Unit- 5

❑ Present the steps and results of behavioral

performance management, or organizational
behavior modification (O. B. Mod.).

12-1
 Learning Theory Background

❑ Behavioristic theories
❑ Classical conditioning
❑ A process in which a formerly neutral stimulus, when
paired with an unconditioned stimulus, becomes a
conditioned stimulus that elicits a conditioned response.
❑ The classical behaviorists attributed learning to the
association or connection between stimulus and response
(S-R).

12-2
 Learning Theory Background (Continued)
❑ Operant conditioning
❑ Is concerned with learning that occurs as a consequence of
behavior.
❑ The operant behaviorists give more attention to the
response-stimulus (R-S) connection.

12-3
 Learning Theory Background (Continued)
❑ Classical conditioning ❑ Operant conditioning
❑ A change in the stimulus will ❑ One particular response out of
elicit a particular response. many possible ones occurs in a
❑ The strength and frequency of given stimulus situation.
behaviors are determined mainly ❑ The strength and frequency of
by the frequency of the eliciting behaviors are determined mainly
stimulus. by the consequences.
❑ The unconditioned stimulus, ❑ The reward is presented only if
serving as a reward, is presented the organism gives the correct
every time. response.

12-4
Table 12.1 - Examples of Classical and Operant
Conditioning

12-5
 Learning Theory Background (Continued)

❑ Cognitive Theories
❑ Consists of a relationship between cognitive
environmental cues and expectation.
❑ Could be depicted as S-S (stimulus-stimulus).
❑ In organizational behavior, the cognitive approach has
been applied mainly to motivation theories.

12-6
 Learning Theory Background (Continued)

❑ Social learning and social cognitive theory

❑ Social learning
❑ Learning can take place via vicarious, or modeling, and self-
control processes.
❑ Social cognition
❑ Identifies capabilities that initiate, regulate, and sustain
behavior:
⚫ Symbolizing, forethought, vicarious/modeling learning, self-
regulation, and self-reflection.
❑ Social cognitive derivatives include modeling and self-
efficacy.

12-7
Learning Theory Background (Continued)
❑ Modeling processes essentially involve observational
learning.
❑ Modeling involves interrelated subprocesses, such as
attention, retention, motoric reproduction, and
reinforcement.
❑ Self-efficacy is the beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize
and execute the courses of action required to produce given
attainments.

12-8
 Principles of Learning:
Reinforcement and Punishment
❑ Laws of behavior
❑ Desirable, or reinforcing, consequences will increase
the strength of the preceding behavior and increase its
probability of being repeated in the future.
❑ If the behavior is followed by no consequence, the
behavior will extinguish over time; this is called the
extinction principle or law.

12-9
 Principles of Learning:
Reinforcement and Punishment (Continued)
❑ Reinforcement in behavioral management is
defined as anything that both increases the
strength and tends to induce repetitions of the
behavior that preceded the reinforcement.
❑ Punishment is anything that weakens behavior
and tends to decrease its subsequent frequency.

12-10
Figure 12.1 - Summary of the Operational Definitions of
Positive and Negative Reinforcement and Punishment

12-11
 Principles of Learning:
Reinforcement and Punishment (Continued)
❑ The use of punishment as a strategy to control
behavior is a lose-lose approach.
❑ To minimize the problems with using
punishment:
❑ Persons administering it must always provide an
acceptable alternative to the behavior that is being
punished.
❑ It must always be administered as close in time to
the undesirable behavior as possible.

12-12
 Principles of Learning:
Reinforcement and Punishment (Continued)
❑ Guidelines for discipline
❑ Always attempt to reinforce instead of punish in order
to change behavior.
❑ The use of a reinforcement strategy is usually more
effective in accelerating desirable behaviors.
❑ Discipline should attempt to be a learning experience,
never purely a coercive experience to prove mastery
or control over others.

12-13
 Role of Organizational Reward Systems

❑ Analysis of money as a reinforcer

❑ Nonfinancial rewards
❑ Social recognition and attention
❑ Performance feedback

12-14
Table 12.2 - Categories of Nonfinancial
Rewards

12-15
Table 12.2 - Categories of Nonfinancial
Rewards (Continued)

12-16
 Figure 12.4 - Major Steps of Luthans O.B. Mod.
Approach to Behavioral Performance Management

12-17
 Behavioral Performance Management
(O. B. Mod.)
❑ Step 1: Identification of performance behaviors
❑ Approaches:
❑ Have the person closest to the job in question.
❑ Conduct a systematic behavioral audit.
❑ Step 2: Measurement of the behavior
❑ The purpose of the baseline measure is to provide
objective frequency data on the critical behavior.

