Nontraditional Machining Processes (NTM)

ME 202
Manufacturing
Technologies
Nontraditional
Machining Processes

Traditional Machining Processes

Machining processes that involve compression-shear chip
formation have the following disadvantages.
1. High (cutting-clamping) forces create problems in regard to
holding the workpiece and cause distortion,
2. Large amounts of energy causes problems of heating (and
cooling),
3. It is an expensive process, since large amounts of energy is
used in producing chips, end energy and money are required
to remove, dispose and recycle chips.
5. Mostly burrs are formed,
6. There are limitations in regard
to the delicacy and/or complexity
of the work that can be done,
As a result of these disadvantages, Non-Traditional Machining
Processes (NTM), that do not involve the formation of chips by
shear deformation have been developed.
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 Traditional Machining Processes

FIGURE 35-18
Schematic
showing the formation
of heavy
burrs on the exit side
of a milled
slot.

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Nontraditional Machining Processes

The NTM processes can be divided into four basic categories:
I. Chemical (Chemical reaction),
II. Electrochemical (Electrolytic dissolution),
III. Mechanical (Multipoint cutting or erosion),
IV. Thermal (High temperatures in very localized regions melt
and vaporize the material).

Characteristics of NTM processes are:

1. Low metal-removal rates,
2. Very high specific powers (W/cm3/min),
3. Better accuracy,
4. Less surface damaging,
5. Can be employed for materials that are too hard.
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 Nontraditional Machining Processes
I. Chemical Machining
Chemical reaction, sometimes enhanced by electrical or
thermal energy is the dominant mode of metal
removing.
It has been used for many years in the production of
engraved plates for printing and in making small name
plates.
In chemical machining material is removed from selected
areas of a workpiece by immersing it in a chemical
reagent.
Material is removed by microscopic electrochemical cell
action as occurs in corrosion or chemical dissolution of
a metal, which is called etching.
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Chemical Machining
Etching is material removal from the unprotected sections
of the workpiece by means of microscopic
electrochemical cell action as in corrosion or chemical
dissolution of metal without the involvement of any
external circuit.
Chemical Machining is the targeted use of chemical
etchants (acids and alkaline solutions) in the removal of
material from metal parts’ surfaces.
In order to prevent the removal of material from unwanted
regions, a mask / resist on the surface of the
workpiece that is resistant to the etchant used.

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 Chemical Machining

Workpiece holder
Mixer
Maskant

Workpiece
Chemical etchant

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Chemical Machining
Workpiece materials
All metals are candidates for chemical machining.
Aluminum, magnesium, copper, titanium, steel and
alloys.
Maskants / Resists
Polymers/neoprene for aluminum alloys, polyethylene for
nickel, neoprene for brass, etc.
Cut and peel maskants are applied via dipping or spray
coating and removed by cutting (manually or by a
laser) and peeling.
Etchants
Common etchants include: sodium hydroxide for
aluminum, sulphuric acid for magnesium, hydrofluoric
acid for titanium, etc.
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 Chemical Machining
The basic chemical machining processes are:

1. Chemical Milling,
used for pockets, contours and overall metal removal,
2. Chemical Blanking (etching through thin sheets),
3. Photochemical Machining
(photosensitive resists are used for masks),
4. Gel Milling (uses reagent in jel form),
5. Chemical or Electrochemical Polishing
(weak chemical reagents are used for polishing).

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Chemical Machining
Chemical Milling and Blanking
Used for pockets, contours and overall metal removal.
The steps in chemical milling are as follows.
1. Prepare,
Degrease, clean, rinse and pickle to provide for good adhesion
for masking material.
2. Mask,
Coat or cover areas not to be etched.
3. Etch,
The part is immersed or sprayed with the proper etchant and is
permitted to remain in the reagent until the desired amount of
material has been removed.
4. Remove mask,
Strip or demask, clean as necessary.
5. Finish.
Post-treatments and finish inspection.
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 Chemical Milling
Chemical Milling to Multiple Depths
Machining to two or more depths (step machining) can be
accomplished by removing the maskant from additional
areas after the original immersion.

Masking Machining to single and multiple depths

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Chemical Milling

In chemical milling, shallow cavities are etched on the

surface of a metal workpiece - most commonly, on large
aerospace structures.
(5) Maskant is removed
(1) Raw part is cleaned/ (3) Maskant is removed completely and
degreased. from selected sections. workpiece is washed.

(4) Exposed sections of

(2) Maskant is applied the workpiece are
globally and cured. etched.

