FACILITATING LEARNING

“If you teach the person what to learn, you are preparing the person for the past, if you
teach the person how to learn you are preparing the person for the future”- Cyril Houle

Definitions of Learning
▪ Learning is a process which behavior is either modified or wholly changed through
experience or training.
▪ It is an on-going process of continued adaptation to our environment, assimilation of
new information and accommodation of new input to fit prior knowledge.

Teaching Strategies to Develop Metacognition

▪ Have students monitor their own learning and thinking.
▪ Have students learn study strategies.
▪ Have students make predictions about information to be presented next based on what
they have read.
▪ Have students relate ideas to existing knowledge structures.
▪ Have students develop questions; ask question by themselves about what’s going on
around them.
▪ Help students to know when to ask for help.
▪ Show students how to transfer knowledge, attitudes, and values, skills to other
situations or task.
Metacognition – beyond knowledge, “thinking about thinking” or “learning how to learn”, it
refers to a higher order thinking which involves active awareness and control over the cognitive
processes.
Metacognition was coined by John Flavell, according to him metacognition consist of both
metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive experiences.

John Flavell divides metacognitive knowledge into three categories:

1. Knowledge of person variables- how one’s view himself as a learner and thinker, refers
to knowledge about how human being learn and process information.
2. Knowledge of task variables- includes knowledge about the nature of the task as well as
the type of processing demands that it will place upon the individual, KNOWING WHAT
EXACTLY NEEDS TO BE ACCOMPLISHED.
3. Knowledge of strategy variables- involves awareness of the strategy you are using to
learn a topic and evaluating whether this strategy is effective.
Meta-attention- is the awareness of specific strategies so that you can keep your attention
focused.
Meta-memory- is your awareness of memory strategies that work best for you.

These are variables all interact as you learn and apply metacognition (Jeanne Ellis Omrod):
▪ Knowing the limits of one’s own learning and memory capacity.
▪ Knowing what learning task one can realistically accomplish within a certain amount of
time.

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 ▪ Knowing which learning strategies are effective and which are not.
▪ Planning an approach to a learning task that is likely to be successful.
▪ Using effective learning strategies for retrieval of previously stored information.
▪ Knowledge is said to be metacognitive if it is keenly used in purposeful manner to
ensure that a goal is met.

Learner-centered Psychological Principles

▪ They focus on psychological factors that are primarily internal but also acknowledge
external environmental factors.
▪ Intended to deal holistically with learners in context situations.
▪ Principles are intended to apply to all learners.

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

1. Nature of the learning process- the learning of complex subject matter is most effective
when it is an intentional process of constructing meaning from information and
experience (there’s a purpose of doing something).
2. Goals of the learning process- the successful learner, over time and with support and
instructional guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
3. Construction of knowledge- the successful learner can link new information with
existing knowledge in meaningful ways.
4. Strategic thinking- the successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and
reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals (depends on the students).
5. Thinking about thinking- higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental
operations facilitate creative and critical thinking.
6. Context of learning- learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture,
technology, and instructional practices.
Motivational and Affective Factors
7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning- what and how much is learned is
influenced by the learner’s motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn is influenced by the
individual’s emotional states, beliefs, interest and goals and habits of thinking.
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn- the learner’s creativity, higher order thinking, and natural
curiosity all contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks
of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing for
personal choice and control.
9. Effects of motivation of effort- acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires
extended learner effort and guided practice. Without learners’ motivation to learn, the
willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without coercion.
Developmental and Social Factors
10. Developmental influences of learning- as individual develop; there are different
opportunities and constraints for learning. Learning is most effective when differential
development within and across physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains is
taken into account.
11. Social influences of learning- learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal
relations, and communication.

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Individuals Differences Factors
12. Individual differences of learning- learners have different strategies, approaches and
capabilities for learning that are a function of prior experience and heredity.
13. Learning and diversity- learning is most effective when differences in learners’
linguistics, cultural, and social backgrounds are taken into account.
14. Standards and assessment- setting appropriately high and challenging standards and
assessing the learner as well as learning progress – including diagnostic, process, and
outcome assessment – are integral parts the learning process.
▪ On-going assessment
▪ Standardized assessment
▪ Performance assessment
▪ Self-assessment

Summary of the 14 Principles (Alexander and Murphy)

a. The knowledge based.
b. Strategic processing and control.
c. Motivation and affect.
d. Development and individual differences.
e. Situation or context.

Metacognition “Thinking about Thinking”

1. Metacognition and development
▪ Teaching strategies to develop metacognition.
2. Metacognition knowledge variables
▪ Person variables- refer to knowledge about how human beings learn and process
information.
▪ Task variables- include the knowledge about the nature of the task as well as the
type of processing demands that it will place upon the individual.
▪ Strategy variables- involve awareness of the strategy you are using to learn the
topic.
✓ Meta-attention – awareness of specific strategies so that you can keep
your attention focused.
✓ Meta-memory – awareness of memory strategies that works best for you.
3. Application of metacognition leads one to be an expert learner.
▪ Characteristics of expert learners.
4. Learners who do not use metacognition remain to be novice learners.
▪ Characteristics of novice learners.