12-18
Table 12.3 - An Example of
Functional Analysis

12-19
 Behavioral Performance Management
(O. B. Mod.) (Continued)
❑ Step 4: Development of an Intervention Strategy
❑ Positive reinforcement strategy
❑ Punishment-positive reinforcement strategy
❑ Step 5: Evaluation to ensure performance
improvement
❑ The need for Kirkpatrick’s well-known four levels of
evaluation (reaction, learning, behavioral change, and
performance improvement) is stressed.

12-20
 Behavioral Performance Management
(O. B. Mod.) (Continued)
❑ Application of behavioral management
❑ Employee productivity
❑ Absenteeism and tardiness
❑ Safety and accident prevention
❑ Sales performance

12-21
 LEADERSHIP

❑ Define leadership.
❑ Present the background and classic studies of
leadership.
❑ Discuss the traditional theories of leadership,
including the trait, group and exchange,
contingency, and path-goal approaches.

13-1
 Learning Objectives (Continued)

❑ Identify modern theoretical processes for

leadership, such as charismatic, transformational,
social cognitive, substitutes, and now authentic
leadership.
❑ Examine leadership across cultures giving special
attention to the GLOBE project.

13-2
Table 13.1 - Some Characteristics of Managers
versus Leaders in the Twenty-First Century

Source: Adapted from Warren G. Bennis, “Managing the Dream: Leadership in the 21 st Century,” Journal of Organizational Change Management,
Vol. 2, No. 1, 1989, p. 7.

13-3
 Traditional Theories of Leadership

❑ Trait theories of leadership

❑ The trait approach is concerned mainly with
identifying the personality traits of the leader.
❑ Group and exchange theories of leadership
❑ Followers’ impact on leaders

13-4
 Table 13.2 - Summary of Three Domains of
Leadership

Source: Adapted from George B. Graen and Mary Uhl-Bien, “Development of Leader–Member Exchange (LMX) Theory of Leadership over 25 Years: Applying
a Multi-Level Multi-Domain Perspective,” Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 6, No. 2, 1995, p. 224.

13-5
Traditional Theories of Leadership (Continued)
❑ Leader-member exchange (LMX) model: Graen and
Uhl-Bien have emphasized that LMX has evolved
through various stages:
❑ The discovery of differentiated dyads.
❑ The investigation of characteristics of LMX relationships
and their organizational implications/outcomes.
❑ The description of dyadic partnership building
❑ The aggregation of differentiated dyadic relations to group
and network levels.

13-6
 Traditional Theories of Leadership (Continued)

❑ Contingency theory of leadership

❑ Fiedler’s contingency model of leadership
effectiveness
❑ Leader-member relationship
❑ Degree of task structure
❑ Leader’s position power

13-7
Traditional Theories of Leadership (Continued)

❑ Fielder’s contingency theory in perspective

❑ First highly visible leadership theory to present the
contingency approach.
❑ Gave widespread attention to the important role that the
situation or context plays in leadership.
❑ Emphasized the importance of interaction between the
situation and the leader’s characteristics.
❑ Stimulated a great deal of research.

13-8
Figure 13.2 - A Summary of
Path-Goal Relationships

13-9
 Modern Theoretical Processes of Leadership

❑ Charismatic leadership
❑ Transformational leadership
❑ Substitutes leadership
❑ Authentic theories of leadership

13-10
 Table 13.3 - Ethical and Unethical
Characteristics of Charismatic Leaders

Source: Jane M. Howell and Bruce J. Avolio, “The Ethics of Charismatic Leadership: Submission or Liberation?” Academy of Management Executive, May
1992, p. 45. Used with permission.

13-11
Table 13.4 - Characteristics and Approaches of
Transactional versus Transformational Leaders

Source: Bernard M. Bass, “From Transactional to Transformational Leadership: Learning to Share the Vision,” Organizational Dynamics, Winter 1990, p. 22. Used
with permission.