Etchant

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 Chemical Milling

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Chemical Milling

Depth of cut B
Etch factor = =
Undercut A

Chemical milling defects

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 Chemical Blanking

(5) Maskant is removed

(1) Raw part is cleaned/ (3) Maskant is removed completely and
degreased. from selected sections. workpiece is washed.

(2) Maskant is applied (4) Exposed sections of the Some thin-walled

globally and cured. workpiece are etched. part profiles

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Chemical Blanking

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 Making of Maskants
1. The Use of Scribed Maskants
In general, scribed maskants are used under following
conditions.
a. Where the workpiece is not flat,
b. Where the workpiece is very large,
c. For low volume work where photosensitive resists
are not economical.
Steps in using scribed-maskants are as follows.
a. Apply the maskant to the entire surface of the
workpiece.
b. Remove maskant from those areas where metal
removal is desired, by scribing through the maskant
with a knife.
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Scribed Maskants

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 Chemical Milling - Scribed Maskants

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Making of Maskants
2. Chemical Machining with Photosensitive Resists
This method is used for production of small, complex parts
(e.g. electronic circuit boards) and very thin parts.
Steps involved in this process are:
a. Prepare an accurate drawing of the workpiece on a
polyester drafting film or glass up to 50 or more times
the size of the final part (art work).
b. Reduce the drawing by photographic means to obtain a
negative master pattern that is exactly at the size of the
finished part.
c. Coat the workpiece with a light-sensitive emulsion and
dry it in an oven.

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Chemical Machining with Photosensitive Resists

d. Place the sensitized workpiece against the negative

master and expose to blue light, passing through the
negative.
Exposure to the light hardens the selected areas of the
resist so it will not be washed away in the subsequent
developing.
e. Develop the workpiece.
This removes or dissolves away the unexposed areas
of the resist, thereby exposing the area of the
workpiece that are to be acted upon by the chemical
agent.
f. Immerse it in the reagent or spray the workpiece with
the reagent.
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Chemical Machining with Photosensitive Resists

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Chemical Machining with Photosensitive Resists

Preparing artwork Making template Applying photoresist

Drying photoresist Patterning photoresist Etching

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Chemical Machining
Advantages and Disadvantages of Chemical
Machining
1. Relatively simple, does not require highly skilled labor,
2. Induces no stresses or cold working in the metal,
3. Can be applied to almost any metal (aluminum, magnesium,
titanium and steel),
4. Can be done on parts of virtually any shape and thin
sections,
5. Tolerances are from 0.013 mm to 0.076 mm,
6. Surface finish is good,
7. Material Removal Rate (MRR) is low (0.1 to 0.2 kg/min/m2),
8. May release existing residual stresses in the metal thus
causing wrapping.
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 Nontraditional Machining Processes
II. Electrochemical Machining (ECM)
● Suitable for electrically conductive materials.
● Tool should also be electrically conductive.
● Process of removing metal from a workpiece by a
reverse-electroplating action.

(In electroplating, workpiece which is the negative

electrode (cathode), and plate metal which is the
positive electrode (anode) are dipped in a solution
which contains dissolved salts of the metal to be
deposited.)
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Electroplating

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 Electrochemical Machining (ECM)
In ECM the positive electrode (anode) is the workpiece
and the negative electrode (cathode) is the tool.
The anode and the cathode are energized by low-voltage
DC current.
An electrolyte constantly flows in a space that is carefully
maintained between the electrodes.
As the current flows, it removes electrons from the surface
atoms of the workpiece and causes the resulting ions
to migrate toward the cutting tool.
A rapidly moving electrolyte sweeps the deplated ions out
of the gap between the workpiece and the tool before
plating can occur.
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Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

Tool holder and
Tool Cathode (-) feed mechanism
Electrolyte
De-plated Forced Tool supply
material electrolyte Insulation
circulation
Cavity created Electrolyte
by deplating Workpiece
Anode (+)

The electrolytes are highly

conductive solutions of inorganic
salts usually NaCl (Sodium
Chlorate), KCl, NaNO3 (Sodium
Nitrate), and are operated at
about 30° to 55°C.
Tools are usually made from
copper, brass, titanium or
sometimes stainless steel.
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 Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

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Properties of Electrochemical Machining

