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FREE-STANDING MASONRY PRIVACY WALLS

Rod Johnston

Principal of Electronic Blueprint

Principal of Quasar Management Services Pty Ltd
(Consultant to the Concrete Masonry Association of Australia)

SUMMARY

Free-standing masonry privacy walls must be designed and constructed to withstand a range
of loads, and in particular, wind and earthquake loads. This paper provides a detailed
description of the design process and the determination of:
• Wind loads for various locations and exposures
• Earthquake loads
• Active and passive soil pressures that affect the stability of the system
• Pier dimensions to provide stability, including the relevant structure/soil interaction
• Pier and masonry reinforcement design
• Detailing of masonry privacy walls.

BACKGROUND

The collapse of a number of free-standing masonry privacy walls under extreme wind has
prompted the Queensland government consider regulating their design and construction. Free-
standing masonry privacy walls must be designed and constructed to withstand a range of
loads, and in particular, wind loads. There are several possible designs for masonry privacy
walls, two of which are shown below. The diagrams and tables herein are from Concrete
Masonry Fences, Data Sheet 5, Concrete Masonry Association of Australia, May 2007.
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REINFORCED MASONRY WALL ON CONCRETE STRIP FOOTINGS

The type of retaining wall shown in Figure 1 may be designed using the principles set out
below for a wall with reinforced concrete piers (as per Figure 2), except that the resistance to
overturning is provided by the combined weight of the wall and footing acting about an
assumed point of rotation close to the toe of the footing. The distance from the toe to the point
of rotation depends on the bearing capacity of the foundation soil, including its compaction. It
the soil is firm with a high bearing capacity, the point of rotation will be close to the toe. If the
soil is soft with a low bearing capacity, the point of rotation will move closer to the centre of
the footing. A reasonably conservative assumption is that the point about which the footing
rotates is approximately B/3 from the toe of the footing, where B is the total footing width.

REINFORCED MASONRY WALL WITH REINFORCED CONCRETE PIERS

In most circumstances, the economical form of construction for free-standing masonry

privacy walls is as shown in Figure 2. The wall consists of 190 mm hollow concrete
blockwork, with a reinforced bond beam and capping block at the top and a reinforced bond
beam at the bottom. The bond beams should include a single horizontal 16 mm diameter
reinforcing bar, set in 190 mm knock-out bond beam blocks. The wall is supported, at centres
ranging from 1.8 m to 3.0 m, by 450 mm diameter reinforced concrete piers, constructed in
holes bored to the required depths and spacings. The depths of 450 mm piers, for various
combinations of pier spacing, soil type (internal friction angle), wall heights and wind
classifications, may be calculated by the methodology shown below. Each pier should include
one (or more) reinforcing bar, which extends up and is grouted into the 190 mm concrete
blockwork. The required number of vertical bars depends on the spacing of the piers, the wall
height and wind classification.

WIND LOADS

Wind loads on free-standing masonry privacy walls should be calculated using AS/NZS
1170.2. However, designers often associate these structures with the design of houses to AS
4055. Strictly speaking, masonry privacy walls are outside the scope of AS 4055, although the
nomenclature used therein is useful in classifying the wind exposure of housing sites for wind
loads on such structures.
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EARTHQUAKE LOADS

Earthquake loads should be calculated using AS 1170.4. Method EDC I. For simple structures
in most Australian applications, this permits the lateral earthquake inertia load to be assumed
to be 10% of the seismic weight. For a typical 190 mm hollow block privacy wall, the average
blockwork weight is 245 kg/m2 or 2.40 kN/m2, and the resulting horizontal earthquake inertia
force is 0.24 kPa. This is significantly less that the expected wind loads shown above.

SOIL PROPERTIES

Soil properties used to determine the resistance to overturning of the piers should be based on
reduction factors given in AS 4678 and “cautious estimates of the mean” density, internal and
external friction angles and cohesion.

PIER RESISTANCE

The overturning resistance of piers supporting free-standing masonry privacy walls may be
based on the principles for laterally loaded “short” piles set out in AS 2159.

The method of determining the soil lateral resistance, employed in the worked example
below, is based on Lateral Resistance on Piles in Cohesionless Soils, by B.B. Broms (May
1964). For a single short pier in cohesionless soil, this paper suggests that the resistance be
determined from the design passive resistance multiplied by a factor of 3.0 (designated kpier in
the example). A similar paper, Lateral Resistance on Piles in Cohesive Soils, by B.B. Broms
(March 1964) covers cohesive soils. There are other more recent papers describing methods
of varying complexity, based on tests and/or theory. However, the selected method has been
chosen for its simplicity, in the context of the fact that there is relatively low risk associated
with privacy walls with a maximum height of approximately 1.8 m.

