE THYRISTOR-CONTROLLED SERIES CAPACITOR (TCSC)

XTCSC
XC
X max0 IL rated
I line ⋅VC tran

XC = 1 pu
Protective
IL rated = 1 pu IL tran Bypass
X bypass
I line
IL rated
X min0 ILT tran
IL rated
I line ⋅VL tran

Figure 7.23 A simplified reactance-capability curve of a multimodule TCSC.

vertical line in Fig. 7.23—is considered for all TCSC modules. The typical
TCSC data that can be used for stability studies are listed in Tables 7.1 and
7.2. All reactances are expressed in per units on X C ; all voltages, in per units
on ILrated . X C ; and all currents, in amps.
In the capacitive region, the different TCSC reactance constraints are caused
by the following:

1. The limit on the TCSC firing angle, represented by constant reactance

limit X max 0 .
2. The limit on the TCSC voltage V Ctran . The corresponding reactance con-
straint is give by

TABLE 7.1 Typical TCSC Data for Stability Studies (TCSC with
Capacitive-Vernier Capability Only)
Input Typical
Data Description Units Value
a
kVrated Rated rms line–line voltage kilovolts —
a
ILrated Rated rms line current amperes —
a
XC Nominal TCSC reactance ohms —
a
Xfixed Fixed compensation ohms —
TTCSC Time constant associated with the TCSC seconds 0.015
firing control
Xbypass TCSC reactance for the bypass mode pu of XC –0.15
Xmax 0 Upper limit of TCSC reactance pu of XC 3
VCtran Maximum voltage of the capacitive-vernier pu of ILrated ⭈ XC 2
region for the transient overload
ILtran Maximum transient line current pu of ILrated 2
Tdelay Protective-bypass recovery delay seconds 0.025
a
— indicates that the value is dependent on a specific application.
 MODELING OF THE TCSC 307

TABLE 7.2 Typical TCSC Data for Stability Studies (TCSC with
Inductive-Vernier Capability Only)
Input Typical
Data Description Units Value
Xmin 0 Lower limit of TCSC reactance pu of XC –2
VLtran Maximum voltage of the inductive-vernier pu of ILrated ⭈ XC –0.6
region for the transient overload
ILtran Maximum line current for full-conduction pu of ILrated ⭈ XC 2
operation for inductive-region transient overload

ILrated
X max V C c (V Ctran ) (7.31)
I line

3. The limit on the line current (ILtran ) beyond which the TCSC transpires
into the protective-bypass mode:
X max I line c ∞ for I line < ILtran . ILrated
c X bypass for I line > ILtran . ILrated (7.32)

The effective capacitive-reactance limit is finally obtained as a minimum of

the following limits:
X max limit c min(X max 0 , X max V C , X max I line ) (7.33)

In the inductive region, the TCSC operation is restricted by the following

limits:

1. The limit on the firing angle, represented by a constant-reactance limit

X min 0 .
2. The harmonics-imposed limit, represented by a constant-TCSC-voltage
limit VLtran . The equivalent-reactance constraint is given by
ILrated
X min VL c (VLtran ) (7.34)
I line

3. The limit on the fundamental component of current that is permitted to

flow through the thyristors in the bypassed-thyristor mode during a trans-
ient. This current limit is also expressed as a minimum-reactance limit:

[
X min ILT c 1 −
ILTtran . ILrated . (1 − X bypass )
I line ] (7.35)

The final inductive-reactance limit in the inductive-vernier operation is

obtained as a maximum of the foregoing constraints:
X min limit c max(X min 0 , X min VL , X min ILT ) (7.36)
308 THE THYRISTOR-CONTROLLED SERIES CAPACITOR (TCSC)

X TCSC
XC
IL rated
I line ⋅VCrated
X max0

IL rated
I line ⋅VC temp
IL rated
I line ⋅VC tran
X C = 1 pu

IL temp IL tran I line

IL rated = 1 pu
IL rated
X bypass

ILTtemp ILTtran
ILTrated

IL rated
I line ⋅VL tran
X min0 IL rated
I line ⋅VL temp
IL rated
I line ⋅VL rated

Figure 7.24 The X-I capability characteristic of a multimodule TCSC indicating time-
dependent overload limits.

