Exp2.

Periodic Table and Periodic Law

Ⅰ. Introduction

Ⅱ. Procedure Summary

B. The Appearance of Some Representative Elements

Cl2, Br2, and I2 are gases which can be hard to deal with in certain contexts of chemical
experiments. Therefore, we will capture the gases by using cyclohexane, where the halogen
gases will be produced through chemical reactions of aqueous solution.

Three 150mm clean test tube, 5% sodium hypochlorite, 3 M KBr solution, 3 M KI, 6 M HCl, 8
M HNO3, and cyclohexane is needed for this part of the experiment. One might need a beaker
with hot water for B.2 procedure 4 and B.3 procedure 4.

B.1 Cl2

1) In a 150mm test tube, put 2 mL of 5% sodium hypochlorite.

2)Add 10 drops of cyclohexane.

3)Add 10 drops of 6 M HCl

B.2 Br2

1) In a new 150mm test tube, put 2 mL of 3 M KBr solution, and 3 drops cyclohexane.

2)Put 5~10 drops of HNO3.

3)Agitate/swirl mixture so that HNO3 mixes with KBr.

4)Place test tube in hot water bath (it will increase the reaction rate).

B.3 I2

1) In a new 150mm test tube, put 2 mL of 3 M KI solution, and 3 drops cyclohexane.

2)Put 5~10 drops of HNO3.

3)Agitate/swirl mixture so that HNO3 mixes with KI.

4)Place test tube in hot water bath (it will increase the reaction rate).

C. The Chemical Properties of the Halogens

Cl2, Br2, and I2 obtained in part B above will be tested against KBr, KI, and NaCl. The purpose
is to find out the relative chemical reactivity of halogens.

Six 100mm clean test tube, solid KBr, KI, NaCl, and the result tubes from part B.1, B.2, B.3 are
needed for this part of experiment.
 C.1 Cl2

1) Add pinch of KBr to first tube and KI to the second.

2)Use pipet to draw the upper cyclohexane layer of the tube from part B.1

3)Add the cyclohexane layer in equal portion to both tubes.

4)Swirl, agitate, and observe.

C.2 Br2

1) Add pinch of NaCl to third tube and KI to the fourth.

2) Use pipet to draw the upper cyclohexane layer of the tube from part B.2.

3) Add the cyclohexane layer in equal portion to both tubes.

4)Swirl, agitate, and observe.

C.3 I2

1) Add pinch of NaCl to fifth tube and KBr to the sixth.

2) Use pipet to draw the upper cyclohexane layer of the tube from part B.3.

3) Add the cyclohexane layer in equal portion to both tubes.

4) Swirl, agitate, and observe.

D. The Chemical Properties of the Halides

In part D, the chemical properties of halides will be observed with Ca2+, Ag+, and Fe3+ ions.

Twelve 100mm clean test tube, solid NaF, NaCl, KBr, and KI, distilled water, 2 M Ca(NO3)2, 0.1
M AgNO3, 6 M HNO3, 0.1 M Fe(NO3)3 are needed for this part of experiment.

1)100mL tubes number 1, 2, 3 add pinch of NaF and 10 drops of water.

2)100mL tubes number 4, 5, 6 add pinch of NaCl and 10 drops of water.

3)100mL tubes number 7, 8, 9 add pinch of KBr and 10 drops of water.

4)100mL tubes number 10, 11, 12 add pinch of KI and 10 drops of water.

a. Cl2

1) Slowly add 10 drops of 2 M Ca(NO3)2 to 1, 4, 7, 10

2) Observe

b. Br2

1) Slowly add 10 drops of 0.1 M AgNO3 to 2, 5, 8, 11

 2) After 1 min, add another 10 drops of NH3.

3) Observe

c. I2

1) Add a drop of 6 M HNO3.

2) Slowly add 10 drops of 0.1 M Fe(NO3)3 to 3, 6, 9, 12

3) Observe

E. Chemical Reactivity of Some Representative Elements

Cl2, Br2, and I2 obtained in part B above will be tested against KBr, KI, and NaCl. The
purpose is to find out the relative chemical reactivity of halogens.

Six 100mm clean test tube, solid KBr, KI, NaCl, and the result tubes from part B.1, B.2, B.3 are
needed for this part of experiment.

E.2 Magnesium and Aluminum

For this experiment, we need two clean 100mm test tube, 6 M HCl, 6 M NaOH, and solid Mg
and Al.

a.

1) Add Mg or Al to each tube.

2) Add 1 mL of 6 M HCl to each ube.

3) Observe the reactions.

b.

4) Add drops of NaOH to Mg tube until precipitation occurs(count the drops).

