Unit -2

FORMS OF TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION

Technical Report: Definition & importance; Thesis/Project writing: structure &
importance; synopsis writing: Methods; Technical research Paper writing: Methods &
style; Seminar & Conference paper writing; Expert Technical Lecture: Theme clarity;
Analysis & Findings; 7 Cs of effective business writing: concreteness, completeness,
clarity, conciseness, courtesy, correctness, consideration, C.V./Resume writing;
Technical Proposal: Types, Structure & Draft.

REPORT

The word report has been derived from the Latin word ‘Reportare’ which means to carry back
to someone who was not present, the description of an event. Generally speaking, a report
means, to give an account of something seen, heard, done etc. J. Staneley Jones, while defining
a report says, “A report is a special form of narrative which aims chiefly at conveying
information based upon facts”. Thus, report is a type of narration, but of a special type.
Generally, in simple narratives the writer wants to attract the readers’ attention by adopting
certain ways. But in report writing, the main thrust of a writer is to provide information in a
scientific way. There is no place for exaggerated or hyperbolic e xpressions (make something
seem greater or more important than it really is).

TYPES OF REPORTS

Reports are of various kinds, some of them are as following:-

(i) Annual Reports (ii) Census Reports

(iii) Special Reports (iv) Confidential Reports

(v) Market Reports (vi) News Paper Reports

(vii) Project Reports (viii)Reports on Seminars & Debates

(ix) Memorandum Report (Memo) (x) Blank Form Report

(i) Annual Reports: Annual reports may be called periodic reports because at the end of the
year, business organizations publish their reports on the routine activities and future policies
of the organization. Generally, such reports are used to inform the shareholders, directors or
members of the organization.

(ii) Census Reports: Census or survey reports are used to find the consensus or mandate of
the people on various issues related to them. Also, to find the population of countries these
reports are prepared.

(iii) Special Reports: The special reports are the formal reports submitted by certain
individuals or committees. Special reports are not only statements of facts but they include the
opinion of the writer. Writer gives his recommendation/conclusion at the end.

(iv) Confidential Reports: These reports are also special reports indirectly, written by the
superiors about the work and conduct of their juniors. Such reports deal with facts as well as
opinions.

(v) Market Reports: The reports which are given by the experts who are constantly in touch
with the prevailing market conditions are called market reports.

(vi) News Paper Reports: The real time reports on different aspects of life are known as
Newspaper reports. The journalists report the situation objectively.

(vii) Project Reports: Project reports are reports mentioning the details of various projects.
These may be prepared for various purposes such as to win contract for carrying out various
work services or on completion of various project works mentioning all the details of the
project.

(viii) Reports on Seminars and Debates: These reports are prepared on the proceedings of
seminars and debates for the purpose of publication.

(ix) Memorandum Report: (Memo) Memorandum is a kind of report that circulates within
and among various departments of a company or organization. In more simple terms, a memo
may be known as an Inter-office Communication. The day to day operations of a company
depends on memos. Hence writing memos is an importa nt job responsibility. Memos report
everything from results to announcement of meetings. Hence, memos should be written quickly
and clearly. A memo includes the following chief headings Date, To, From, Subject and Main
body as a memo is a brief report, brevity or conciseness is one of its essential qualities.

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(x) Blank Form Report: A blank form report simply refers to a blank prescribed form which
is periodically presented by filling that blank form. Thus, an appraisal report if presented only
by filling a blank prescribed form is too known as the Blank Form Report.

SIGNIFICANCE OF REPORT / REPORT WRITING

1. Reports give consolidated, factual & updated information

A report provides consolidated, factual and an up-to-date information about a particular matter
or subject. Information in the report is well organized and can be used for future planning and
decision making.

2. Reports as a means of internal communication A report acts as an effective means of

communication within the organization. It provides feedback to employees. It is prepared for
the information and guidance of others connected with the matter / problem.

3. Reports facilitate decision making and planning

Report provide reliable data which can be used in the planning and decision -making process.
It acts as a treasure house of reliable information for long term planning and decision making.

4. Reports disclose unknown information

Reports provide information, which may not be known previously. The committee members
collect data, draw conclusions and provide information which will be new to all concerned
parties. Even new business opportunities are visible through unknown information available in
the reports.

5. Reports give Information to employees

Reports are available to managers and departments for internal use. They are widely used by
the departments for guidance. Report provide a feedback to employees and are useful for their
self-improvement.

6. Reports give reliable permanent information

The information provided by a report is a permanent addition to the information available to

the office. We have census reports (prepared since last 100 years) which are used even today
for reference purpose.

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7. Reports facilitate framing of personnel policies

Certain reports relating to employees are useful while preparing personnel policies such as
promotion policy, training policy and welfare facilities to employees.

8. Reports give information to shareholders

Some company reports are prepared every year for the benefit of shareholders. Annual report
for example, is prepared and sent to all shareholders before the AGM. It gives information
about the progress of the company.

9. Reports give information to the Secretary/Registrar

Annual report and annual accounts are sent to the Secretary / Registrar every year for
information. Such reports enable the government to do supervision of the companies.

10. Reports help in solving the problems

Reports are useful to managers while dealing with problems faced by the company. They
provide guidance while dealing with complicated problems.

11. Reports help directors to take prompt decisions

Company reports relate to internal working of the company and are extremely useful to
directors in decision making and policy framing. Reports give reliable, updated and useful
information in a compact form.

REPORT STRUCTURE

A report is said to have three parts, namely: -

a. Front Matter b. Main Body c. Back Matter

a. Front Matter

1. Cover Page: Title of report, name of writer and date

2. Title Page: Title of the report, name of writer and approved by

3. Copyright notice: © 2014 by Krishna Engineering College. All rights reserved. This
material may not be duplicated for any profit driven enterprise.

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 4. Table of Contents: Lists various sections of the report and page numbers on which
that appear. Lists of headings and subheadings into which the content of the report has
been organized.

5. Acknowledgements: In this section the writer expresses his thanks to those persons
who have been helpful to him in the preparation of the report. He will mention the name
and designation of those persons.

6. Summary / Abstract: Summary or abstract is the shorter version of the report.

b. Main Body

1. Introduction: Purpose of the report, scope of investigation, procedure adopted for

investigation, back ground of the project.

2. Discussion: This section of the report includes detailed description of the report and
also a discussion of the problem in detail.

3. Conclusion: Consists of most significant data and ideas of the report.

4. Recommendations: This section consists of recommendations and suggestions made

by the investigating persons for improvement, but all formal reports do not make a
recommendation.

c. Back Matter

1. Appendices: Supplementary information of highly technical nature which cannot be

placed in the main body of the report e.g. tables, data, figures etc.

2. Notes and References: This section consists of use of actual ideas or words of others
using MLA (Modern Language Association) & APA (American Psychology
Association) formats. MLA Format: (Modern Language Association) After the
quotation cite the source of information parenthetically. [Author’s Name, Book Name
and Page No.], e.g. [Elson, Post War British Theatre, P.85] APA Format: (American
Psychological Association) After the quotation cite the source of information
parenthetically. [Author’s Name, Book Name, Year of Publication and Page No.], e.g.
[Elson, Post War British Theatre, 1981, P.85]

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 3. Bibliography: This section consists of alphabetized list of sources on the final page
of the report. These sources may include a list of books, periodicals, interviews etc. and
citation of these references is known as bibliography.