The assumed distribution of pressures resisting the overturning moments are as follows.
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WORKED EXAMPLE

Set out in the following pages is a worked example, the purpose of which is to demonstrate
the method by which free-standing masonry privacy walls may be designed for a particular
wind and earthquake loads, and soil type. It also may serve as a test for any software
developed for designing masonry privacy walls.

Design Brief
The objective is to design a 1.8 m high free-standing masonry privacy wall located in a
Sydney suburb, on a gentle slope (with 60 metres upwind distance to the crest of a 4.0 m hill)
and shielded by houses of 3.0 m roof height and 7.0 m width. The piers will be set in “in-situ”
sandy-clay material (with cautious estimates of the means of density 20 kN/m3, internal angle
of friction 30o and cohesion 5.0 kPa).

Wind Load using AS/NZS 1170.2-2002

Region A
Degree of hazard 2
Location Non-cyclonic
Design event for safety 1 in 500
Regional wind speed, VR = 45 m/s AS/NZS 1170.2 Table 3.1
Regional wind multiplier, Md = 1.0 AS/NZS 1170.2 Clause 3.3.1
Terrain category multiplier, h < 3.0 m Mz, cat = 0.91 AS/NZS 1170.2 Table 4.1(A)
o
Number of upwind shielding buildings within a 45 sector of 20 h radius, ns = 2
Average roof height of shielding, hs = 3.0 m
Average spacing of shielding buildings, ls = h (10 / ns + 5)
= 1.8 ([10 / 2] + 5)
= 18.0 m
Average breadth of shielding buildings, bs = 7.0 m
Shielding parameter, s = ls / (hs bs)0.5
= 18.0 / (3.0 x 7.0)0.5
= 3.93 AS/NZS 1170.2 Table 4.3.3
Shielding multiplier, Ms = 0.830 Interpolated AS/NZS 1170.2 Table 4.3
Height of the hill, ridge or escarpment, H = 4.0 m
Horizontal distance upwind from crest Lu = 60.0 m
Windward slope H/2Lu = 4.0 / (2 x 60.0)
= 0.033 < 0.05
Topography multiplier Mt = 1.00 AS/NZS 1170.2 Clause 4.4.2
Ultimate design gust wind speed, Vz u = VR Md (Mz, cat Ms Mt)
= 45.0 x 1.0 x 0.91 x 0.830 x 1.0
= 34.0 m/s
Ult free stream gust dynamic pressure, qzu =0.0006 Vz u 2 AS/NZS 1170.2 2.4.1
= 0.0006 x 34.02
= 0.69 kPa
Structure Geometry
Height of wall, h = 1.8 m
Solid height of wall, c = 1.8 m
Total length of wall, b = 9.0 m
Length/solid height, b/c = 9.0 / 1.8
= 5.0
Solid height/total height, c/h = 1.8 / 1.8
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= 1.0
Angle of incident wind (Normal = 0), θ =0
Porosity reduction factor, Kp = 1 – (1 – δ)2 AS/NZS 1170.2 D2.1
= 1 – (1 – 1)2
= 1.0
Length of wall between vertical supports, B’ = 2.4 m

Wind Load
Net pressure coefficient, Cpn = 1.3 + 0.5 (0.3 + log10 (b/c]) (0.8 – c/h)
= 1.3 + 0.5 (0.3 + log10 (5.0]) (0.8 – 1.0)
= 1.20 AS/NZS 1170.2 Table D2(A)
Aerodynamic shape factor, Cfig = Cpn Kp
= 1.20 x 1.0
= 1.20 AS/NZS 1170.2 D1.4
Ultimate net wind pressure, pnu = Cfig qzu
= 1.20 x 0.695
= 0.834 kPa AS/NZS 1170.2 2.4.1
Earthquake Load
Hazard factor for Sydney z = 0.08
Subsoil classification C
Seismic weight W = 2.4 kN/m2
Lateral earthquake load pe = 0.10 W
= 0.10 x 2.40
= 0.240 kPa < 0.834 kPa Base design on wind

Load factors and capacity reduction factors

Load factor on overturning wind Gw = 1.0
Load factor on restoring forces Gr = 0.8

Shear force and bending moments at the base of wall

Shear force at base Vb = γ pn u B’ h
= 1.0 x 0.834 x 2.4 x 1.80
= 3.60 kN
Bending moment at base Mb = 0.5 Gw pn u B’ h2
= 0.5 x 1.0 x 0.834 x 2.4 x 1.80 2
= 3.22 kN.m
Foundation soil
The piers will be set in “in-situ” sandy-clay material with the following properties.
Any over-excavation should be filled with compacted cement-stabilised road base.
Design will be to the principles set out in AS 4678.
Density ρf = 19.6 kN/m3 (Cautious estimate of mean)
Internal angle of friction φf = 30 o (Cautious estimate of mean)
Cohesion, cf = 5.0 kPa (Cautious estimate of mean)