5) Try equal amounts of NaOH to Al tube and observe the results.

6) For the tubes with precipitation, add more NaOH and observe the results.

E.3 Solubilities of alkaline-earth cations

For this experiment we need three test tubes, 0.1 M MgCl2, 1.0 M NaOH, 0.10 M Na2SO4,
0.1M MgCl2, 0.1 M CaCl2, 0.1 M Sr(NO3)2 solutions, and solid Na2SO4.

a.

1) 10 drops of 0.1 M MgCl2, 0.1 M CaCl2, and 0.1 M Sr(NO3)2 into three separate tubes.

2) Add drops of NaOH until cloudiness appears in each test tube(count the number of drops)

b.

1)10 drops of 0.1 M MgCl2, 0.1 M CaCl2, and 0.1 M Sr(NO3)2 in three separate tubes.

2) Add 5 drops of 0.10 M Na2SO4 and a pinch of solid Na2SO4

 E.4 Sulfurous acid and Sulfuric acid

For this experiment, we need solid Na2SO3, Na2SO4, 6 M HCl, and two wet blue litmus
papers.

1) Add double pinch of solid Na2SO3, Na2SO4 into two tubes.

2) Add five drops of 6 M HCl.

3) Test the evolved gas immediately after putting the 6 M HCl with wet blue litmus paper.

4) Observe the color change in each litmus paper.

Ⅲ. Pre-Lab Question (Exp 1 은 Pre-Lab Question 이 없어 작성하지 않음. Bonus 점수 처리됨.)

1. a) Carbon’s atomic number is 6, while Oxygen’s atomic number is 8. According to the graph,
Oxygen has a higher ionization energy. Oxygen has higher effective nuclear charge than Carbon,
which contributes to higher energy needed for ionization.

b) Phosphorus’s atomic number is 15, while Sulfur’s atomic number is 16. The shielding effect
of the additional inner electron of sulfur contributes to less ionization energy needed, even
though it has higher nuclear charge.

c) Magnesium’s atomic number is 12, while Aluminum’s atomic number is 13. Magnesium has
higher ionization energy, because of shielding effect of electrons. Its effective nuclear charge is
higher, therefore more energy needed for ionization.

d) Magnesium has an atomic number of 12, while calcium’s atomic number is 20. According
to the graph, Magnesium has a higher ionization energy.

2. a) Carbon has a larger radius. Oxygen is right of carbon, and as we mover right in the
periodic table, radius decreases due to increased effective nuclear charge.

b) Sulfur has a larger radius. Sulfur has an additional electron shell than phosphorus.

c) Magnesium has larger atomic radius. As one goes left to right in the periodic table, the
number of protons, and therefore the effective nuclear charge increases which pulls the
electrons towards nucleus.

d) Calcium has a larger radius. Aluminum and calcium are in the same group (same vertical
row), but calcium has an additional electron shell than aluminum (calcium is directly below
aluminum). This increases the size of the atom.

3. It becomes less metallic as it proceeds to the right. Usually, the atomic radii decrease, and
the effective nuclear charge increases. It holds the valence electrons tightly.

4. It becomes more metallic as it proceeds downwards on the periodic table. The atomic radius
increases, making valence electrons easily delocalized, which is a characteristic of metallic
bonding.
Ⅳ. Result

1. Part B

[Table 1] Preparation of Halogen

Cl2 Br2 I2

Test tubes containing NaOCl is clear, but test tube containing Br2 and I2 have changed color.
Br2 has been divided into two colors, orange on top and invisible on bottom. I2 has been
divided into two layers, one which is dark red on top and yellow on bottom.

2. Part C

[Table 2] The Chemical Properties of Halogens

Part C.1 Part C.2 Part C.3

KBr KI NaCl KI NaCl KBr

In part C.1 both reactions

2 KBr+C l 2 →2 KCl+ B r 2

2 KI +C l 2 →2 KCl+ I 2

happens as can be noted through the precipitation in table 2 above.

 In part C.2 only one reaction takes place

2 KI + B r 2 → 2 KBr + I 2

as can be seen in part C.2, only the test tube in the right precipitates.

In part C.3, no precipitations happen, which we can conclude that no reaction takes place.

2. Part D

[Table 3] The Chemical Properties of Halides

Ca(NO3)2 AgNO3 + NH3 HNO3 + Fe(NO3)2

NaF

NaCl

KBr

KI

Among the reactions, only the colored orange cells indicate significant changes under the
observations of human eyes/recorded data by camera.

The data does not indicate any reactivity differences between halides except for fluorine, but the
metal cations indicates that calcium has the least reactivity, since halides with silver and Iron
cation has all reacted and changed the color of the solution. It is to be noted however, that
reaction between fluorine and metal cations are peculiar, since it reacts with calcium, rather than
iron.