4. Glossary: This section consists of list of unfamiliar words or uncommon technical

terms which are beyond the understanding of a common reader.

5. Index: In long reports index includes the words or the technical terms and also
different page numbers on which that word appear.

REPORT WRITING

Simplified format for writing a report:

Name of Organization / Institution etc.

To Ref. no.

From Date:

Subject:

Main Body

1) Introduction / Problem – Give an insight of the problem / topic

2) Facts/Findings – Points studied, observed, facts surveyed, investigated, problems

noticed, work done.

3) Discussion/Analysis – Points discussed and analysis done.

4) Conclusions/Recommendations – opinion of the investigating committee.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD REPORT

A report is used for various purposes by various departments such as industry,

government, business or in the projects of science, engineering, medicine, research and
space. The aim of a report is to convey information. This implies that facts should be
imparted in direct, straight forward style.

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FEATURES OF A GOOD REPORT

The important features of a good report can be summed up under the following points :-
(i) Brevity – ‘Brevity is the soul of wit’, said Shakespeare.

(ii) Clarity- Use of simple words and sentences.

(iii) Accuracy – Correctness of expression.

(iv) Based on Facts.

(v) Objectively written (free from personal bias).

(vi) Logical arrangement of ideas, where one idea leads to another.

POINTS TO KEEP IN MIND WHILE WRITING A REPORT ON ANY TOPIC

Report writing is an art. There are certain points which a report writer must bear in mind while
writing a report. Some of which are as following: -
i) At the outset reporter should note the purpose of the report.

ii) He should also see to whom the report is to be submitted.

iii) The time limit, within which he will have to prepare the report, should be kept in
mind.

iv) What will be the impact of the report on the business and the businessman should
also be kept in mind.

v) Whether it is a newspaper report or a formal report, the reporter should have in mind
the image of report’s formal format, which should include the following: -
a) Title of the report b) Introduction c) Procedure used to find facts
d) Findings of the report e) Conclusion or recommendations or suggestions

TECHNICAL REPORTS

Technical Reports involves: -

a) Collecting, Planning and Organising of information

b) Detailed Analysis

c) Conclusion, Suggestions & Recommendations in the end.

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IMPORTANCE OF TECHNICAL REPORTS

1). Permanent record of information.

2). Helps in decision making.
3). Used as a tool for planning new policies/amendments/new strategies.
4). Measure of progress.
5). Valuable source of information.
6). Helps in problem solving.

OBJECTIVES OF TECHNICAL REPORTS

In the world of science and technology, technical reports are extensively used. The report may
be prepared individually or by a group, usually appointed for the purpose. It basically compiles
the description about some process, it may be progress of some activity or an organisation or a
scheme. It may be in the form of results of a research or a survey. For journal or conference
publication, the format is standardized. The technical papers or articles are reviewed and edited
by the editorial board or referees. Reports are usually for the purpose of review. Sometimes it
is mandatory by the funding agency. Sometimes, big organisations and government
departments publish the reports for the benefit of the public and stake holders.
Depending on the objectives, there may be different types of reports. Laboratory reports, health
and safety reports, research reports, progress reports, case study reports, field survey reports,
cost analysis reports, proposal reports, technical reports and financial reports are the d ifferent
types of reports. Reports are also aimed at finding advantages and disadvantages of the project.
Reports may be related to physical description, process analysis, examination, laboratory and
design. Technical reports are also classified as technical background report for information on
a technical topic, instruction report for the activity or equipment, feasibility report for viability
of a project, primary research report about experimentation and survey, technical report may
cover construction, working, special features and market potential of a new product, proposal
reports are very detailed one, including feasibility analysis, literature review, etc. Business
prospectus is also a report targeted at investors.

TYPES OF TECHNICAL REPORTS

• Technical Background Report This type of report is a technical description, to give

some background of topics like wind power, environment protection, VLSI technology,
etc. The other technical writings may be for the general understanding of students,

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 teachers or a common public. Here, the target audience is not specific. Technical
background report is usually meant for a specific group. While inviting proposals for
hospitals, engineering institutes, technical survey, etc. the government, semi
government and private organisations may give some background about the
requirement. In many cases, the proposers may be nontechnical persons or persons with
different specialization. Such technical description may help them in understanding the
requirement of the problem or actual issue to be tackled. Such reports are usually
provided on request basis and may be priced publications.
• Instructions Report When the students perform the laboratory experiments, to record
the procedure, they describe it in the instruction fo rm. For uniformity, teachers also,
prepare standard instruction manual for the students. It may be typed and given in
advance, so that the students can perform the practical systematically. It covers
objective or aim of the experiment, instruments required to carry out the experiment,
some theoretical concept necessary, procedure of actual experiment including some
precautions necessary for the safety of the instruments and users. After performing the
experiment, the students write observation table, draw graphs, carryout some
calculation, report the results and draw conclusion. When equipment’s are
manufactured and marketed by the manufacturer, it requires some guidelines for the
user. Printed operating manual is supplied with the instrument, equipment, har dware
and software, so that the users can use them properly, taking full advantage of their
capability, ensuring safety of the equipment and the user.
• Feasibility Study Report When a new product is to be developed or a new technology
is to be adopted for the existing product, or a model is to be changed or a new
manufacturing process is proposed, feasibility study is necessary. Some
experimentation may be done on the prototype, alternative technologies may be studied,
various procedures may be analysed and different revisions of models are tried. In some
cases, the data of other workers and agencies may be collected. Market survey for
demand and supply may be carried out. After experimentation, analysis, study or survey
the final outcome is expected. The report may justify or otherwise, the new product,
technology, procedure, model or technique. The justification may be based on the state
of art technology and its awareness, available or trainable manpower, availability of
equipment and material, infrastructure, resources, etc.

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 • Recommendation Report When a government, semi government or a private
organization, gets number of offers from different persons or agencies or organisations
for a specific work, the offers are critically reviewed by the expert committee. The
parties may be given the opportunity of presentation and demonstration. After this
exercise the committee prepares and submits a report, to accept a particular product,
procedure, technology, option or offer by a particular party. The decision may be based
on the capability of the proposer and financial considerations. In a purchase committee
recommendation, negotiations and discounts are also helpful.
• Evaluation Report Within the organisation also, for implementation of a new policy,
some committee may be appointed. Suppose, laptops are be given to all executive
officers or professors, the evaluation procedure considers number of laptops required,
available models, total cost involved and effect on the working efficiency may be
evaluated, qualitatively and quantitatively. Report of the evaluation committee helps
the management in taking the decision. Similarly, for a syllabus revision, assessment
scheme, result analysis, ragging, student discipline, proposal for new courses, etc.
issues committee may be formed and may give report.
• Primary Research Report It may not be related to some original work. Some
experimentation may be done in house or some external facility may be used for the
experimentation, some supporting survey may be carried out. The experimentation and
survey work generates some data, which is analysed to draw conclusion. The report
may cover the experimentation, equipment’s, hardware, software, infrastructure,
background of the problem and final outcome of the research.
• Technical Specifications Report While marketing the product, two types of manuals
are used. Commercial manual describes the general details and cost aspect. The
technical manual covers the detailed specifications of the product. It covers
construction, materials, dimensions, size, weight, functions, operational features and
special features. It may also, cover the market potential. A lot of alphanumeric data,
tables, graphs, pictures are involved here. The stress is not laid on the quality of
language but, facts and figures, highlighting the quality and performance characteristics
of the product. It is aimed at convincing the consumer. For smaller consumer goods,
the presentation style may be simple. For major items, with high costing, the target
readers may be purchase officers or marketing managers. Some better style of
presentation is preferable.