Design properties of soil

Foundation soil factor on tan(φf) Ф tan(φf) = 0.85
Foundation soil factor on cohesion Фcf = 0.70
Foundation soil design internal friction φ*f = tan-1 [Ф tan(φf). tan(φf)]
= tan-1 [0.85. tan(30o)]
= 26.1o
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Foundation soil design cohesion, c*f = Фcf . cf

= 0.70 x 5.0
= 3.5 kPa
Passive pressure coefficient Kp = 1 + sin(φ*f)
1 - sin(φ*f)
= 1 + sin(26.1o)
1 - sin(26.1o)
= 2.58
Pier details
Total depth of pier, D = 0.900 m This value will be checked
Pier diameter, dpier = 0.450 m
The following calculations convert a circular pier to an equivalent square pier of the
same overall cross-sectional area. By using this effective square section, the designer
can have confidence in the calculated weight of pier, and the effective horizontal lever
arms from an assumed point of rotation.
Effective pier thickness, Tp = (3.1416 / 4)0.5 dpier
= (3.1416 / 4)0.5 0.450
= 0.399 m
Effective pier length along the wall Lp = 0.399 m

Overturning Analysis
When piers push into a soil, the resistance is significantly greater than the passive resistance
normally associated with the cross section of the pier. The multiplier to account for this
increased lateral resistance of piers pushing into a body of soil is assumed to be kpier = 3.0

As the horizontal force increases, the wall support will rotate about its base, pushing forward
into the soil. The movement will vary linearly from the maximum at the ground surface to
zero at the bottom of the support.

The resistance to this movement is provided by the passive resistance of the soil in front of
the support. Under uniform movement, the passive pressure varies uniformly from zero at the
surface to a maximum at the base of the support.
Passive force over the total depth, Pp = Gr kpier Kp ρ Lp D2 / 3
= 0.8 x 3.0 x 2.58 x 19.6 x 0.399 x 0.9002 / 3
= 13.1 kN.m
Lever arm of passive force, yp = D / 2
= 0.900 / 2
= 0.450 m
Restoring moment due to passive force Mp = Pp yp
= 13.1 x 0.450
= 5.87 kN.m
Factored weight of wall , Pvw = Gr ρw h t b
= 0.8 x 16.0 x 1.800 x 0.19 x 2.4
= 10.5 kN
Lever arm of wall weight, yw = Tp (0.5 – 0.167)
= 0.399 (0.5 -0.167)
= 0.133 m
Restoring moment due to wall weight, Mw = Pvw yw
= 10.5 x 0.133
= 1.40 kN.m
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Factored weight of pier/footing, Pvf = Gr ρf Tf Lf D

= 0.8 x 23.5 x 0.399 x 0.399 x 0.900
= 2.69 kN
Lever arm of pier yf = Tp (0.5 – 0.167)
= 0.399 (0.5 -0.167)
= 0.133 m
Restoring moment due to pier Mf = Pvf yf
= 2.69 x 0.133
= 0.36 kN.m
Total restoring moment, MR = Mp + Mw + Mf
= 5.87 + 1.40 + 0.36
= 7.63 kN.m
Bending moment due to wind Mb = Gw pn u B h (h/2 + D)
= 1.0 x 0.834 x 2.40 x 1.80 x (1.80 / 2 + 0.900)
= 6.48 kN.m < 7.63 kN.m OK

Reinforced Masonry Pier Design

• Concrete blocks: Width 190 mm, Strength grade 15 MPa
• Blockwork will be built continuous for a length of 2.4 m, with a pier located at the
centre and articulation joints (joints permitting relative movement due to soil
expansion and contraction) at each end.
• Main reinforcement 1-16 mm diameter bar in the centre of the pier (500 MPa yield)

Masonry Properties
Block characteristic compressive strength f'uc= 15.0 MPa
Block type factor, km = 1.6 (Hollow blocks)
0.5
Equivalent brickwork strength, f'mb = km (f'uc)
0.5
= 1.6 (15.0)
= 6.20 MPa
Mortar joint height, hj = 10 mm
Masonry unit height, hb = 190 mm
Ratio of block to joint thickness, hb/hj = 190/10
= 19.0
Block height factor kh = 1.3
Characteristic masonry strength, f'm = kh f'mb
= 1.3 x 6.20
= 8.06 MPa
Concrete Grout Properties
Concrete grout shall comply with AS 3700 and have:
• a minimum portland cement content of 300 kg/cubic metre;
• a maximum aggregate size of 10 mm;
• sufficient slump to completely fill the cores; and
• a minimum compressive cylinder strength of 20 MPa.
Specified characteristic grout strength f’c = 20 MPa > 12 MPa OK AS 3700 Clause 5.6
Design characteristic grout strength, f’cg = min [(1.3 x f'uc), 20.0] AS 3700 Clause 3.5
= min [(1.3 x 15), 20.0]
= min [19.5, 20.0]
= 19.5 MPa
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Dimensions and Properties of Reinforced Concrete Masonry Pier