Novice vs Expert Learners

Aspect of learning Novice learners Expert learners
Knowledge in different Have limited knowledge in Have deeper knowledge in
subject areas the different subject areas different areas because they
look for the interrelationship in
the things, they learn.

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Problem solving Satisfied at just scratching First try to understand the
the surface; hurriedly give problem, look for boundaries,
the solution to the problem. and create a mental picture of
the problem.
Learning and thinking Employ rigid strategies that Design new strategies that
strategies may not be appropriate to would be appropriate to the
the task at hand. task.
Selectivity in the processing Attempt to process all the Select important information to
information that they process; able to breakdown
received. information to manageable
chunks.
Production of output Do not examine the quality of Check their errors and redirect
their work, nor stop to make their efforts to maintain quality
revisions. output.

Theories Related to the Learner’s Development

Freud's 3
components of
personality & 5
psychosexual
stages

Brofenbrener's Erikson's 8
Bio-ecological psycho-social
systems theory

Theories
related to
the learner's
development

Vygotsky's on
Piaget's 4
language/
stages of
Zone of
cognitive dev't
proximal dev't

Kholberg 3
stages and 6
substages of
moral dev't

“The mind is like an iceberg; it floats with one-seventh of its bulk above water.”- Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud’s Psychotherapy- biological factors play an important part in the human’s
personality
Psychosexual Stages of Development
1. Oral stage (birth to 1 y.o.)- eating is the major source of satisfaction.
2. Anal stage (1 to 3 y.o.)- the influencing factor at this stage is toilet training.
3. Phallic stage (3 to 6 y.o.)- greatest source of pleasure comes from sex organs.

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 ▪ Oedipus Complex- boys desire their mother.
▪ Electra Complex- girls desire their father.
4. Latency period (6 y.o. to adolescence)- children turn their attention to people outside.
5. Genital Stage (adolescence and beyond)- sexual impulses are active again.
Model of Personality
Id- human beings basic needs which are unconscious and demands satisfaction.
Ego- the conscious attempt to balance the innate pleasure seeking drives the human organism
and the demands of the society.
Super Ego- may be thought of as our understanding of why we can’t have everything we want,
(standard of good behavior that we aspire, conscience: inner voice).

Jean Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

▪ “The principle goal of education in the schools should be creating men and women who
are capable of doing new things not simply repeating what other generations have
done.”- Jean Piaget
▪ Swiss biologist and psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is renowned for constructing a
highly influential model of child development and learning.
▪ Piaget’s theory identifies four developmental stages and the processes by which
children progress through them.
Schema- Piaget used the term “schema” to refer to the cognitive structures by which
individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their environment.
Assimilation- this is the process of fitting a new experience into an existing or previously
created cognitive structure or schema.
Accommodation- this is the process of creating a new schema.
Equilibration- is achieving proper balance between assimilation and accommodation. If
our experiences did not match our schemata, we experience cognitive disequilibrium.
Stages of Cognitive Development
1. Sensory-motor Stage- focuses on the senses and muscle movement corresponds from birth
to infancy (reflexive in grasping and sucking).
a. Object Permanence- ability of the child to know that an object still exists even when out of
sight.
2. Pre-operational Stage- (2 to 7 y.o.) the child can now make mental representation and its
able to pretend (use of symbols).
a. Symbolic Function- ability to represent objects and events.
b. Egocentrism- tendency of the child to only see his point of view and to assume that
everyone also has some point.
c. Centration- tendency of the child that focus on one aspect of a thing and exclude others
aspect.
d. Irreversibility- inability to reverse their thinking. ex. 2+3=5 but can’t understand that 5-2=3.
e. Animism- to attribute human like traits to the objects.
f. Transductive Reasoning- (inductive or deductive) refers to the pre-operational child’s type
of reasoning (if A causes B, then B causes A).
3. Concrete-operational Stage- (8 to 11 y.o.) ability of the child to think logically, only in terms
of concrete objects.

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a. Decentering- ability of the child to think logically, only in terms of concrete objects (more
logical when dealing with concrete objects and situations).
b. Reversibility- the child can now follow that certain operations can be done in reverse.
c. Conversation- ability to know that certain properties of object like number, mass, volume,
or area don’t change.
d. Seriation- ability to order or arrange things in series based on one dimension (weight,
volume, time, color and size).
4. Formal-operational Stage- (12 to 15 y.o.) final stage, thinking becomes more logical, the can
now solved more abstract problems and can hypothesize.
a. Hypothetical Reasoning- ability to come up with different answer about the problem and
to gather and weigh data in order to (with the absence of concrete object).
b. Analogical Reasoning- ability to perceive the relationship in one instance and use that to
narrow down the possible answer.
c. Deductive Reasoning- ability to think logically by applying a general rule to particular
instance or situation.

Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

▪ Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight
stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. During each stage, the
person experiences a psychosocial crisis which could have a positive or negative
outcome for personality development.
▪ For Erikson (1958, 1963), these crises are of a psychosocial nature because they involve
psychological needs of the individual (i.e., psycho) conflicting with the needs of society
(i.e., social).
▪ According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy
personality and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths
which the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises.
▪ Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete
further stages and therefore an unhealthier personality and sense of self. These stages,
however, can be resolved successfully at a later time.

Stage Psychosocial Crisis Basic Virtue Age

1 Trust vs. Mistrust Hope 0 - 1½
2 Autonomy vs. Shame Will 1½ - 3
3 Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose 3-5
4 Industry vs. Inferiority Competency 5 - 12
5 Identity vs. Role Confusion Fidelity 12 - 18
6 Intimacy vs. Isolation Love 18 - 40
7 Generativity vs. Stagnation Care 40 - 65
8 Ego Integrity vs. Despair Wisdom 65+

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 ▪ He viewed his concept as an evolving work in progress. This summary attempts to show
the main points of the Erikson psychosocial crisis theory of human development. More
detail follows this overview.

Summary Diagram
Erikson's Freudian life basic virtue and maladaptation
psychosocial crisis psycho- sexual stage/relationships second named /malignancy (potent
stages stages /issues strength (potential ial negative
(syntonic v positive outcomes outcome- one or the
dystonic) from each crisis) other- from
unhelpful
experience during
each crisis)
1. Trust v Mistrust Oral infant Hope and Drive Sensory Distortion
/mother/feeding /Withdrawal
and being
comforted, teething,
sleeping
2. Autonomy v Anal toddler Willpower and Self- Impulsivity
Shame & Doubt /parents /bodily Control /Compulsion
functions, toilet
training, muscular
control, walking
3. Initiative v Guilt Phallic preschool Purpose and Direction Ruthlessness
/family/exploration /Inhibition
and discovery,
adventure and play
4. Industry v Latency schoolchild / school, Competence and Narrow Virtuosity
Inferiority teachers, friends, Method /Inertia
neighborhood / achi
evement and
accomplishment
5. Identity v Role Puberty and adolescent / peers, Fidelity and Devotion Fanaticism
Confusion Genitality groups, /Repudiation
influences / resolvin
g identity and
direction, becoming
a grown-up
6. Intimacy v (Genitality) young adult / lovers, Love and Affiliation Promiscuity
Isolation friends, work /Exclusivity

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 connections / intima
te relationships,
work and social life
7. Generativity v n/a mid-adult / children, Care and Production Overextension
Stagnation community / 'giving / Rejectivity
back', helping,
contributing
8. Integrity v n/a late adult / society, Wisdom and Presumption
Despair the world, Renunciation / Disdain
life / meaning and
purpose, life
achievements

Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural Theory

▪ “The teacher must orient his work not yesterday’s development in the child but on
tomorrow’s.”- Lev Vygotsky
▪ Vygotsky’s emphasized the role of social interaction in learning and development.
▪ Scaffolding is a systematic manner of providing assistance to the learner that helps the
learner to effectively acquire the skill.
✓ Guidance from more knowledgeable others (MKO) would lead a learner to a
higher-level performance.
▪ Social interaction cognition
▪ Elementary mental function higher mental function
1. Attention
2. Sensation
3. Perception
4. Memory
Vygotsky’s Terms
1. MKO = more knowledgeable others.
2. ZPD = zone of proximal development- it is the link between what the child can do and cannot
where it is sensitive for instructions that allows the learner to develop the skill that they already
have and use it for learning new things and involves interaction.
3. Zone of actual development- area where the child doesn’t need the assistance of the literate
adult.
4. Language = is the main means by which adults transmit information to children, and also very
powerful tool of intellectual adaptation. Language is therefore an accelerator for thinking and
understanding.
✓ Thought is the result of language.
✓ Private speech/ internal speech – children who usually engaged on large
amount of private speech are actually much more socially competent than
those who do not.
Support from the literate adult and others:

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 a. Little independence- parents, siblings, teachers, other literate adults.
b. Gradual independence- parents, teachers, other literate adults.
c. Increasing independence - parents, teachers, peers.
d. Towards independent reading and writing- teachers and learners.
e. Totally independent reading and writing- learner.

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

▪ “Right action tends to be defined in terms of general individual rights and standards that
have been critically examined and agreed upon by the whole society.”- Lawrence
Kohlberg

•Stage 1: obedience v. punishment - The physical consequences of action determine its goodness or badness
regardless of the human meaning or value of these consequences.
•Stage 2: individualism + exchange - Right action consists of what instrumentally satisfies one's own needs and
Pre- occasionally the needs of others.
conventional

•Stage 3: good boy + girl - Good behavior is what pleases or helps others and is approved by them.
•Stage 4: law + order - The individual is oriented toward authority, fixed rules, and the maintenance of the social
order.
Conventional

•Stage 5: social contract - terms of general individual rights and standards that have been critically examined and
agreed upon by the whole society.
•Stage 6: universal ethical principle - Right is defined by the decision of conscience in accord with self-chosen
Post- ethical principles that appeal to logical comprehensiveness, universality, and consistency.
conventional