13-12
 Figure 13.3 - Kerr and Jermier’s
Substitutes and Neutralizers for Leadership

13-13
 Figure 13.3 - Kerr and Jermier’s
Substitutes and Neutralizers for Leadership (Continued)

13-14
 Figure 13.4 - Authentic Leadership
Development Model

Source: Adapted from Fred Luthans and Bruce Avolio, “Authentic Leadership Development,” in K. S. Cameron, S. E. Dutton, and R. E. Quinn (Eds.),
Positive Organizational Scholarship, Berrett-Koehler, San Francisco, 2003, p. 251, and Bruce J. Avolio and Fred Luthans, The High Impact Leader: Moments Matter in
Accelerating Authentic Leadership Development, McGraw-Hill, New York, 2006.
13-15
 Leadership Across Cultures

❑ A few factors that contribute to differences in

leadership across cultures include:
❑ Personal values
❑ Backgrounds of the managers
❑ Interpersonal skills

13-16
Project GLOBE and the Future of International
Leadership Studies
❑ A major goal of the GLOBE project was to
develop societal and organizational measures of
culture and leader attributes that were appropriate
to use across all cultures.
❑ The indicated cultural dimensions include
❑ Power distance; Uncertainty avoidance; Humane,
future, and performance orientation; Institutional
Collectivism; In-Group Collectivism; Assertiveness;
Gender egalitarianism

13-17
Project GLOBE and the Future of International
Leadership Studies (Continued)
❑ The second phase of the program was a further
assessment of the leader and cultural scales.
❑ Phase three of the project was designed to study
leader behaviors within organizations and
cultures longitudinally.
❑ In phase four, universally perceived behaviors
that impede or facilitate outstanding leadership
were identified.

13-18
Project GLOBE and the Future of International
Leadership Studies (Continued)
❑ Findings by the GLOBE team suggest 21 primary
and six leader attributes and behaviors that are
viewed as contributing to leadership in various
cultures; these include:
❑ Charismatic/ Value-Base; Team-oriented;
Participative; Humane-oriented; Autonomous; and
Self-protective

13-19
 Learning Objectives

❑ Examine the evidence-based activities that relate

to successful and effective leaders.

14-1
 Learning Objectives (Continued)

❑ Identify the skills that have been found to be

needed for effective leaders of today’s
organizations.
❑ Analyze the various evidence-based approaches
to leadership development.

14-2
 Leadership in the New Environment

❑ Key leadership roles include:

❑ A strategic vision to motivate and inspire
❑ Empower employees
❑ Accumulate and share internal knowledge
❑ Gather and integrate external information
❑ Challenge the status quo and enabling creativity

14-3
Table 14.1 - Nadler and Tushman’s Charismatic
Leadership Styles

14-4
 Table 14.2 – Summary Continuum of Leadership Styles
Drawn From the Classic Studies and Theories of Leadership

14-5
Figure 14.1 - The Tannenbaum and Schmidt
Continuum of Leadership Behavior

14-6
 Leadership Styles

❑ Hersey and Blanchard’s situational approach to

leadership:
❑ Task style
❑ Relationship style
❑ The key for leadership effectiveness is to match
up the situation with the appropriate style; the
four basic styles being:
❑ Telling style; Selling style; Participating style;
Delegating style

14-7
 Leadership Styles (Continued)

❑ The following represent the best evidence-

based list concerning the most effective
style of today’s leaders/managers:
❑ Vision
❑ Passion and self-sacrifice
❑ Confidence, determination, and persistence
❑ Image building
❑ Role modeling

14-8
 Leadership Styles (Continued)
❑ External representation
❑ Expectations of and confidence in followers
❑ Selective motive arousal
❑ Frame alignment
❑ Inspirational communication

14-9
Figure 14.2 - Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles

14-10
Figure 14.3 - Luthans’s Conceptual Categories
of Real Managers’ Activities

14-11
 Roles and Activities of Leadership

❑ What do successful managers do?

❑ Spend relatively more time and effort socializing,
politicking, and interacting with outsiders.
❑ What do effective managers do?
❑ Get the job done through high quantity and quality
standards of performance.
❑ Get the job done through people, requiring their
satisfaction and commitment.

14-12
 Leadership Skills

❑ Contemporary leadership development

approaches
❑ Competencies
❑ Research based
❑ Strategy based
❑ Values based
❑ Coaching

14-13
 Leadership Skills (Continued)

❑ Other indirect techniques for developing

leadership effectiveness
❑ Training
❑ Job design
❑ Behavioral management

14-14