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 • Report Length Proposal Some proposal report may be the result of years of work.
Large number of people may be involved in the study and analysis. The population of
samples may also, be very large. Such reports are published in a book form, by many
government and semi government agencies. Many private industries and organisations
can use such reports for their activities. In addition to some common features, it may
include feasibility study, literature survey, qualifications of investigators, and other
persons involved in the process. Sometimes, this type of report may be the compilation
of many other reports. The scope of the report is very wide. Large many details are
covered here. For certain technological aspects, the government may establish some
technical commission, which goes in to the details of such issues. At the end of the
specified period, it comes out with the report.
• Business Prospectus To start a new business or to expand or diversify the existing
business, the businessman or an entrepreneur requires support of other people. There
may be private financiers, state and central governments or private and state owned or
approved financial institutions, banks, etc., which may help for the said activities. The
businessman or an entrepreneur has to prepare the blue print of his business plan. The
business activity should be described at length, the market potential should be
identified, the capacity of other manufacturers or businessmen should be reviewed, the
import and export problems should be covered, and total plan of full fledged activity
should be developed. The requirement of manpower, infrastructure, etc. should be
studied and reported. In some cases, phase wise plan for five or ten years may be
proposed. Initially profitability may not be there. By future projection, the breakeven
point and state of profitability should be forecasted.

NOTE: - Only some forms of technical reports are highlighted here. Depending on the
nature of activity, there can be many more types. It is difficult to generalize all of them.
The nature of report also, depends on the target group and condition. It is necessary t o
identify the customers of the product, the type of information required by them and how
the information will be useful to them. The technical report should ensure all the
components necessary in it and in proper sequence. If the target group needs some
background to study the report, it should be covered. The information should be factual and
purpose specific.

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 The technical reports can also be classified as following types, based on the objective: -

• Progress reports

• Trip reports

• Equipment evaluation reports

• Laboratory report

• Summary report

• Data Archival report

• A technical activity reports

• Inspection report

• Investigation report

The technical report may include covering letter, title page, abstract, acknowledgements,
executive summary, table of contents, list of figures, list of tables, report body, references
and appendices.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A TECHNICAL REPORT

• Shape and Size: The report may have 8-10 pages, typed or printed in proper format,
with proper margin and spacing. The upper size of the report is related with time,
efforts and resources. If necessary, trim it as per requirement.
• Content: The reports should be easy to follow, for a non-technical person or a non-
specialist. The necessary technical details may be covered but, over doze of
technicality should be avoided.
• Facts: As per the objective of the report and requirement of the target group of the
agency assigning the job, the facts and figures should be covered. The necessary
detailing of facts should not be sacrificed.
• Sources: The technical report is the compilation of information from various
sources, like publication in journals and books, technical brochures, personal and
written communication with experts, site visits, surveys, etc. The sources of
information should be reliable.

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 • Documentation: As mentioned, the information compiled in the report is collected
from different sources. There is a tradition of acknowledging the sources as
references or other modes. This transparency will be liked by the original writers.
All the information, data, opinions should be well documented.
• Target Readers: Some times, the report is prepared by a committee, appointed for
the purpose. So, it is ought to be specific. In other cases, it is desirable that the report
aims at some specific group, so that it can meet with the expectations of that group.
Too general report may not be useful to anybody.
• Titles and Subtitles: The report may cover different aspects of the work. They may
be given some titles or headings. In case of a detailed report, under each title, there
may be a lot of content. It may be further sub divided in to subtitles. The titles and
subtitles, help the readers in discriminating one topic or an aspect from the other
and one subtopic from the other. On the writer side, it helps in proper organisation
of the report, with proper focusing and on user side it helps in proper understanding
of the report. If somebody is interested in a specific aspect of the report, he can refer
accordingly.
• Physical Arrangement: The physical presentation of the report is concerned with
typing and printing. The graphical or pictorial information may not be reproduced
properly in computer or machine printing. Photo copying or scanning is advisable.
A loose report or a strip binding or a spiral binding is not impressive and durable.
Hard paper binding is advisable.
• Graphics: In addition to description in alphanumeric form, the reports m ay have
graphs, line diagrams, photographs, histograms, tables, pie charts, bar charts, line
graphs, flow charts, block diagrams, etc. Graphics makes the report to be followed
easily, more illustrative and authentic. It is an art to make the report impress ive, by
using graphics.

STRUCTURE OF TECHNICAL REPORT / PROJECT REPORT / THESIS /

DISSERTATION

Shape: The reports may be typed or printed. The report may be in a bound form, if it
is to be submitted outside.

Cover page: Depending on the number of pages spiral binding, strip binding or hard
paper binding is used. Standard A4 size, unlined, white plain pap ers are used. Hand
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 written report is discouraged. The report usually starts with a cover page or the title
page. The cover page covers title of the report, the name of agency or individual or
group submitting the report, with complete address and contact d etails. It should also
indicate the agency to which it is submitted. The actual date of submission along with
signature of authorised signatory, with stamp and due date may be printed. Some of the
government, semi government or private reports are referred by many people. They are
published like a book. It is a prices publication. They may be given ISBN classification
number in some cases.

Summary: After the cover page, the successive page(s) may cover the summary of the
report. It gives some idea about the purpose and scope of the report.

Index: The index or table of contents, with page wise references is desirable. It gives
clear cut idea, about the details covered in the report. If the report is very lengthy, just
like a book, the index helps in referring particular part of the report. If somebody is
interested in the particular process or procedure, it can be referred on specified pages.
If somebody is interested only in results or conclusion, it can be referred accordingly.