Brofenbrenner’s Bio-Ecological Theory

▪ “We as a nation need to be re-educated about the necessary and sufficient conditions
for making human beings human. We need to be educated not as parents – but as
workers, neighbors, and friends; and as member s of organizations, committees, boards
– and, especially, the informal networks that control our social institutions and thereby
determine the conditions of life for our families and their children.”- Urie
Bronfenbrenner

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 Chronosystem

Macrosystem

Exosystem

Mesosytem

Microsystem

▪ Microsystem- is a pattern of activities, roles, and interpersonal relations experienced by

developing person in a given face-to-face setting with particular physical and material
features, and containing other persons with distinctive characteristics of temperament,
personality, and systems of belief. The child directly interacts with family, school, and
neighborhood. It covers the basic relationship and interactions his/her immediate
environment.
▪ Mesosytem- this layer serves as a connection between the structures of the child’s
microsystem. It comprises the linkages and processes taking place between two or more
settings containing the developing person (e.g., the relations between home and school,
school and workplace etc.). In other words, a mesosystem is a system of microsystems.
▪ Exosystem- It refers to the bigger social system in which the child does not function
directly. Encompasses the linkage and processes taking place between two or more
settings, at least one of which does not ordinarily contain the developing person, but in
which events occur that influence processes within the immediate settings that does
contain that person (e.g. for a child, relation between the home and the parent’s work
place; for a parent, the relations between the school and the neighborhood group).
▪ Macrosystem- consists of the overarching pattern of micro-, meso-, and exosystems
characteristic of a given culture, subculture, or other broader social context, with
particular reference to the developmentally-instigative belief systems, resources,
hazards, life styles, opportunity structures, life course options, and patterns of social
interchange that are embedded in each of these systems.
▪ Chronosystem- is a description of the evolution, development or stream of
development of the external systems in time. The chronosystem models can cover

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 either a short or long period of time. It covers he element of time as it relates to a
child’s environment. This involves patterns of stability.

Individual Differences

Indiviual Differences

Diversity Factors Benefits of Classroom

Diversity strategies

a. let the students share their personal

1)student's self- history
1. socioeconomic awareness
status b. integrate their learining experiences
2) contributes
2. thinking styles to cognitive c. identify patterns of unity
3. exceptionalities development d. communicate high expectations
3) prepares e. use varied IMs
their role as a f. vary the example in illustration
member of
society g. adapt to the students' background
4) promotes h. diversified assessment
harmony i. form small-discussion groups of students

Learning/Thinking Styles- refer to the preferred way individual process information. Styles are
also considered to be bipolar dimension. There are several perspectives about learning-thinking
styles. We shall focus on sensory preferences and the global-analytic continuum.

Sensory Preferences
▪ Visual learners
• Visual-iconic- interested in visual imagery such as film, graphic displays or
pictures in order to solidify to solidify learning.
• Visual- symbolic- prefer this form of input feel comfortable with abstract
symbolism such as mathematical formulae or the written word.
▪ Auditory learners- learn best through verbal lectures.
• Listeners- they remember things said to them and make information their own/
they learn by reviewing in their heads what they heard other says.
• Talkers- prefer to talk and discuss/ auditory learners tend to whisper comments
to themselves.

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 ▪ Tactile/Kinesthetic- prefers a hands-on approach, actively exploring the physical world
around them/ they benefit much from “learning-by-doing” and have good motor skill
and motor coordination.

Global-Analytic Continuum
▪ Analytic- a successive processor prefers to learn in a step-by-step sequential format,
beginning with details leading to a conceptual understanding of the skill. Left-brained
dominant individual is portrayed as the linear verbal, mathematical thinker and tends:
✓ Toward the linear, step-by-step process of learning.
✓ To see finite elements of patterns rather than the whole.
✓ They are “tree seers”.
✓ They are more comfortable in a world of details and hierarchies of information.
▪ Global thinkers- A simultaneous processor prefers to learn beginning with the general
concept and then going to specifics. right-brained person is one who is global, non-linear
and holistic in thought preferences and tends:
• To lean towards non-collinear thoughts.
• To see the whole pattern rather than the particle elements.
• They are the “forest seers”.
• To give information to the overall structures and ignore details.

Left Brain vs Right Brain

LEFT BRAIN (ANALYTIC): successive RIGHT BRAIN (GLOBAL): simultaneous
hemispheric styles hemispheric styles
Verbal Visual
Responds to word meaning Responds to tone of voice
Sequential Random
Process information linearly Process information in varied order
Responds to logic Responds to emotion
Plans ahead Impulsive
Recalls people’s name Recalls people’s faces
Speaks with few gestures Speaks with gestures
Punctual Less punctual
Prefers formal study design Prefers sound/music background while
studying
Prefers bright lights while studying Prefers frequent mobility while studying

Multiple Intelligence
Multiple Intelligences by Howard Gardner: He defined intelligence as “an ability or set of
abilities that allows a person to solve a problem or fashion product that is valued in one or
more cultures”.
1. Verbal-Linguistic- the ability to use words and language.
2. Logical-Mathematical- the capacity for inductive and deductive thinking and
reasoning, as well as the use of numbers and the recognition of abstract patterns.