1. It is well suited for mass-production of complex shapes in
difficult-to-machine but conductive materials.
2. There is no wear of the tool during actual cutting as the tool
is protected cathodically.
3. Tooling cost is the preparation of the tool electrode. It can
be time consuming and costly.
4. It can be used to form or blank a desired external contour,
to selectively shape one or more external surfaces, to
produce through or blind circular or odd-shaped holes.
5. The process produces a stress-free surface.
6. Metal removal rate in terms of the penetration of the tool
into the workpiece is primarily a function of the current
density. ECM provides metal removal rates on the order of
1.63 mm3/min/1000 A.
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 Electrochemical Machining Processes
1. Electrochemical Polishing
Feed is halted, lower current density and slower electrolyte
flow rates reduce MRR so that a fine surface finish is
obtained.
2. Electrochemical Hole Drilling
a. Drilling of very small diameter holes
High voltages and acid electrolyte are used. Acid is used so
that the dissolved metals go into the solution instead of
forming a sludge. Stress-free holes from 0.1 to 0.75 mm in
diameter with 50:1 depth to diameter ratios are
accomplished in nickel and cobalt alloys.
b. Drilling of medium sized holes
Low voltages and special electrodes are used. Shaped
holes in difficult-to-machine metals can be drilled, sizes
being 0.5 to 6 mm.
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Shaped-Tube Electrolytic Machining (STEM)

Figure 19-19 The shaped-tube

electrolytic machining (STEM)
cell process is a specialized ECM
technique for drilling small holes
using a metal tube electrode or
metal tube electrode with
dielectric coating.

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 Electrochemical Machining Processes
3. Electrochemical
Grinding (ECG)
Used for shaping and
sharpening carbide
cutting tools, which
cause high wear
rates on expensive
diamond wheels in
normal grinding.
Tool electrode is a
rotating, metal
bonded, diamond
grit grinding wheel.
Metal bond of the
wheel is the
cathode.
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Electrochemical Grinding (ECG)

● Diamond particles are used as an insulator to preserve a
gap between the cathode and the workpiece, to wipe away
residues, and to cut chips if the wheel should contact the
workpiece.
● MRR is competitive with conventional grinding.
● Less than 5 % of the material is removed by normal chip
removal.
● Lack of heat damage, burrs and residual stresses are very
beneficial.
● Used for fragile parts, surgical needles, tips of assembled
turbine blades etc.

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 Electrochemical Machining Processes
4. Electrochemical Deburring
Used for removing burrs from parts.

FIGURE 35-18 Schematic

showing the formation of heavy
burrs on the exit side of a milled
slot.

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Electrochemical Deburring
4. Electrochemical Deburring
● Used for removing burrs from parts.
● The work is put in a rotating, electrically insulated drum
which contains two electrodes that are insulated from
the drum.
Small graphite spheres are added to the electrolyte.
They receive an inductive charge from the electrodes
and a potential gradient across the sphere-to-
workpiece gap occurs which causes electrochemical
machining.
● Since the current density is higher at the protrusions of
the burrs than at smooth areas, they are removed
preferentially.
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 Electrochemical Deburring
4. Electrochemical Deburring

FIGURE 35-19 Designing extra recesses and grooves into a part may eliminate the need to deburr.

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Nontraditional Machining Processes

III. Mechanical NTM Processes

Mechanical NTM Processes can be used for electrically

conductive or nonconductive materials.

1. Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

2. Hydrodynamic Jet Machining
3. Abrasive Jet Machining ( AJM )

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 Mechanical NTM Processes
1. Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
● Employs an ultrasonically vibrating tool to impel the abrasive
(carbide, ceramic) particles in a slurry against a workpiece.
An inverse image of the tool in the workpiece is formed as
the abrasive particles abrade (machine) the material.
● A transducer is used to impart high frequency vibration
(100 kHz) to the tool holder.
High frequency Tool
Slurry
oscillation

Workpiece

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Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

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 Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
● The tool materials are usually brass, carbide, or mild or
tool steel.
● Abrasive particles (grit materials), most commonly are
Boron Carbide, Aluminum Oxide and Silicon Carbide.
● The process can cut virtually any material, conductive
or nonconductive, metallic, ceramic or composite.
● The tool wears continuously.
Wear ratios (material removed versus tool wear) of
1:1 to 100:1 are possible.
● There is an overcut during the machining by about
twice the size of the abrasive grit.
● Surface roughness is controlled by the size of the grit.
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Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

● USM is primarily targeted for the machining of brittle
materials (dielectric or conductive): Boron carbide,
ceramics, glass, titanium carbides, etc.
● The tool must be selected to be highly wear resistant,
such as low-carbon steels.
● The abrasives (25-60 μm in diameter) in the slurry
(water-based, 20-60% solid volume) include boron
carbide, boron nitride, silicon carbide, aluminum oxide
and diamond.
● Surface finish in USM can be an order of magnitude
better than that achievable through milling.