Introduction: The main part of the report follows the introduction. If the report is about
some research or experimentation, it is necessary to explain the actual problem. Why it
was necessary to carry out the concerned research? If some disease or epidemic is not
easily controllable, it may be leading to many untimely deaths and for the government,
it may be creating a lot of socioeconomic and political problems, it may be necessary
to carry out systematic research. In case of riots or floods or mass killing, the public
opinion forces the government to appoint a committee for the investigation. What is the
actual problem for the research or investigation that should be specified in the
introduction, it defines the scope of the research or the investigation. How the research
was carried out or what was the nature of investigation or experimentation that is
specified here. Thus, it defines the background, which specifies technological,
economical, social, political, legal condition under which the research or investigation
was necessary.
Main body or Core: The main body or core of the report is covered here. It first tries
to identify the problem. How the problem was originated and what are the actual
symptoms of the problem? The symptoms may be qualitative, quantitative or
combination of the two. If the problematic event is a one-time event, at what time and

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 under which condition it took place? In case of a recurring problem, what are the factors
leading to the problem? It is also necessary to know the exact time of occurrence of the
event. The time frame helps in identifying other factors leading to it. If th e problem has
some geographical origin, it should be considered. In case of organisational problems,
the section or department of origin is considered. If the problem is equipment related,
the part creating problem should be mentioned. For a research or an investigation,
usually the team is mentioned. The team includes the principal investigator and his team
members. The research or investigation group follows some process or procedure in
tackling the problem. If some hardware and or software are used and i f some
experimentation or analysis is done, it should be described at length. In a survey report
or a legal investigation, the exact procedure followed should be covered in detail. This
part basically deals with tools and techniques. In case of a software-based problem,
algorithms and flow charts may be covered.
Results: In technical and scientific research, based on investigations, results are
derived. The results are usually presented as observation tables giving a lot of
alphanumeric data. The results are tabulated. Using the observations, some graphs and
histograms are developed. The errors, means and standard deviations are found. In
electronics, waveforms are recorded.
Conclusion: After getting the results, a lot of statistical analysis is done. To d erive
fruitful conclusion, large number of proper samples are taken under proper condition.
If the condition is not proper, if the sample size is less and if the samples are not proper,
the process may give wrong conclusion.
Recommendation: The research or investigation is done for a specific purpose. After
completion of the research or the investigation, the results are analysed. There is some
conclusion of the work. Using the conclusion, recommendations are made for the future
course of action. When some new medicine is developed, clinical trial is taken. The
results of clinical trial, lead to some conclusion. If the medicine is able to cure some
disease with excellent success ratio, regular production of the medicine can be taken
up. If some diagnostic tool is developed and gives nearly 100% sensitivity and
specificity, it is recommended for commercial production/application. If the research is
original and the results are acceptable, the work can be recommended for a Ph.D. or a
patent or an intellectual property rights (IPR), as the case may be. If the research is for

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 a new process, procedure or material, with encouraging results the new process,
procedure or material is recommended for routine practice.
References and Bibliography: For any research work, a lot of papers published in
journals and presented in conferences are available. Some of the background may be
available from some latest authentic books, also. Research is usually the extension of
the work done by others. From failure and success of others, researcher learns many
things, about various tools and techniques. In this process, he may strike at some new
ideas. He can develop some new techniques. In science and technology, there is a
tradition of expressing sense of gratitude to other researchers and authors by mentioning
the references and books in a specified standard format. Nowadays, due to internet and
website, there is an explosion of information. It is an art to scan large number of
references and select the relevant references.
Appendices: While writing the report, the researcher or the investigator has a lot of
material. He tries to arrange the material in a logical sequence. The flow and content
should be such that one can easily read and follow the report. In this process some
information, particularly factual data, is necessary to make the report authentic. If all
the information is covered in the main body, the flow is not smooth. Such data is usually
covered at the end, as appendices. In the text the reference is given as Appendix I,
Appendix II, etc.

GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR WRITING A REPORT

As mentioned above, the body or core of the report is meant to meet the objective of
the report. The report is related to some research, study, analysis, survey, investigation
or inquiry. When the work is assigned or started, the objective and scope of the work is
defined at length. The report should be able to justify all aspects of the work. The whole
report is divided into number of chapters. The introductory chapter starts with the
introduction of the problem and scope of the work. The description in th e report should
follow the proper sequence. If some background or review is necessary, it should be
covered first. If a new process, a procedure or a design or a product is developed, the
existing products or processes should be compared. Their advantages, disadvantages
and limitations should be covered first. In some reports, more than one issue may be
dealt with. One option is to decide the priority of the issues and treat them as per their
priority. Some reports are to be published like a book. The report may be referred by a

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 large number of people and common public with varied background. In this case, the
language of the report should be easy to follow. Initial part of the report should be able
to create the interest. It should induce the readers to go through the whole report.
Regarding some event, sometimes there is a bias in the minds of the people. The fact-
finding report should be able to clarify the doubts and should be able to give clear
picture of the situation.
The scientific and technical reports search for alternative products, process, procedure,
design or material. Positive and negative aspects of all options should be covered and
justified. In science and technology, there is a tradition of experimental validation,
before coming to any conclusion. The experimental setup, procedure and results should
be documented properly. The common reader may be lost in the numerical data. It is
preferable to give charts, flow charts, algorithms, graphs, histograms, etc. When new
options are to be analysed, cost effectiveness is the most important consideration. At
present, carbon emission and global warming are the most critical issues affecting the
environment. Depending on the subject area of the report, the socio-economic aspects
and environmental issues should be addressed properly. Some review of other works or
problems is desirable but, it should not unnecessarily add to the volume of the report.
The report should be self-explanatory and in a simple language. Proper fonts should be
used to highlight various chapter titles, subtitles and important points. Underlining is
not desirable in reports. Spelling and grammar mistakes should be avoided. In case of
a social study or legal investigation, the language and reference to different people
should be handled trickily. It should not unnecessarily lead to a political or a social
unrest or a legal complication. Sections and subsections in the report are usually
numbered. Pages are also, numbered sequentially. To make it easily understandable, it
may be necessary to clarify some concepts but, it should not become a teaching manual.
The analysis and conclusion usually depend on the size and the quality of data. The
method of data acquisition may be covered, if necessary. Tables and figures are also
given numbers and may be listed separately.

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DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN SUMMARY AND ABSTRACT

i) Summary and abstract are miniature versions of a report.

ii) Both summary and abstract contain the main points and basic details of the entire
report.
iii) Broadly speaking, the two terms - Summary and abstract are considered synonyms
yet there is a fine difference between a summary and an abstract.
iv) Summary is little larger than abstract.
v) Both summary and abstract are short restatements of another document.
vi) A summary restates major findings, conclusions and support data found in a
document.
vii) An abstract is generally the shorter version of a journal article.
viii)An abstract is little more concentrated form of a report than the summary.

NOTE:-
ABSTRACT- One fourth of Summary, includes all the elements in a very precise form.

SUMMARY- One fifth of the total document, includes all the elements in brief but a
little more than Abstract.

SYNOPSIS WRITING

Before starting to work on Dissertation/Article, the trainee has to send a Synopsis and get it
approved.

“The synopsis is a brief outline (about four A-4 size pages or 1000 words is the maximum
limit) of your future work.”

A synopsis must have the following headings: -

TITLE: Should reflect the objectives of the study. It must be written after the whole synopsis
has been written so that it is a true representative of the plan (i.e. the synopsis).

INTRODUCTION: Should contain brief background of the selected topic. It must identify
the importance of study, its relevance and applicability of results. It must clearly state the
purpose of the study.

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OBJECTIVES: An objective is an intent of “what the researcher wants to do stated in clear
measurable terms.”

OPERATIONAL DEFINITION: Is the definition of the exposure and outcome variables of

interest in context to objective in a particular study and their means of
measurement/determination.
Examples: Anemia, Effectiveness, PPH, Wound healing

HYPOTHESIS: A hypothesis is a statement showing expected relation b etween 2 variables.