2. Part E

E.2)

[Table 4] The Chemical Properties of Halogens

With Acid(HCl) Add

Base(NaOH)

Mg

Al

Under close inspection when first adding HCl into both test tubes with magnesium and
aluminum, magnesium reacted more rapidly as more air bubbles appeared in the test tube. The
difference is substantial, easily observed through our eyes. The reaction happening in both tubes
are

2 HCl ( aq ) + Mg ( s ) → MgC l 2 ( aq )+ H 2(g)

2 Al ( s ) +6 HCl ( aq ) → AlC l 3 ( aq ) +3 H 2 (g)

The resulting gas is H 2. We can therefore infer that the reactivity of magnesium is greater than
aluminum.

When adding drops of 6 M NaOH , test tube with magnesium cation formed precipitation when
13 drops were added. Test tube containing aluminum did not react. When the sodium hydroxide
was further added into the test tubes, no further change happened. If magnesium was more
reactive, the opposite reaction of it gaining electrons through precipitation should be more
difficult, requiring more sodium hydroxide than test tube with aluminum cation. The results seem
to show the opposite where test tube with aluminum has not reacted according to the
observation of our eyes, whereas magnesium cation has reacted with sodium hydroxide forming a
precipitate.

AlC l 3 ( aq ) +3 NaOH ( aq ) → Al ¿

E.3)

[Table 5] Solubilities of Alkaline-Earth Cations

 MgCl2 CaCl2 Sr(NO3)2

Part
E.3-a)

Part
E.3-b

It is impossible to find precipitation in all other test tubes through our human eyes except for
part E.3-b) with strontium cation. It is difficult only with this experiment, to conclude that the
reactivity is decreasing with increasing periods on the same group (due to the lack of information)
,but we can infer that the reactivity of strontium is the least.

E.4)

Na2SO3 Na2SO4

The bottom of the wet blue litmus paper has turned red, which indicates that an acidic gas has
formed if the wet blue litmus paper has only reacted with the gas. It seems that both papers have
turned red and therefore have touched some kind of acidic form, either water or gas. Note that
the picture on the right has a noticeable blue not stained region on the top where the tweezer
was holding the litmus paper, while the left hand side has no indication of such pressure.

Theoretically, the tube with N a2 S O 3 should have reactions

 N a2 S O3 ( s ) +2 HCl ( aq ) → 2 NaCl ( aq ) +S O2(g)+ H 2 O(l)

And there would be no reaction in the tube which contains N a2 S O 4.

Ⅴ. Discussions

1. Summary

Summarizing, halogen was more likely to precipitate if chlorine gas reacts, than with Bromine
gas, then Iodine. When metal ions react with halides, silver and iron was more likely to likely to
react than calcium, with the exception of fluorine. Magnesium reacted rapidly than aluminum
when losing electrons, but aluminum never formed precipitation when NaOH(aq) was added. It
was also impossible to find any precipitation other than Sr(NO3)2 with Na2SO4. Both wet blue
litmus paper turned red, with noticeable tweezer marks with the one in Na2SO4 than Na2SO3.

2. Assessing the results

The halogen gases are on the same group, where the number of valence electrons are identical.
As one goes down the group, additional electron shells add up to the atom increasing the
amount of distance from the nucleus. It becomes harder for the atom to attract negatively
charged particles, and therefore increases the reactivity of the halide gases. Electronegativity, the
ability to gain electrons, generally decreases if one goes down the group 17, which effects the
reactivity of the atoms. This is shown well in part B.2 where chlorine gases were most likely to
create precipitation, then bromine gas, then iodine gas. When the reaction happens, shown in the
equation above, chlorine gains electrons from bromine and iodine since it has a greater tendency
to lose electrons, while bromine and iodine loses them, becoming neutral gases we know as
halogens.

Halides reacted well with iron and silver, which are transition metals rather than calcium. The
only exception was fluorine. The reason for which should be further discussed.

Magnesium and aluminum, which are of the same period, has different reactivity because
aluminum has one more proton, which pulls the electrons stronger, decreasing the atomic radius,
increasing the ionization energy, and increasing the effective nuclear charge results in a less
reactive atom. Therefore, when aluminum reacts with hydrochloric acid, aluminum gains electron
from hydrogen in the acid creating hydrogen and so do magnesium (shown in the equation in E.2
above) but not as rapid as magnesium. Although theoretically both precipitates should form as
one adds NaOH where aluminum ion more easily gains electrons than magnesium, forming
precipitate sooner, it is peculiar that it does not form any. It is probable that aluminum has
reacted with hydroxide and immediately turned into something soluble in water. The following
equation is how aluminum can react and turn into soluble products.

