1st

Define Bones?
Bones are rigid organs that form part of the endoskeleton of vertebrates. They serve various
functions, including:

● Support: Providing a framework for the body.

● Protection: Shielding vital organs (e.g., skull protects the brain, ribs protect the heart
and lungs).
● Movement: Acting as levers that muscles act upon to produce movement.
● Mineral Storage: Storing essential minerals, such as calcium and phosphorus.
● Blood Cell Production: Housing bone marrow, which produces blood cells.
● Energy Storage: Storing lipids in yellow marrow.

Name the bone cell and give their functions?

Bone Cells and Their Functions

1. Osteoblasts

Function: These are bone-forming cells responsible for the synthesis and mineralization of
bone during both initial bone formation and later bone remodeling.
Explanation: Osteoblasts secrete osteoid, the organic part of the bone matrix, which then
becomes mineralized with calcium and phosphorus.

2. Osteocytes

Function: Mature bone cells that maintain the bone matrix.

Explanation: Osteocytes are former osteoblasts that have become trapped within the bone
matrix they secreted. They reside in small cavities called lacunae and communicate with other
osteocytes via long cellular processes in tiny canals called canaliculi, helping to maintain bone
tissue.

3. Osteoclasts

Function: Large, multinucleated cells responsible for bone resorption.

Explanation: Osteoclasts break down bone tissue by secreting acids and enzymes, which
dissolve the bone matrix, releasing stored minerals back into the blood.
Write down the morphological classifications of bones?
Bones can be classified based on their shapes and structures into several categories:

1. Long Bones:
● Characteristics: Longer than they are wide.
● Examples: Femur, humerus.
2. Short Bones:
● Characteristics: As long as they are wide, roughly cube-shaped.
● Examples: Carpals (wrist bones), tarsals (ankle bones).
3. Flat Bones:
● Characteristics: Thin, flat, and often curved.
● Examples: Skull bones, ribs, sternum, scapula.
4. Irregular Bones:
● Characteristics: Complex shapes that do not fit into other categories.
● Examples: Vertebrae, some facial bones.
5. Sesamoid Bones:
● Characteristics: Small, round bones that form in tendons.
● Examples: Patella (kneecap).

2nd

Write down the part of digestive tract.

The digestive tract, also known as the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, consists of the
following main parts:

● Mouth: The entry point for food, where mechanical digestion begins through
chewing, and chemical digestion starts with saliva.
● Pharynx: A muscular tube that serves as a pathway for food from the mouth to
the esophagus.
● Esophagus: A muscular tube that transports food from the pharynx to the
stomach using peristalsis.
● Stomach: A sac-like organ where food is mixed with gastric juices for further
breakdown.
● Small Intestine: Composed of the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum, where most
digestion and nutrient absorption occur.
 ● Large Intestine: Includes the cecum, colon (ascending, transverse, descending,
and sigmoid), rectum, and anus, where water absorption and feces formation
occur.
● Rectum and Anus: The final sections of the digestive tract, where waste is
expelled from the body.

Give the function of small intestine & large intestine.

Small Intestine

● Primary Function: Digestion and absorption of nutrients.

● Detailed Functions:
● Duodenum: Receives chyme from the stomach and digestive juices from
the pancreas and liver, starting the digestion of fats, proteins, and
carbohydrates.
● Jejunum: Major site for the absorption of nutrients such as amino acids,
simple sugars, and fatty acids into the bloodstream.
● Ileum: Absorbs vitamin B12, bile salts, and any remaining nutrients not
absorbed by the jejunum.

Large Intestine

● Primary Function: Absorption of water and electrolytes, and formation and

expulsion of feces.
● Detailed Functions:
● Cecum: Receives chyme from the ileum and starts the absorption of fluids
and salts.
● Colon: Continues to absorb water and electrolytes, and compacts the
remaining material into feces.
● Rectum: Stores feces until they are ready to be expelled.
● Anus: Controls the expulsion of feces through the anal sphincters.

What type of lining epithelium present in digestive tract?

❖ Mouth, Pharynx, Esophagus, and Anus: Lined with stratified squamous
epithelium, which provides protection against abrasion.
❖ Stomach, Small Intestine, and Large Intestine: Lined with simple columnar
epithelium, which is specialized for secretion and absorption.
 ➢ Stomach: Contains gastric pits lined with simple columnar epithelium that
secrete mucus and gastric juices.
➢ Small Intestine: Has villi and microvilli lined with simple columnar
epithelium to increase the surface area for absorption.
➢ Large Intestine: Also lined with simple columnar epithelium, but with
numerous goblet cells to secrete mucus for lubricating fecal material.

3rd

What is a normal chest X-ray?

A normal chest X-ray is an imaging study that shows the structures of the chest,
including the lungs, heart, and bones, without any signs of disease or abnormalities.

What's the basic view of chest X-ray?

The basic view of a chest X-ray typically includes:

1. Posteroanterior (PA) View:

● The patient stands facing the X-ray plate, with the X-ray beam passing
from back to front.
● This view provides a clear image of the heart, lungs, and mediastinal
structures.
2. Lateral View:
● The patient stands with one side against the X-ray plate, with the beam
passing from one side to the other.
● This view helps to provide additional perspective on the depth and
location of structures within the chest, offering more detail on
abnormalities that may not be visible on the PA view alone.

4th

Write down the types and parts of skeletal system?