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 Mechanical NTM Processes
2. Hydrodynamic Jet Machining
● Also known as Water Jet Cutting (WJC), uses a fine,
high-pressure, high velocity stream of water (water jet).
● Velocity: Mach 2 (680 m/s); up to 900m/s (~Mach 3)
● Pressure: 10 000 to 60 000 psi (70 to 415 MPa).
● Mainly used to cut soft, non-metallics like plastics,
paperboard, asbestos, leather, rubber, fiberglass,
textiles, composites, floor tile, carpet, leather, and
cardboard
● Cutting is achieved by cutting narrow slits within the
material.
● Not suitable for brittle materials (e.g., glass).
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Hydrodynamic Jet Machining

● Cutting rates vary from 75 m/min up to 1750 m/min.
● Feed rates are between 5 mm/s to 500 mm/s
depending on material and its thickness.
● Advantages: no crushing or burning of work surface,
minimum material loss, no environmental pollution, and
ease of automation.
● CNC machines or industrial robots can be used to cut
along a desired complex shaped trajectory.
● Jet flows through small nozzle (made of sapphire, ruby
or diamond) opening of diameter (0.1 to 0.4 mm).
● A long-chain polymer is added to the water to make the
jet coherent (not come out of the nozzle as a mist).
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 Hydrodynamic Jet Machining

Abrasives can
also be utilized

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Mechanical NTM Processes

3. Abrasive Jet Machining ( AJM )
● AJM is mainly a finishing process that removes material
with the abrasive action of gas jet (air, nitrogen or
carbon-dioxide) loaded with abrasive powder particles
(silicon carbide, aluminum oxide or glass).
● Can also be used to cut slits, grooves or shapes or
holes.
● Works well in heat-sensitive, brittle, thin or hard
materials.

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 Thermal NTM Processes
High temperatures in very localized regions melt and vaporize
the material.
1. Electrodischarge Machining (EDM)
2. Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
3. Laser Beam Machining (LBM)

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Thermal NTM Processes

1. Electrodischarge Machining (EDM)
● Suitable for electrically conductive materials.
Tool (electrode) should also be electrically conductive.
● EDM removes metal by the eroding action of small
electrical sparks.
Cathode (-)

Tool (Electrode)
Discharge
Material removed Flow of dielectric fluid
from workpiece
Workpiece
Cavity created
by discharge
Anode (+)

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 Electrodischarge Machining (EDM)
● In operation, both the electrode (tool) and the workpiece
are immersed in a dielectric fluid (non-conductive fluid).
● The dielectric fluid must ionize to provide a channel for
the spark, and deionize quickly to become an insulator.
● An electric current, stored in a capacitor bank across a
thin gap between the tool (cathode) and the workpiece
(anode) is discharged.
● Thousands of sparks per second are generated and
each spark produces a tiny crater by vaporization,
thus eroding the shape of the tool into the workpiece.

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Electrodischarge Machining (EDM)

Crater formed by a single spark on a ground

surface. (Ground : Made by grinding.)

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 Electrodischarge Machining (EDM)

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Electrodischarge Machining (EDM)

Tool holder and

feed mechanism
Tool

Cathode (-) Dielectric fluid

DC power
supply

Workpiece
Anode (+)

Reservoir Pump

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 Electrodischarge Machining (EDM)
As the negatively charged electrode approaches to the positively
charged workpiece, electrical strain builds up across the
dielectric fluid until it ionizes.
Electrons then start to flow from the electrode through the ionized
path in the dielectric to the workpiece.
These electrons further ionize the dielectric causing electron flow
to greatly increase, thus initiating a spark.
The spark, striking the workpiece of extremely high speed melts
and vaporizes a small amount of material, leaving a crater in
the workpiece surface.
The vaporized metal in the dielectric condenses into small particles
and are flushed away.
This continues until the potential fails to a point where the
discharge can no longer be maintained, and the dielectric once
again becomes deionized.
The voltage once again builds up, and the process repeats itself.
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Electrodischarge Machining (EDM)

The dielectric fluid (hydrocarbon oils, kerosene and
deionized water) is an insulator between the tool and
the workpiece, a coolant and a flushing medium for the
removal of chips.
Functions of the dielectric fluid are:
● insulation between tool and work,
● spark conductor,
● coolant,
● flushing medium.