A hypothesis is needed in the following study designs: -

i. All interventional studies

ii. Cohort

iii. Case control

MATERIAL AND METHODS:

STUDY DESIGN: Mention the name of the appropriate study design.

SETTING: Name and place where the research work is to be conducted.

DURATION OF STUDY: How long will the study take with dates.

SAMPLE SIZE: How many patients will be included. If there are groups how many
per group?

SAMPLING TECHNIQUE: Type of sampling technique employed.

SAMPLE SELECTION:

Inclusion criteria: On what bases will patients be inducted in the study.

Exclusion criteria: On what bases will patients be excluded from the study.

DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE: A detailed account of how the researcher will

perform research; how s/he will measure the variable. It includes: -

1). Identification of the study variables

2). Methods for collection of data
3). Data collection tools (proforma/questionnaire)

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 DATA ANALYSIS PROCEDURE: Relevant details naming software to be used,
which descriptive statistics and which test of significance if and when required,
specifying variables where it will be applied.

REFERENCES:
In Vancouver style (for detail refer to page 132).

DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENT:

The researcher must attach, as an annex, the proforma or questionnaire with the help of
which he/she intends to collect data. The proforma/questionnaire mus t match the
objectives and must not contain irrelevant sections like inclusion and exclusion criteria
etc.

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TECHNICAL RESEARCH PAPER WRITING: METHODS & STYLE

Written and oral communications skills are probably the most universal qualities sought by
graduate and professional schools as well as by employers. You alone are responsible for
developing such skills to a high level.

GENERAL FORM OF A RESEARCH PAPER

An objective of organizing a research paper is to allow people to read your work selectively.
When we research a topic, we may be interested in just the methods, a specific result, the
interpretation, or perhaps we just want to see a summary of the paper to determine if it is
relevant to my study. To this end, many journals require the following sections, submitted in
the order listed, each section to start on a new page. There are variations of course. Some
journals call for a combined results and discussion, for example, or include materials and
methods after the body of the paper. The well-known journal Science does away with separate
sections altogether, except for the abstract.

GENERAL STYLE

Specific editorial requirements for submission of a manuscript will always supersede

instructions in these general guidelines.

To make a paper readable

• Print or type using a 12-point standard font, such as Times, Geneva, Bookman,
Helvetica, etc.
• Text should be double spaced on 8 1/2" x 11" paper with 1 inch margins, single sided
• Number pages consecutively
• Start each new section on a new page
• Adhere to recommended page limits
Mistakes to avoid

• Placing a heading at the bottom of a page with the following text on the next page (insert
a page break!).
• Dividing a table or figure - confine each figure/table to a single page.
• Submitting a paper with pages out of order.

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 In all sections of your paper

• Use normal prose including articles ("a", "the," etc.)

• Stay focused on the research topic of the paper
• Use paragraphs to separate each important point (except for the abstract)
• Indent the first line of each paragraph
• Present your points in logical order
• Use present tense to report well accepted facts - for example, 'the grass is green'
• Use past tense to describe specific results - for example, 'When weed killer was applied,
the grass was brown'
• Avoid informal wording, don't address the reader directly, and don't use jargon, slang
terms, or superlatives
• Avoid use of superfluous pictures - include only those figures necessary to presenting
results

➢ TITLE PAGE
Select an informative title as illustrated in the examples in your writing portfolio example
package. Include the name(s) and address(es) of all authors, and date submitted. "Biology lab
#1" would not be an informative title, for example.

➢ ABSTRACT
The summary should be two hundred words or less. See the examples in the writing portfolio
package.

General Intent
An abstract is a concise single paragraph summary of completed work or work in progress. In
a minute or less a reader can learn the rationale behind the study, general approach to the
problem, pertinent results, and important conclusions or new questions.

Writing an abstract
Write your summary after the rest of the paper is completed. After all, how can you summarize
something that is not yet written? Economy of words is important throughout any paper, but
especially in an abstract. However, use complete sentences and do not sacrifice readability for
brevity. You can keep it concise by wording sentences so that they serve more than one
purpose. For example, "In order to learn the role of protein synthesis in early development of
the sea urchin, newly fertilized embryos were pulse-labelled with tritiated leucine, to provide
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 a time course of changes in synthetic rate, as measured by total counts per minute (cpm)." This
sentence provides the overall question, methods, and type of analysis, all in one sentence. The
writer can now go directly to summarizing the results.
Summarize the study, including the following elements in any abstract. Try to keep the first
two items to no more than one sentence each.

• Purpose of the study - hypothesis, overall question, objective.

• Model organism or system and brief description of the experiment.
• Results, including specific data - if the results are quantitative in nature, report
quantitative data; results of any statistical analysis should be reported.
• Important conclusions or questions that follow from the experiment(s).
Style:

• Single paragraph, and concise.

• As a summary of work done, it is always written in past tense.
• An abstract should stand on its own, and not refer to any other part of the paper such as
a figure or table.
• Focus on summarizing results - limit background information to a sentence or two, if
absolutely necessary.
• What you report in an abstract must be consistent with what you reported in the paper .
• Correct spelling, clarity of sentences and phrases, and proper reporting of quantities
(proper units, significant figures) are just as important in an abstract as they are
anywhere else.

➢ INTRODUCTION
Your introductions should not exceed two pages (double spaced, typed). See the examples in
the writing portfolio package.

General Intent
The purpose of an introduction is to acquaint the reader with the rationale behind the work,
with the intention of defending it. It places your work in a theoretical context, and enables the
reader to understand and appreciate your objectives.

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 Writing an introduction
The abstract is the only text in a research paper to be written without using paragraphs in order
to separate major points. Approaches vary widely, however for our studies the following
approach can produce an effective introduction.

• Describe the importance (significance) of the study - why was this worth doing in the
first place? Provide a broad context.
• Defend the model - why did you use this particular organism or system? What are its
advantages? You might comment on its suitability from a theoretical point of view as
well as indicate practical reasons for using it.
• Provide a rationale. State your specific hypothesis(es) or objective(s), and describe the
reasoning that led you to select them.
• Very briefly describe the experimental design and how it accomplished the stated
objectives.
Style:
• Use past tense except when referring to established facts. After all, the paper will be
submitted after all of the work is completed.
• Organize your ideas, making one major point with each paragraph. If you make the four
points listed above, you will need a minimum of four paragraphs.
• Present background information only as needed in order support a position. The reader
does not want to read everything you know about a subject.
• State the hypothesis/objective precisely - do not oversimplify.
• As always, pay attention to spelling, clarity and appropriateness of sentences and
phrases.

➢ MATERIALS AND METHODS

There is no specific page limit, but a key concept is to keep this section as concise as you
possibly can. People will want to read this material selectively. The reader may only be
interested in one formula or part of a procedure. Materials and methods may be reported under
separate subheadings within this section or can be incorporated together.

General Intent
This should be the easiest section to write, but many students misunderstand the purpose. The
objective is to document all specialized materials and general procedures, so that another
individual may use some or all of the methods in another study or judge the scientific merit of

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your work. It is not to be a step by step description of everything you did, nor is a methods
section a set of instructions. In particular, it is not supposed to tell a story. By the way, your
notebook should contain all of the information that you need for this section.