The skeletal system is divided into two major parts:
 1. Axial Skeleton:
● Skull: Protects the brain and forms the structure of the face.
● Vertebral Column: Protects the spinal cord and supports the head and
body.
● Rib Cage: Protects the heart and lungs.
2. Appendicular Skeleton:
● Pectoral Girdle: Attaches the upper limbs to the body (scapula and
clavicle).
● Pelvic Girdle: Attaches the lower limbs to the body (hip bones).
● Upper Limbs: Arms, forearms, wrists, and hands.
● Lower Limbs: Thighs, legs, ankles, and feet.

Enumerate the division of spinal column.

The spinal column, or vertebral column, is divided into five regions:

1. Cervical Spine:
● Composed of 7 vertebrae (C1 to C7).
● Supports the head and allows for its movements.
2. Thoracic Spine:
● Composed of 12 vertebrae (T1 to T12).
● Anchors the rib cage.
3. Lumbar Spine:
● Composed of 5 vertebrae (L1 to L5).
● Bears the weight of the body and provides stability.
4. Sacral Spine:
● Composed of 5 fused vertebrae (S1 to S5).
● Connects the spine to the hip bones.
5. Coccygeal Spine:
● Composed of 4 fused vertebrae (coccyx).
● Known as the tailbone.

Write down the structure of vertebra.

A typical vertebra consists of the following parts:

● Vertebral Body: The thick, disc-shaped anterior portion that bears weight.
 ● Vertebral Arch: Formed by pedicles and laminae, encloses the vertebral foramen.
● Vertebral Foramen: The canal through which the spinal cord passes.
● Spinous Process: The bony projection off the posterior (back) of each vertebra.
● Transverse Processes: The two bony projections on the lateral sides of each
vertebra.
● Articular Processes: Superior and inferior projections that form joints with
adjacent vertebrae.
● Intervertebral Discs: The cartilage pads between vertebrae that act as shock
absorbers.

How do we slice the body to look inside? (Mention 3 ways)

1. Sagittal Plane: This vertical plane divides the body into left and right portions. It
helps to view the body in profiles, such as imaging the brain, spine, and internal
organs from a side view.
2. Coronal Plane: Also known as the frontal plane, it divides the body into anterior
(front) and posterior (back) sections. This is useful for examining the body's
internal structure from a front or back perspective, including chest and
abdominal organs.
3. Transverse Plane: Also called the horizontal or axial plane, it cuts the body into
superior (upper) and inferior (lower) parts. This is commonly used in CT and MRI
scans to produce cross-sectional images of the body.

How are arteries different from veins In X-Ray, CT, And MRI?
(Think: carrying what and where)
● X-Ray: Arteries, filled with oxygen-rich blood, may appear more prominent if
contrast agents are used, while veins might be less distinct without contrast.
● CT Scan: With contrast, arteries and veins can be differentiated based on the
direction of blood flow and the timing of the scan (arterial phase vs. venous
phase).
● MRI: Arteries and veins can be visualized with different sequences and contrast
agents, highlighting the differences in blood flow and oxygenation levels.

What path does air take to get to our lungs?

1. Nose/Mouth: Air enters through the nasal or oral cavity.
2. Pharynx: Passes through the throat.
3. Larynx: Moves down the voice box.
4. Trachea: Continues through the windpipe.
5. Bronchi: Divides into the right and left bronchi.
 6. Bronchioles: Further divides into smaller bronchioles within the lungs.
7. Alveoli: Finally reaches the alveoli where gas exchange occurs.

Why is knowing body parts important for medical physics?

(Think: using machines)
● Precision in Imaging: Accurate identification of body parts ensures precise
imaging and diagnosis.
● Effective Use of Machines: Understanding anatomy allows for proper positioning
and use of medical equipment like X-rays, CT scanners, and MRIs.
● Treatment Planning: Critical for planning interventions such as radiation therapy
and surgical procedures.

Explain the difference between X-rays and CT scans and how

each is used in medical imaging.
● X-Rays: Produce 2D images using ionizing radiation, primarily used for viewing
bones and detecting fractures.
● CT Scans: Provide detailed 3D images using multiple X-ray slices, useful for
diagnosing complex conditions, visualizing soft tissues, and planning surgeries.

What are some limitations of X-ray imaging for diagnosing

bone fractures?
● Limited Detail: X-rays may not show small fractures or subtle bone
abnormalities.
● Soft Tissue Visualization: Poor at distinguishing soft tissues and complex bone
structures.
● Overlap: Bones may overlap, making it difficult to see specific fractures clearly.

Why is a collapsed lung bad for X-rays/CT scans?

● Impaired Imaging: A collapsed lung (pneumothorax) can distort chest anatomy,
complicating the interpretation of X-rays and CT scans.
● Contrast Issues: The presence of air outside the lung reduces the effectiveness
of imaging modalities in clearly depicting lung structures.
How does circulation knowledge help medical physics?
● Enhanced Imaging Techniques: Understanding blood flow helps optimize
imaging techniques like Doppler ultrasound and contrast-enhanced studies.
● Diagnosis and Treatment: Crucial for diagnosing circulatory system disorders
and planning interventions like angioplasty or vascular surgery.

How is diaphragm knowledge useful in ultrasound imaging?

● Anatomical Reference: The diaphragm serves as an important landmark for
locating abdominal organs and assessing conditions like hernias or liver
diseases.
● Movement Analysis: Evaluating diaphragm movement can help diagnose
respiratory issues and guide treatments.