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 Electrodischarge Machining (EDM)
● Materials of any hardness can be cut as long as the
material can conduct electricity.
● The workpiece can be of any hardness since there exist
no mechanical-action-based cutting.
● Absence of almost all mechanical forces makes it
possible to machine fragile parts.
● A primary disadvantage of EDM is tool wear.
● It is common to utilize several identical-geometry cutting
tools during the machining of one profile.
● Tool (electrode) materials can be, graphite, copper,
brass, tungsten, steel, aluminum, molybdenum, nickel,
etc.
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Electrodischarge Machining (EDM)

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 Electrodischarge Machining (EDM)
EDM, primarily, exists commercially in the form of
die-sinking machines (EDM) (Ram EDM / Sinker EDM)
and wire-cutting machines.

Dielectric fluid

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Wire-EDM (W-EDM)
Wire-cutting machines (Wire-EDM), (W-EDM).

Wire
electrode

Dielectric
fluid

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 Wire-EDM (W-EDM)
Special form of EDM
is wire EDM, wherein
the electrode is a
continuously moving
conductive wire made
from copper, brass,
tungsten or
molybdenum.
The process is widely
used for the
manufacture of
punches, dies and
stripper plates.
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Electrodischarge Machining (EDM)

Advantages and Disadvantages of EDM
1. Applicable to all materials that are fairly good electrical
conductors (e.g. metals, alloys, most carbides).
2. Melting point, hardness, toughness or brittleness impose no
restriction.
3. Virtually zero forces between the tool and the workpiece, so
very delicate work can be done.
4. Leaves no burrs on the edges.
5. Produces a thin, hard recast surface, which may be an
advantage or disadvantage depending on the use.
6. The surface may contain fine cracks by the thermally
induced stresses in case of brittle materials.
Consequently, some other finishing processes is often used
to remove a thin surface layer.
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 Thermal NTM Processes
2. Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
● EBM uses a beam of high-energy electrons focused on
the workpiece to melt and vaporize metal.
The process is carried out in a vacuum chamber.
● Used widely in microelectronics.
● Can drill 0.0125 mm to 0.025 mm diameter holes
(100/1 depth to width ratio).
● The interaction of the beam with surface produces
dangerous X-rays, so shielding is necessary.
● The layer of recast material and the depth of heat
damage is very small.
● Processing speed exceeds, EDM or ECM.
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Electron Beam Machining (EBM)

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 Thermal NTM Processes
3. Laser Beam Machining (LBM)
LBM is a thermal material removal process that utilizes a
high-energy, coherent light beam (laser) to melt and
vaporize materials (metallic and non-metallic).
100% reflecting mirror
Power
supply Flash lamp (both sides)

Laser-discharge tube
Single wavelength, Partially reflecting mirror
in-phase light
Focal length Lens
Focused light
Workpiece
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Laser Beam Machining (LBM)

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 Laser Beam Machining (LBM)
● Can drill 0.125 mm diameter holes in 2.5 mm thick
material in seconds with a depth to diameter ratio of
10/1.
● High-energy solid state or gas lasers are used.
● Not a mass metal-removal process.
● Recast layer and heat-affected zone can be detrimental
to material properties.
● Can be used as well for welding, cutting, trimming,
blanking and heat-treating by varying power density,
beam intensity, focus and duration.
● Protective materials are absolutely necessary due to
the potential damage to eyesight from either direct or
scattered laser light.
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Types of Lasers
Nd:YAG Neodymium-doped Yttrium-Aluminum-Garnet
(Y3Al5O12) laser is a solid-state laser.
● Can deliver light through a fiber-optic cable.
● Can provide up to 50 kW power in pulsed mode and
1 kW in continuous-wave mode.
CO2 Gas lasers that emits light in the infrared
region.
● Can provide up to 25 kW in continuous-wave mode.
Excimer Short-wavelength gas lasers.
Argon fluoride (ArF), krypton chloride (KrCl), etc.
● Can focus the light beam into very small spots.
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 Laser Beam Drilling
In drilling, energy transferred (e.g., via a Nd:YAG laser)
into the workpiece melts the material at the point of
contact, which subsequently changes into a plasma and
leaves the region.
A gas jet (typically, oxygen) can further facilitate this phase
transformation and departure of material removed.
Laser drilling should be targeted for hard materials and
hole geometries that are difficult to achieve with other
methods.
Plasma formation Laser beam

Molten layer
Workpiece
Heat conduction

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Laser Beam Drilling

5-DOF Laser
drilling machine

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 Laser Beam Cutting
A laser spot reflected onto the surface of a workpiece
travels along a prescribed trajectory and cuts into the
material.
Continuous-wave mode (CO2 ) gas lasers are very suitable
for laser cutting providing high-average power, yielding
high material-removal rates, and smooth cutting
surfaces.
Laser
Off-axial gas jet Erosion front
Workpiece

Workpiece feed

Removal of
molten material
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