Al ( OH )3+ NaOH (aq)→ Na[ Al ( OH )4 ]

The same principle applies for reactivity of alkaline-earth metals more electron shells mean higher
lesser ionization energy, lesser effective nuclear charge and an increased reactivity. Although not
clearly shown in the experiment above, the data fits accordingly to this theory, since the cathode
with the highest period which is strontium is the only element which shows reaction.

There are six resonant states for SO42- and only 3 resonant states for SO32-. This leads to SO42-
being more stable. Therefore, SO32- is more likely to lose oxygen and become SO2 gas when met
with hydrochloric acid. When the acidic sulfur dioxide gas meets wet blue litmus paper, it will
change the color to red. In the experiment it is not clearly shown because both litmus paper
appears to be red. This is because it might have contacted the hydrochloric solution dropped
accidentally on the wall of the test tube. The area which was covered by the tweezer would not
have made direct contact with the solution. Therefore, the litmus paper without any color
difference between the area where tweezer had been clipping the paper, which was the left one
with Na2SO3, no difference with the theoretical assumption.

3. Conclusion

Therefore, we have concluded that chlorine is most reactive and iodine is least reactive among
the three halogen gases because electronegativity decreasing as period increases. We have also
concluded that transitional metal cations were more reactive with halides. Thus, magnesium is
more reactive than aluminum, as effective nuclear charge increases and ionization energy
increases as we head right in the same row of the periodic table. Strontium had the strongest
reactivity among three alkaline-earth cations, since it has the most electron shells, less effective
nuclear charge on the valence electrons and largest atomic radius. We have further found out that
SO32- lost an oxygen atom and became, SO2 gas, due to the stability from resonance structure.

Ⅵ. Reference

1. Laboratory Manual for Principles of General Chemistry, tenth Edition, J.A.Beran, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

2. Petrucci, R. H., Herring, G. C., Madura, J. D., & Bissonnette, C. (2017). General chemistry :
principles and modern aplications / Ralph H. Petrucci, F. Geoffrey Herring, Jeffry D. Madura,
Carey Bissonnette. (Eleventh edition.). Pearson.

Ⅶ. Post-Lab Question

1. Sodium would be more reactive than potassium based on trends in ionization energies
shown in the graph in part A. As the period increases, the ionization energy decreases.

Ionization energy is the energy required to remove an electron from a neutral atom in its
gaseous state. As you move down a group (from top to bottom) in the periodic table, the
ionization energy generally decreases. This is because the outermost electron in atoms located
lower in the group is farther from the nucleus, and thus experiences less attraction to the
positively charged nucleus. Therefore, it's easier to remove this outer electron.

Sodium (Na) is located above potassium (K) in the same group (Group 1, alkali metals). Since
sodium is higher up in the group, it has a smaller atomic radius and higher ionization energy
compared to potassium. As a result, sodium loses its outermost electron more readily than
potassium, making it more reactive. Therefore, sodium is more reactive than potassium

2. Cesium has larger atomic radius than radon.

Given that cesium and radon are both in the same period, but belong to different groups (cesium is
in Group 1, while radon is in Group 18), the trend of atomic radius primarily depends on the group.
In the given graph, the atomic radius increases when the atomic number decreases due to the
decreased pull from the nucleus(since the number of protons is the same as atomic number).

3. Since bromine is shown to be less reactive than chlorine, it will be less effective.

Chlorine has a higher electronegativity than bromine. Electronegativity is the ability of an atom
to attract electrons towards itself in a chemical bond. Because chlorine has a higher
electronegativity, it tends to attract electrons more strongly compared to bromine. This can lead
to more polarized or ionic bonds in compounds containing chlorine, making them more
reactive.

The reason why chlorine has higher electronegativity is because the atomic radius is smaller
than bromine(due to bromine having additional electron shell), which makes the electron
candidate closer to the positively charged nucleus. This makes it easier for chlorine to gain
electrons during chemical reactions, increasing its reactivity.

4. As you move down Group 17, atomic size generally increases. This is due to the addition of
electron shells as you move down the group. Astatine, being below iodine in the same group,
would have a larger atomic size than iodine.

Electronegativity generally decreases as you move down a group in the periodic table. This is
because the outermost electrons are farther from the nucleus, experiencing less attraction.
Consequently, elements lower in the group are less likely to attract electrons strongly. Thus,
astatine would likely have a lower electronegativity than iodine.

Considering these factors, it's reasonable to expect that astatine would be less reactive than
iodine.