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 3. Visual-Spatial- the ability to visualize objects and spatial dimensions, and create
internal images and pictures.
4. Body-Kinesthetic- the wisdom of the body and the ability to control physical motion.
5. Musical-Rhythmic- the ability to recognize tonal patterns and sounds, as well as
sensitivity to rhythms and beats.
6. Interpersonal- the capacity for person-to-person communications and relationships.
7. Intrapersonal- the spiritual, inner states of being, self-reflection, and awareness.
8. Naturalist- nature lover, someone that cares for the environment and love science.
9. Existential/Spirit Smart- learning through seeing bigger picture, seeks connections to
the real world.
Teaching Strategies guided by thinking/learning styles and multiple intelligence:
1. Use questions of all types to stimulate various levels of thinking from recalling factual
information to drawing implications and making value judgments.
2. Provide a general overview of material to be learned i.e., structured overviews, advance
organizers, etc., so that students’ past experiences will be associated with new ideas.
3. Allow sufficient time for information to be processed and then integrate using both the
right- and left-brain hemispheres.
4. Set clear purposes before any listening, viewing, or reading experience.
5. Warm up before the lesson development by using brainstorming, set induction, etc.
6. Use multisensory means for both processing and retrieving information.
7. Use a variety of review and reflection strategies to bring closure to learning.
8. Use descriptive feedback rather than simply praising.

Exceptionalities

Mental
retardation

Sensory
learning disabilities impairments

Exceptionalities

emotional and Physical disabilities

behavioral and health
disorders impairments

autism

▪ As a teacher it is necessary that you have both the right information and proper attitude
in dealing with special learners. The IDEA (Individual with Disabilities Education Act) is
the law that provides comprehensive service and support for exceptional learners. On

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 our 1987 Philippine Constitution, Article XIV, Sec.2 uses the word “disabled” in
paragraph (5) “Provide adult citizens, the disabled and out-of-school youth with training.
Disability- it is a measureable impairment or limitations that “interferes with a person’s ability,
for example, to walk, to lift, hear or learn. It may refer to a physical, sensory, or mental
condition.
Handicap- it is a disadvantage that occurs as a result of a disability or impairment. The degree
of disadvantage is often dependent on the adjustment made by both the person and his
environment.
Categories of Exceptionalities
1. Specific cognitive or academic difficulties
▪ Learning disabilities- involve difficulties in specific cognitive process like perception,
language, memory or metacognition. Examples of this learning disabilities include
dyslexia (reading), dyscalculia (number operations), dysgraphia (writing), dysarthria
(stuttering), auditory agnosia (hearing), olfactory agnosia (hearing), motor aphasia
(speaking) and visual agnosia (sight).
▪ Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)- (1) difficulty in focusing and
maintaining attention and (2) recurrent hyperactive and impulsive behavior.
▪ Speech and Communication Disorder- inability to produce the sounds correctly,
stuttering, difficulty in spoken language comprehension.
▪ Autism- it is a condition manifested by different levels of impaired social interaction
and communication, repetitive behaviors and limited interest. They usually have an
intense need for routine and a predictable environment.
▪ Mental Retardation- it refers to significant sub-average intelligence and deficits in
adaptive behavior.
▪ Emotional/Conduct Disorders- this involves the presence of emotional states like
depression and aggression over a considerable amount of time that they notably
disturb learning performance in school.
2. Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments
▪ Physical and health impairments- it involves physical or medical conditions such as
(1) limited energy and strength (2) reduced mental alertness and (3) muscle control.
▪ Severe and multiple disabilities- it refers to the presence of two or more different
types of disability.
▪ Sensory Impairments:
Visual Impairments- these are conditions when there is malfunction of the eyes
or optic nerves that prevent normal vision.
Hearing Impairments- malfunction of the auditory nerves that hinder perception
of sounds.
▪ Giftedness- this involves a high level of cognitive development.
3. People-First Language- the term would imply that putting the name of the person then
their disability (person with AIDS, instead AIDS victim).
▪ Avoiding Generic Labels- people with mental retardation is preferable to the
mentally retarded.
▪ Emphasizing Abilities, Not Limitations- for instance, “uses a wheelchair” is
preferable “to confine in a wheelchair”.

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 ▪ Avoiding Euphemisms- (such as “physically challenged”) which are regarded as
condescending and avoid the real issue that result from a disability.
▪ Avoiding Implying Illness or Suffering- “had polio” is preferable to is “a polio victim
“and “has multiple sclerosis” is preferable to “suffer from a multiple sclerosis”.