Writing a materials and methods section

Materials:
• Describe materials separately only if the study is so complicated that it saves space this
way.
• Include specialized chemicals, biological materials, and any equipment or supplies that
are not commonly found in laboratories.
• Do not include commonly found supplies such as test tubes, pipet tips, beakers, etc., or
standard lab equipment such as centrifuges, spectrophotometers, pipettors, etc.
• If use of a specific type of equipment, a specific enzyme, or a culture from a particular
supplier is critical to the success of the experiment, then it and the source should be
singled out, otherwise no.
• Materials may be reported in a separate paragraph or else they may be identified along
with your procedures.
• In biosciences we frequently work with solutions - refer to them by name and describe
completely, including concentrations of all reagents, and pH of aqueous solutions,
solvent if non-aqueous.

Methods:
• See the examples in the writing portfolio package
• Report the methodology (not details of each procedure that employed the same
methodology)
• Describe the methodology completely, including such specifics as temperatures,
incubation times, etc.
• To be concise, present methods under headings devoted to spec ific procedures or
groups of procedures
• Generalize - report how procedures were done, not how they were specifically
performed on a particular day. For example, report "samples were diluted to a final
concentration of 2 mg/ml protein;" don't report that "135 microliters of sample one was
diluted with 330 microliters of buffer to make the protein concentration 2 mg/ml."

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 Always think about what would be relevant to an investigator at another institution,
working on his/her own project.
• If well documented procedures were used, report the procedure by name, perhaps with
reference, and that's all. For example, the Bradford assay is well known. You need not
report the procedure in full - just that you used a Bradford assay to estimate protein
concentration, and identify what you used as a standard.
Style:
• It is awkward or impossible to use active voice when documenting methods without
using first person, which would focus the reader's attention on the investigator rather
than the work. Therefore, when writing up the methods most authors use third person
passive voice.
• Use normal prose in this and in every other section of the paper – avoid informal lists,
and use complete sentences.

What to avoid
• Materials and methods are not a set of instructions.
• Omit all explanatory information and background - save it for the discussion.
• Omit information that is irrelevant to a third party, such as what colour ice bucket you
used, or which individual logged in the data.

➢ RESULTS
The page length of this section is set by the amount and types of data to be reported. Continue
to be concise, using figures and tables, if appropriate, to present results most effective ly. See
recommendations for content, below.

General Intent
The purpose of a results section is to present and illustrate your findings. Make this section a
completely objective report of the results, and save all interpretation for the discussion.

Writing a results section

IMPORTANT: You must clearly distinguish material that would normally be included in a
research article from any raw data or other appendix material that would not be published. In
fact, such material should not be submitted at all unless requested by the instructor.

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Content
• Summarize your findings in text and illustrate them, if appropriate, with figures and
tables.
• In text, describe each of your results, pointing the reader to observations that are most
relevant.
• Provide a context, such as by describing the question that was addressed by making a
particular observation.
• Describe results of control experiments and include observations that are not presented
in a formal figure or table, if appropriate.
• Analyse your data, then prepare the analysed (converted) data in the form of a figure
(graph), table, or in text form.

What to avoid
• Do not discuss or interpret your results, report background information, or attempt to
explain anything.
• Never include raw data or intermediate calculations in a research paper.
• Do not present the same data more than once.
• Text should complement any figures or tables, not repeat the same information.
• Please do not confuse figures with tables - there is a difference.
Style
• As always, use past tense when you refer to your results, and put everything in a logical
order.
• In text, refer to each figure as "figure 1," "figure 2," etc. ; number your tables as well
(see the reference text for details).
• Place figures and tables, properly numbered, in order at the end of the report (clearly
distinguish them from any other material such as raw data, standard curves, etc.) .
• If you prefer, you may place your figures and tables appropriately within the text of
your results section.
Figures and Tables
• Either place figures and tables within the text of the result, or include them in the back
of the report (following Literature Cited) - do one or the other.
• If you place figures and tables at the end of the report, make sure they are clearly
distinguished from any attached appendix materials, such as raw data.

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 • Regardless of placement, each figure must be numbered consecutively and complete
with caption (caption goes under the figure).
• Regardless of placement, each table must be titled, numbered consecutively and
complete with heading (title with description goes above the table).
• Each figure and table must be sufficiently complete that it could stand on its own,
separate from text.

➢ DISCUSSION
Journal guidelines vary. Space is so valuable in the Journal of Biological Chemistry, that
authors are asked to restrict discussions to four pages or less, double spaced, typed. That works
out to one printed page. While you are learning to write effectively, the limit will be extended
to five typed pages. If you practice economy of words, that should be plenty of space within
which to say all that you need to say.

General Intent
The objective here is to provide an interpretation of your results and support for all of your
conclusions, using evidence from your experiment and generally accepted knowledge, if
appropriate. The significance of findings should be clearly described.

Writing a discussion
Interpret your data in the discussion in appropriate depth. This means that when you explain a
phenomenon you must describe mechanisms that may account for the observation. If your
results differ from your expectations, explain why that may have happened. If your results
agree, then describe the theory that the evidence supported. It is never appropriate to simply
state that the data agreed with expectations, and let it drop at that.

• Decide if each hypothesis is supported, rejected, or if you cannot make a decision with
confidence. Do not simply dismiss a study or part of a study as "inconclusive."
• Research papers are not accepted if the work is incomplete. Draw what conclusions you
can based upon the results that you have, and treat the study as a finished work
• You may suggest future directions, such as how the experiment might be modified to
accomplish another objective.
• Explain all of your observations as much as possible, focusing on mechanisms.
• Decide if the experimental design adequately addressed the hypothesis, and whether or
not it was properly controlled.

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 • Try to offer alternative explanations if reasonable alternatives exist.
• One experiment will not answer an overall question, so keeping the big picture in mind,
where do you go next? The best studies open up new avenues of research. What
questions remain?
• Recommendations for specific papers will provide additional suggestions.
Style:
• When you refer to information, distinguish data generated by your own studies from
published information or from information obtained from other students (verb tense is
an important tool for accomplishing that purpose).
• Refer to work done by specific individuals (including yourself) in past tense.
• Refer to generally accepted facts and principles in present tense. For example, "Doofus,
in a 1989 survey, found that anaemia in basset hounds was correlated with advanced
age. Anaemia is a condition in which there is insufficient haemoglobin in the blood."
NOTE:- The biggest mistake that students make in discussions is to present a superficial
interpretation that more or less re-states the results. It is necessary to suggest why results came
out as they did, focusing on the mechanisms behind the observations.

➢ LITERATURE CITED
Please note that in the introductory laboratory course, you will not be required to properly
document sources of all of your information. One reason is that your maj or source of
information is this website, and websites are inappropriate as primary sources. Second, it is
problematic to provide a hundred students with equal access to potential reference materials.
You may nevertheless find outside sources, and you shou ld cite any articles that the instructor
provides or that you find for yourself.
List all literature cited in your paper, in alphabetical order, by first author. In a proper research
paper, only primary literature is used (original research articles authored by the original
investigators). Be cautious about using web sites as references - anyone can put just about
anything on a web site, and you have no sure way of knowing if it is truth or fiction. If you are
citing an on line journal, use the journal citation (name, volume, year, page numbers). Some of
your papers may not require references, and if that is the case simply state that "no references
were consulted."