The most adverse loading is on the pier near the middle of the wall
Width of pier (along the wall), B = 390 mm
Depth of pier (through the wall), D = 190 mm
Density of reinforced concrete masonry, ρ mas = 2,200 kg/m3
Modulus of elasticity, E = 1,000 f’m
= 1,000 x 8.06
= 8,060 MPa
Second moment of area, I = B D3 / 12
= 390 x 1903 / 12
= 222.9 x 106 mm4

Main Reinforcement
Main reinforcement yield strength, fsy = 500 MPa
Main reinforcement shear strength (dowel), fsv = 17.5 MPa
Number of main tensile reinforcing bars, Nt= 1
Diameter of main tensile reinforcing bars, Ddia t = 16 mm
Area of main reinforcement, Ast = 200 mm2
Effective depth of reinforcement, d = D/2 (Centrally located reinforcement)
= 190/2
= 95 mm
Effective width of reinforced section, b = min ( 4D or 2D + length to end)
= 4 x 190
= 760 mm
Shear width of reinforced section, bv = 200 mm Only one core is grouted
Design area of main tensile reinforcement, Asd = min [ 0.29 (1.3 f’m) b d / fsy , Ast ]
= min [(0.29 x 1.3 x 8.06 x 760 x 95/500), 200]
= min [ 462 , 110 ]
= 200 mm2

Reinforced Masonry Shear and Moment Capacity

Shear capacity, φV = φ (f’vm bw d + fvs Ast + fsy f Asv d / s)
= 0.75 [(0.35 x 200 x 95) + (17.5 x 200) + 0] / 1000
= 0.75 (6.65 + 3.50 + 0)
= 7.61 kN
Bending capacity, φM = φ fsy Asd d [1 - 0.6 fsy Asd d / (1.3 f’m b d)]
= 0.75 x 500 x 200 x 95[1 - (0.6 x 500 x 200)/(1.3 x 8.06x760 x95)]/!06
= 6.56 kN.m

Reinforced Masonry Lateral Load Capacity

Height of cantilever above piers, Lc = 1.800 m
Load capacity (limited by shear) Wvu = 1.0 φV / B Lc
= 1.0 x 7.61 / (2.400 x 1.800)
= 1.76 kPa
Load capacity (limited by bending) Wmu = 2 φM / B Lc2
= 2 x 6.56 / (2.400 x1.800 2)
= 1.69 kPa
Load capacity (considering shear & bending), Wlu = min (Wvu , Wmu )
= min (1.76, 1.69)
= 1.69 kPa > 0.834 kPa OK
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CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

1. The worked example herein describes a methodology for the design of free-standing
masonry privacy walls for various combinations of wind, earthquake and soil conditions.

2. Wind loads on free-standing masonry privacy walls should be calculated using AS/NZS
1170.2-2002.

3. Although masonry privacy walls are outside the scope of AS 4055-2006, it is

recommended that a system of suitable wind load classifications, using nomenclature
compatible with AS 4055 be adopted.

4. It is recommended that earthquake loads be calculated using AS 1170.4-2007, Method

EDC I, which permits the lateral earthquake inertia load to be assumed to be 10% of the
seismic weight.

5. Although masonry privacy walls are outside the scope of both AS 4678 and AS 2159, it is
recommended that the determination of design soil properties be carried out in accordance
with AS 4678-2002 and the pier analysis be in accordance with AS 2159-1995. A method
of analysis based on the recommendations of Broms (1964) has been described, although
the choice of analysis remains at the discretion of the design engineer.

REFERENCES

AS/NZS 1170.2-2002 Wind loads, Standards Australia

AS 1170.4-2007 Earthquake actions in Australia, Standards Australia

AS 2159-1995 Piling – Design and installation, Standards Australia

AS 3700-2001 Masonry structures, Standards Australia

AS 4055-2006 Wind loads for housing, Standards Australia

AS 4678-2002 Earth retaining structures, Standards Australia

Broms, B.B., Lateral Resistance on Piles in Cohesive Soils, Journal of the Soil Mechanical
and Foundations Division, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, pp 27-63,
March 1964.

Broms, B.B., Lateral Resistance on Piles in Cohesionless Soils, Journal of the Soil
Mechanical and Foundations Division, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil
Engineers, pp 123-156, May 1964.

Concrete Masonry Fences, Data Sheet 5, Concrete Masonry Association of Australia, May
2007

Johnston, R.K, Design of Masonry Structures for Earthquake in Australia, 14th International
Brick and Block Masonry Conference, Australia, 2008.