Behaviorist Perspective (Behaviorism: Pavlov, Thorndike, Watson, and Skinner)

Ivan Pavlov- a Russian physiologist is well known of his work in “classical conditioning or
stimulus substitution”
Pavlov’s experiment: Classical Conditioning
1st Stage- before conditioning:
o Bell (neutral stimulus) No response
nd
2 Stage- during conditioning:
o Bell (neutral stimulus)

Paired with
o Meat (unconditioned stimulus) Salivation (unconditioned response)
rd
3 Stage- after conditioning:
o Bell (conditioned stimulus) Salivation (condition response)
Pavlov’s following findings:
▪ Stimulus Generalization- once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of the bell, it
will salivate at the other similar sounds.
▪ Extinction- if you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation will eventually cease in
response to the bell.
▪ Spontaneous Recovery- extinguished responses can be “recovered” after an elapsed
time, but it will extinguish again if the dog is not presented with food.
▪ Discrimination- the dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells (stimuli) and
discern which bell would result in the presentation of food and which would not.
▪ Higher-order Conditioning- once the dog has been conditioned to associate the bell
with food, another unconditioned stimulus such as a light may be flashed at the same
time that the bell is rung. Eventually the dog will salivate at the flash of the light without
the sound of the bell.
Edward Lee Thorndike: His “connectionism theory”- (learning has taken place when strong
connection or bond between stimulus and response is formed/ learning could be adequately
explained without considering any unobservable internal states) gave us the original S-R
framework of behavioral psychology. He explained that learning is the result of associations
forming between stimuli and responses.
Primary Laws of Connectionism Theory:
▪ Law of Effect- connection between a stimulus and response is strengthened when the
consequence is positive, and it is weakened if the result is negative.
▪ Law of Exercise- the more S-R bond is practiced the stronger it will become.
▪ Law of Readiness- the more readiness the learner ha to respond to the stimulus the
stronger the bond between them.
Principles Derived from Thorndike’s Connectionism
1. Learning requires both practice and rewards (laws of effect/exercise).

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 2. A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the same action
sequence (law of readiness).
3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations.
4. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.
John Watson- an American psychologist that work with Pavlov’s brainchild.
Experiment on Albert: in the beginning Alfred was not afraid of the rat. Then Watson applied
strange sounds every time Albert touches the rat. Eventually Albert was scared of the rat.
Burrhus Frederick Skinner- known for his “operant conditioning”.
Reinforcement- is the key element in Skinner’s S-R theory. A reinforce is anything that
strengthens the desired response.
Operant Conditioning
▪ Positive Reinforcement - a stimulus that is given or added to increase the response.
▪ Negative Reinforcement- is any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a
response when it is withdrawn or remove.
B.F. Skinner’s Terms:
▪ Punishment- is a consequence intended to result in reduced responses.
▪ Extinction/Non-Reinforcement- ignoring responses so that it will not be repeated.
▪ Shaping of behavior- successive approximations of the behavior are rewarded until the
person learns.
▪ Behavioral Chaining- series of steps that are needed to be learn.
Reinforcement Schedules:
▪ Fixed Interval Schedules- maintaining the time for reinforcement.
▪ Variables Interval Schedules- anytime of the day will be given reinforcement (it
produces steadier and more persistent rates of responses).
▪ Fixed Ratio Schedules- responses must occur before the reinforcement much like the
fixed interval schedules.
▪ Variable Ratio Schedules- number of correct responses for reinforcement varies much
like variables interval schedules (it produces steadier and more persistent rates of
responses).
Implication of Operant Conditioning (programmed for instruction)
1. Practice should take the form of question (stimulus)- answer (response) frames which
expose the students to the subject gradual steps.
2. Require that the learner makes a response for every frame and receives immediate
feedback.
3. Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions so that response is always correct and
hence, a positive reinforcement
4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with secondary reinforcers such as
the verbal praise, prizes, and good grades.

Principle Derived from Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

a. Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur; intermittent reinforcement is
particularly effective.
b. Information should be presented in small amount so that responses can be reinforcing
(“shaping”).

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 c. Reinforcement will generalize across similar stimuli “stimuli generalization” producing
secondary conditioning.

Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt Theory- was the initial cognitive response to behaviorism; this term means a “form” or
“configuration”. Psychologist Max Wertheimer Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka studied
perception and concluded that perceivers (learners) were not passive but rather active.
Information Processing Theory- relating how the mind and the computer is a powerful analogy.
Cognitive psychologist believed that cognitive processes influenced the nature of what is
learned and also, they look into how we receive, perceive, store and retrieve information.
Types of Knowledge:
a. General vs. specific: this involves whether the knowledge useful in many tasks, or only
in one.
b. Declarative: this refers to factual knowledge; they may be in form of a word or an
image.
c. Procedural: includes knowledge on how to do things.
d. Episodic: includes memories of life events, like your high school graduation.
e. Conditional: this is about knowing when and why to apply declarative or procedural
strategies.
Sensory Register
1. Capacity- our mind receives amount of information but it is more than what are minds
can hold or perceive.
2. Duration- the sensory register only holds the information for an extremely brief – in the
order of 1 to 3 seconds.
3. Difference of duration based on modality- auditory memory is more persistent than
visual.
Stages
▪ Encoding- information is sensed, perceived, and attend to.
▪ Storage- the information is stored for either a brief or extended period of time.
▪ Retrieval - the information is brought back at the appropriate time, and reactivated for
use on a current task, the true measure of effective memory.
The Role of Attention
▪ Short Term Memory
Capacity- STM can hold chunks of information sometimes called 7+ / -2. It is
called working memory because it is where new information is temporarily
placed while it is mentally processed.
Duration- around 18 seconds or less.
▪ Long Term Memory- it is a final or permanent storing house for memory information. It
holds the stored information until needed again.
Capacity- LTM has unlimited capacity.
Duration- duration of LTM is definite.
Executive Control Processes- also referred as the metacognitive skills.
▪ Forgetting- is the ability to retrieve or access information when needed
Decay- information is not attended to, and eventually fades away.