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SEMINAR AND CONFERENCE PAPER WRITING

TRADITIONAL STRUCTURE OF A SEMINAR PAPER

1. Introduction - Set out the "Crux" of the Paper

• Introduce and note why the topic is important.
• Briefly summarize necessary background information.
• State your thesis.
• Convey your organization of the paper -- (i.e., "roadmap"). Tell the audience what your
paper will show and in what order. If you can concisely summarize your research and
outline the arguments of your paper, then odds your audience will be able to follow
your analysis.

2. Background - Orient the Audience

• Describe the genesis of the subject.
• Describe the changes that have occurred during its development.
• Explain the reasons for the changes.
• Describe where things are now (You may also want to indicate the reasons for further
change).

3. Analysis - Explain the Thesis

• Large-Scale Organization
➢ Discuss the major issues.
➢ Separate issues and sub-issues.
➢ Order issues logically.
• Small-Scale Organization
➢ Introduce and conclude on each issue.
➢ Present your arguments and rebut opposing arguments.
➢ Use organizational paradigms where appropriate.

4. Conclusion
➢ Restate the thesis of the paper.
➢ Summarize major points.
➢ If you chose to use a hypothetical in your introduction, revisit the hypothetical to "tie -
up" your paper.

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NOTE:-
Seminar papers are scientific texts and are thus subject to certain requirements regarding format
and content. The following paragraphs provide the most essential standards for the writing of
seminar papers. The seminar paper constitutes one out of three sub -requirements that have to
be achieved when attending a seminar at the chair. Constituting the first sub-requirement, the
seminar has to be graded 4.0 or better. Only in this case the participant is admitted to continue
the seminar. An overview of all sub-requirements is given in the following table: Each sub-
requirement is graded and the final grade will be calculated according to these weights. If the
total mark is between two grades the verbal participation in the round of discussion will be
decisive.

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WRITING A SEMINAR PAPER

The scientific nature of a seminar paper is closely connected to the use of literature that has
been published in the relevant field. Existing statements by other authors have to be quoted,
controversial approaches have to be displayed and a position regarding their content has to be
developed. Please note, however, that the literature review is (merely) of auxiliary nature and
does not make up for an independent interpretation and analysis of the relevant economic issue.
Throughout the text, all direct and indirect quotations have to be clearly marked and
corresponding references have to be indicated. A seminar paper lacking either a complete
bibliography or references in the text will not be accepted. Please make sure to indicate all
sources of any type of intellectual property. This also applies to all quoted numbers, tables and
figures. The infringement of intellectual 2 property rights by passing off ideas of others as one’s
own is a serious violation of the rules of scientific duty of documentation. Such plagiarism will
be graded 5.0. In addition, such plagiarism might infringe copyright law, which will potentially
be prosecuted. Please also read the document “Guidelines on dealing with plagiarism” which
is available on the chair’s website. On a related note, please make sure to complete and sign
the statutory declaration provided by the chair and attach it to the seminar paper as the last
page. This form is also available on the website of the chair. Seminar papers lacking this
declaration will not be accepted.

WRITING A CONFERENCE PAPER

Conference papers are articles that are submitted to a conference to get an opportunity to
present your results. The presentation is usually oral along with a ppt, but initially you have to
submit either an abstract or an article which is reviewed by the conference organizers to decide
whether or not you get a chance to present at the conference. Often, the paper is later published
in the conference proceedings for more visibility.

Before you begin writing your conference paper, you must check the conference conventions
and guidelines and note down any structural or formatting styles to be followed. Make sure you
present your findings in an organized and logical manner.

You can refer the following format mentioned below in sequence while writing your
conference paper: -
1). Abstract: It is the first section of the paper and summarizes the findings of your
research. You can include the main points of your research like the purpose of your
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 research, the methods used, the findings as well as the conclusion of your research in
the abstract.
2). Overview and problem statement: It provides a brief overview of your research topic
and states the problem that you have identified through your preliminary research. You
must highlight a gap between the ideal situation and the reality in this section.
3). Proposed method: This section must provide brief details about the methods that you
have proposed – the assumptions as well as workings that you have carried out. You
can make use of facts and figures to make your data appear impressive.
4). Experimental data analysis and results: This section contains a brief analysis of the
data and the results of your preliminary experiments.
5). Conclusion and References: This section includes the conclusion of your research as
well as recommendations for further research. You must also mention all the references
correctly in this section.

PROPOSAL
The word proposal has been derived from the word ‘propose’ that means to offer or put forward
for consideration- a suggestion, plan or scheme. Proposal thus means ‘something proposed’:
plan or scheme. It is often defined as a plan or scheme that persuades its readers to accept the
writer’s idea. In other terms, a proposal is a properly conceived idea or plan, an action-oriented
report. But it is different from a report.

“The proposal is a suggestive plan of future task where the proposer aims at getting th e
acceptance or the approval of the authorities but a report deals with what has already been
done.”

TYPES OF PROPOSALS

Proposals are written for business enhancement, scientific enquiry, technical knowledge and
so on. Some of the main types of proposals are mentioned below: -

1. Business Proposals
Proposals dealing with any aspect of business, trade and commerce are called business
proposals.

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2. Research Proposals
Proposals concerned with a project requiring scientific enquiry or systematic investig ation are
known as research proposals.
3. Technical Proposals:
Proposals relating to technical knowledge and skills are known as Technical Proposals.
Note: - Proposals related to an organization may be categorized in to following two types: -
1. External Proposal
A proposal written by a firm in order to win contracts for work is called External Proposal.
2. Internal Proposals
The writer prepares an internal proposal with a motive to convince the person or group in
authority to allow him to implement his ideas. Internal proposals are thus, submitted within a
company.
All the above proposals may be broadly classified into following two categories: -
1. Solicited Proposal
When a proposal is prepared in response to an invitation from a firm or some
government or non-government organization, it is known as solicited proposal. In such
forms of proposals, the proposer receives a form from the firm inviting the proposals.
The writer is required to supply the relevant particulars as demanded by the firm.
Solicited proposals are generally prepared in response to some advertisement.
2. Unsolicited Proposal
Sometimes a proposer prepares a proposal about the solution of a problem. This type
of proposal is developed by an individual without being asked or without any external
encouragement. Such proposals are commonly known as unsolicited proposals where
the proposer tries hard to rouse the interest of the people to whom he has sent his
proposal.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD PROPOSAL

OR
FACTORS CONSIDERED FOR WRITING A GOOD PROPOSAL
Following points should be followed for writing a good proposal: -
1). Proposer should keep in mind his customer’s needs as well as his own product or
service.

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 2). Proposer should suggest the benefits, likely to accrue to the customer.
3). Certain visual aids may be appropriately used by the proposer to present his proposal
in an effective way.
4). Proposer should describe the approach to solve the problem.
5). The proposer must explain the expertise of the people responsible for the project.
6). Time and money required for the execution of the proposed project should be estimated
and clearly mentioned.
7). Proposals should be written in simple language.