If a TCSC is not expected to operate in the inductive-vernier mode, the

minimum-reactance limit is X bypass irrespective of the line-current magnitude.

7.10.1.2 Long-Term-Stability Model The capability curves of the TCSC

depend on the duration for which the voltage- and current-operating conditions
persist on the TCSC. In general, two time-limited regions of TCSC operation
exist: the transient-overload region, lasting 3–10 s, and the temporary-overload
region, lasting 30 min; both are followed by the continuous region. The overall
reactance-versus-line-current (X-I) capability curve of the TCSC is depicted in
Fig. 7.24, with the relevant data presented in Table 7.3.
For long-term dynamic simulations, an overload-management function needs
to be incorporated in the control system. This function keeps track of the TCSC
variables and their duration of application, and it also determines the appropriate
TCSC overload range, for which it modifies the X max limit and X min limit . It then
applies the same modifications to the controller.
The variable-reactance model does not account for the inherent dependence
of TCSC response time on the operating conduction angle. Therefore, entirely
incorrect results may be obtained for the high-conduction-angle operation of
the TCSC or for whenever the power-swing frequency is high (>2 Hz) [15].
However, the model is used widely in commercial stability programs because
of its simplicity, and it is also used for system-planning studies as well as for
initial investigations of the effects of the TCSC in damping-power oscillations.
A reason for the model’s widespread use lies in the assumption that controls
 MODELING OF THE TCSC 309

TABLE 7.3 Typical TCSC X-I Curve Data for Long-Term-Stability Studies
Input Typical
Data Description Units Value
VCrated Maximum voltage of the capacitive-vernier region pu of ILrated ⭈ XC 1.15
for the continuous operation
VCtemp Maximum voltage of the capacitive-vernier region pu of ILrated ⭈ XC 1.5
for the temporary overload
ILtemp Maxium temporary line current pu of ILrated 1.35
VLrated Maximum voltage of the inductive-vernier region pu of ILrated ⭈ XC –0.3
for continuous operation
VLtemp Maximum voltage of the inductive-vernier region pu of ILrated ⭈ XC –0.45
for the temporary overload
ILTrated Rated line current for full-conduction operation in pu of ILrated 1.35
the inductive region
ILTtemp Maximum line current for full-conduction pu of ILrated 1.35
operation for the inductive-region temporary
overload
Ttran Maximum time for transient overload condition seconds 3–10
Ttemp Maximum time for temporary overload condition seconds 1800
Resettran Reset for the transient-overload capability multiple of Ttran 2
Resettemp Reset for the temporary-overload capability multiple of Ttemp 2

designed to compensate the TCSC response delay are always embedded in the
control system by the manufacturer and are therefore ideal. Hence the response
predicted by the model is a true replica of actual performance. In situations
where this assumption is not satisfied, a more detailed stability model is required
that accurately represents the inherent slow response of the TCSC.

7.10.2 An Advanced Transient-Stability Studies Model

An alternate TCSC model for transient-stability studies has been developed [15],
[20] that effectively solves the differential equations pertaining to the TCSC
capacitor and the TCR. The TCSC model is invoked at every half-cycle of the
line current. A variable is used to store the instantaneous capacitor voltage at the
line zero crossing—at the end of each half-cycle—to be used as the initial con-
dition for the next sample process. The TCR is represented by a current source
updated by the fundamental component of TCR current that the model calculates
at each half-cycle. Also, the model incorporates the effects of both thyristor firing
and synchronization. The triggering instant is a function of the signal that is used
for synchronization, such as the TCSC voltage or line current.
The model is compatible with conventional transient-stability programs in
that it updates the capacitor voltage at every half-cycle while the stability pro-
gram updates the line current with the same frequency. It is also flexible enough
to integrate not only controls for minimizing the TCSC-response delay but
higher-order controls as well. Although slightly complex, the model correlated
closely with EMTP results of TCSC performance.