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 Interference- new or old information blocks access to the information in
question.
▪ Methods for Increasing Retrieval of Information
Rehearsal- this is repeating information verbatim, either mentally or aloud.
Meaningful Learning- this is making connections between new information and
prior knowledge.
Organizations- it is making connections among various pieces of information.
-Info should be organized efficiently should be recalled.
Elaboration- this is adding additional ideas to new information based on what
one already knows. It is connecting new info with old, to gain meaning.
Visual Imagery- this means forming a picture of the information.
Generation- things we produce are easier to remember than things we hear.
Context- remembering the situation helps recover information.
Personalization- it is making the information relevant to the individual.
▪ Other Memory Methods
Serial position effect (recency and primacy)- you will remember the beginning
and end of list most readily.
Part learning- break up “list” or chunk the information to increase memorization
Distributed practice- break up learning sessions, rather than cramming all the
info in at once (massed practice).
Mnemonic aids- these are memory techniques that learners may employ to help
them retain and retrieve information more effectively. This includes the loci
technique, acronyms, sentence construction, peg-word and association
techniques, among others.

▪ Information is received through the senses and goes through the sensory
memory for a very brief amount of time. If not found relevant,
information may decay. It goes to the STM and if given attention and it
perceived and found to be relevant, it is sent to the LTM. If not properly
encoded forgetting occurs. Different cognitive processes applied to the

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 information will then determine if information can be retrieved when
needed later.

Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism vs Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Tolman's purposive behaviorism - "sign Bandura Social-learning theory - people learn

learning theory" link bet. behaviorism and from one another thru observational learning,
cognitive / learning is a cognitive process imitation and modeling

goal-directedness - individuals do more

principles - learning by observing, without
than merely respond to stimuli; they act
change-observation alone, cognitive dev't. and a
on beliefs, attitudes, changing
transition bet. behaviorist and cognitive theories.
conditions, and they strive toward goals.

cognitive maps – the tendency to “learn modeling - the model (e.g. peer pressure), the
location” is somehow formed a third person (e.g. it was seen on the others),
cognitive map that will help the person imitated behavior leads to reinforcing
to perform. consequences and vicarious reinforcement.

four conditions for effective modeling - attention,

latent learning – it is a kind of learning
retention, motor reproduction and motivation.

Reciprocal causation - the person, the behavior

intervening and the environment
variables
modeling - live (actual demonstration) and
symbolic (actions portrayed in some medium;
television)

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Gestalt Psychology

Law of proximity - elements that are closer together

will be percieved as coherent object.

Law of similarity - elements that look similar will be

percieved as part of the same form

Law of closure - tends to fill the gaps/ close - tend to

fill the gaps or close

Gestalt Principles

Law of good continuation - tends to draw a good

continuos line

Law of good pragnanz - we "expect" certain patterns

and therefore percieve that expected pattern.

Insight Learning -
coordination of
Gestalt Psychology - thinking to create
adheres to the idea of new materials/ no
review, trianing is Law of Figure/ ground - we tend to pay attention and
learning taking place by percieve things in the foreground first.
discovery necessary

Inner forces - motivations, attitudes and

feelings

Lifespace - individual has

forces that affect his
perceptions and his
learning
Outer forces - attitude and
behavior of the teacher and
classmates

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Jerome Bruner’s Constructivist Theory

Bruner's Contructivist Theory

Spiral Curriculum - reefrs to the idea Discovery Learning - it refers to

of revisiting basic ideas over and over obtaining knowledge for oneself.
They learn thru relevant domain

Representation of Knowledge
Theory of Instruction Categorization - these are rule
that specify four thing about
the objects.
Enactive - they are
represented in the muscles Predisposition to learn -
and invovle motor readiness for learning any
responses, or ways to subject can be taught at Identity - categories
manipulate the any stage of development include objects based
environment in a way that fits the on their attributes or
child.s cognitive ability features

Iconic - learning can be

obtained through using
models and pictures and Structure of Knowledge - it Equivalent - it can be
they can now use mental refers to relationships determined by affective
images to stand for a certain among factual elements criteria (based on
objects or events and techniques/ a body of related functions; car,
knwoledge can be truck van all are
structured so that it can be vehicles) or formal
most readily grasped criteria (apple -green,
ripe, dried)

Symbolic - the learner has

developed the ability to
think in abstract terms.
Effective sequencing - the
lesson can be presented in Coding systems - these
increasing difficulty are categories that
serves to recognize
sensory input / related
categories from coding
Reinforcement - rewrds and system
punishment should be
selected and paced
appropriately

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 Constructivism - the
learners construct their
own meaning. They
generate insights and
enlightened

Organizing Knowledge -
Views of Characteristics of formation of concept is
Constructivism Constructivism a way categorizing
events in our mind.

Individual 1. learners construct concept as feature list

constructivism - a.k.a understanding 2.new
cognitive learning depends on
constructivism current understanding
3. learning is facilitated
with social interactions. concept as prototype
4. meaningful learners
Social Constructivism - occurs within authentic
knowledge exists in learning tasks.
social context and is
initially shared with
others concepts as exemplars

Jerome Bruner was born in New York.

▪ “Learners are encouraged to discover facts and relationships for themselves”.

David Ausebel’s Meaningful Learning Theory

▪ Meaningful learning can take place through four processes:
A. Derivative Subsumption
B. Correlative Assumption
C. Superordinate Learning
D. Combinatorial Learning
Application of Principles
1. Progressive differentation- this increase the stability and clarity of anchoring ideas.

Robert Gagne Conditions of Learning

Gagne’s Principles
1. Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes. Gagne named five
categories of learning: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor
skills and attitudes.
2. Learning hierarchies define what intelecctual skills are to be learned and a sequence of
instruction;

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 a. Stimulus recognition
b. Response generation
c. Procedure following
d. Use of terminology
e. Discriminations
f. Concept information
g. Rule application
h. Problem solving
3. Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that constiitute the conditions of
learning these includes the nine events of instructions.

Gagne's Conditions of Learning

- it focuses on the intellectual
skills

Categories of Learning 9 events of instruction

Verbal information - stating

previously learned materials
such as facts, concepts , etc. 1. gaining attention -
reception
Intellectual skills - 2. informing the learner of
discriminations: the objectives - expectancy
distinguishing objects, 3. stimulating recall or prior
features, or symbols learning - retrieval
4. presenting the stimulus -
Cognitive strategies - selective perception
employing personal ways to
guide learning thinking, 5. providing learner
acting and feeling guidance - semantic coding
6. eliciting performance -
Attitudes - choosing personal responding
actions based on internal
7. giving feedback -
states of understanding and
reinforcement
feeling
8. assesing performance -
retrieval
Motor Skills - executing
performance involving the 9. enhancing retention and
use of muscles . transfers - generalization

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Ellis Paul Torrance Creativity Framework

fluency - refers to the

production of a great number
of ideas / solutions to a
problem; compare, convert,
count, define, explain

flexibilty - refers to the

Torrance's production of ideas that show a
creativity variety of posibilities/ ability to
framework - see things from different
ways to points; change, demonstrate,
facilitate the interpret
respective
aspect by
using key elaboration - process of
words and enhancing ideas by providing
application more details; appraise, critique,
activities determine, evaluate, grade

Problem
Solving/
Creativity originality - production of ideas
that is unique, involves
sythesis; compose create,
design, generate,

six stages of CPS

1. mess finding
Creative 2. data finding
Problem
Solving 3.problem finding
(CPS) 4. idea finding
5. solution finding
6. acceptance finding

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David Ausubel’s Subsumption Theory

Subsumption Theory by
Ausubel

Meaningful Reception of Four process for Meaningful Advance organizers

Information Learning

derivative - the new

information you learned is an expository - it describes the
Learners' cognitive new content
structure example of a concept that you
have already learned.

correlative - it shows a narrative - presents the new

use of advance complementary relationship information in the form of a
graphic organizer with your schemata in story to students.
formulating new idea

superordinate - this invovles skimming - is done by looking

higher-level concept in a word over the new material to gain
subsumption - a whose meaning encompasses a basic overview.
process by which the meaning of another word
new material is
related to a relevant
ideas in the existing
cognitive structure
graphic org. - visuals to set up
combinatorial - when newly or outline the new
acquired knowledge combines information. this may include
with the prior knowledge to pictographs, descriptive
enrich the understanding of patterns, concept patterns,
both concepts concept maps.

***the end**

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References
▪ Aquino, A., 2009., Facilitating Human Learning, REX Book Store Inc. REX Knowledge
Center, 109 Sen M Cuenco Sr, Quezon City, 1114 Metro Manila, PH.
▪ https://www.learning-theories.com/eriksons-stages-of-development.html
▪ http://www.psychologydiscussion.net/learning/learning-meaning-nature-types-and-
theories-of-learning/652
▪ Lucas, M., et.al., 2011., Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive Process, 2nd Edition.
LORIMAR Publishing, Inc. 776 Aurora Blvd., cor. Boston Street, Cubao, Quezon City,
Metro Manila ISBN: 971-08-6078-X. Lifted by Dominic James M. Lasco,. BEEd. –
Generalist (TW)/7/13/2014…pages 1 – 179.

Prepared by:

Teacher A Online Review Center

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