CHARACTERISTRICS OF PROPOSAL

A-Attention I-Interest D-Desire A- Action

Note:- A Proposal should contain the above mentioned characteristics/features.

STRUCTURE / FORMAT OF PROPOSAL

The structure of a proposal is determined according to the type of proposal, if it is solicited or

unsolicited, internal or external. The structure of the solicited proposal is determined by the
organization inviting it.

A good proposal however, has four important parts: -

a. Front Matter b. Technical Section c. Managerial Section d. Financial Section

a. Front Matter
It includes the following elements:
1. Cover Page: Title of Proposal, Name of Proposer, Address & Date

2. Title Page: Title of Proposal, Name of Proposer, Date & Company Name

3. Table of Contents: It lists various sections of the proposal and page numbe rs on
which that appear. Lists of headings and subheadings into which the content of the
proposal has been organized.

4. Abstract or Summary: Summary or abstract is the shorter version of the proposal. b.

b. Technical Section
In this section the proposer highlights two things: -
(i) Problem and;
(ii) Its solution.
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The writer should organize the proposal around four questions: -
1. What is the problem?
2. What is the solution?
3. Can the solution be implemented?
4. Should the solution be implemented?
c. Managerial Section
The managerial section describes the personnel who will work directly on the project. All the
details such as their qualifications, achievements and experiences are mentioned in this section.

d. Financial Section
It includes a chart of anticipated expenditure. The estimate should be realistic and complete.
There should be a detailed account of the amount required for several items such as equipment,
lab testing, salaries of personnel, office contingencies and infrastructural facilities such as
building, water, electricity, machines and so on.

SIMPLIFIED STRUCTURE / FORMAT FOR WRITING A PROPOSAL

1. Date
2. To
3. From
4. Subject
5. Summary or abstract
6. Purpose
7. Problem
8. Solution
9. Procedure
10. Methodology
1) Design unit - Details of personnel working in Design Unit
2) Material unit - Details of personnel working in Material Unit
3) Management unit - Details of personnel working in Management Unit
11. Benefits
12. Cost estimate

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RFP – ‘REQUEST FOR PROPOSAL’ OR ‘STATEMENT OF REQUEST’

The RFP - Request for Proposal or the statement of Request forms the main body of the
proposal. Often a request for proposal is issued by some Government Agency or small and
large corporation. This RFP explains the project details and also its significance precisely. The
companies that receive RFP now work hard to find out the ways to develop the pr oject. After
developing the project, the companies reply the RFP sent by various organizations by their
RFP, which helps them to win the contract for the Project.

EXAMPLE OF RFP- REQUEST FOR PROPOSAL

OR

EOI– EXPRESSION OF INTEREST

Global Computer Solutions

Plot No. 24, Sector 32

Noida, U.P.,

0120348449

[email protected]

04 April, 2015

The Director

Institute of Management Studies

Plot No. 10, Sector – 62

Noida, U.P.

Subject: SETTING UP OF COMPUTER LABORATORY

Sir,

1. In response to your advertisement published in The Times of India dated 1 0 July, 2020, I
would like to submit a proposal enclosed herewith.

2. I shall be very grateful to you, for an early reply at your end.

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Yours faithfully,

-sd

XYZ

Senior Manager

Encl: Proposal

SIGNIFICANCE OF PROPOSAL WRITING

Proposals are important for the progress of any profession and professional. The pr ogress of
any organization to a great extent depends on good proposals. Some of the advantages of good
proposals are as following: -

i) Good Proposals win contracts for work

Good Proposals help to win contracts for carrying out various project and infrastructure works
ii) Increases Business Activity
Proposal improves the business activity as it is written in order to propose a product or service
to a prospective customer or buyer. It helps businesses to compete without even needing to
send marketers or representatives physically to the prospective customers to pitch or to try and
sell their products or services. The business proposal, if written very well would on its own be
able to do all the promotion and selling.
iii) Offer solution to problems
Business proposals are written in order to offer solutions to the problems faced by prospective
customers.
iv) Improves Interpersonal Communication Skills
The proposal writers better their interpersonal communication skills by writing various types
of proposals.
v) Enhances Personal Growth
The good proposal writer gets appreciated by the authorities which fetches him better pay and
promotions.
vi) Saves Time
The project work is executed in a well-planned manner through proposals which saves the man
hours in the project completion.

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vii)Saves Money The execution of projects through well planned proposals saves money by
employing only required human resource on the project.

EXPERT TECHNICAL LECTURE: THEME CLARITY; ANALYSIS & FINDINGS

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7 C’S OF EFFECTIVE BUSINESS WRITING / BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

The seven principles of effective Business Writing / 7 C’s of Business Communication are
enumerated below: -

1. Consideration / Conversational (Your attitude)

Try to visualize your reader’s circumstances, problems, emotions, their desires etc. and indicate
that you understand these by using your words with care. If you are writing a sales letter, show
the recipient how the product would be beneficial for them. When you write with consideration,
you generate goodwill.
2. Courtesy (Be courteous) Be courteous and polite. Avoid making negative statements and
an accusatory tone accusing the recipient. eg. Instead of writing, “You did not send the cheque”,
use “The cheque wasn’t enclosed.” Even if you are writing a complaint letter, your tone must
be polite and courteous at all times.
3. Clarity (Be clear)
One has to be clear and specific in their letter. The words used should be unambiguous and not
vague (unclear). Avoid giving abstract (summary) information. Eg. Instead of ‘visualize’, use
‘see’. Instead of ‘at the present time’, write ‘now’. Instead of using ‘the website is now fully
operational with the e-commerce functionality setup’, write ‘the company has launched its
website’.
4. Concreteness (Be convincing)
A good business letter always provides concrete information (specific information). Eg. Instead
of saying, “I expect the consignment/order to reach me at the earliest”, use “I expect the order
to be delivered to me by 21st of August 2020.
5. Correctness
Correctness of both – the expression and the information should be followed. While writing a
business letter, the principle of correctness should be followed. The writer must ensure
correctness in his tone, format and information that he provides in the letter. The facts
mentioned must be true and correct. Grammatical structures and spellings should be correct.
6. Conciseness Use only necessary details and short sentences. Be direct and avoid long
redundant (lengthy & unnecessary) expressions. Use the “Keep it short and simple” formula.
7. Completeness Provide complete information in the letter. Whatever information has been
asked and whatever information you want to get should be clearly mentioned.

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C.V./RESUME WRITING

INTRODUCTION

In various industries and organisations, there is a requirement of managerial technical and non -
technical staff. This requirement may be maximum, when the organisation is starting for the
first time. For a running organisation, in case of some expansion or a new project in hand, there
may be a major requirement of staff at various levels.

There are various modes of employment for this purpose. Some of the organisations advertise
and recruit directly. Earlier, this job was done by personnel department. Nowadays, the work
is done by human resource (HR) department. Some companies outsource the work of
recruitment to private recruitment agencies on behalf of their companies. In any case, the
advertisement may be published in local, regional or national level newspapers, depending on
the size of the company. Nowadays, the advertisements and announcements are through
internet and websites, which has a global access. It increases opportunity as well as
competitions. The government departments recruit through state and national level public
service commissions. In most of the cases, the printed application forms may be available fr ee
or on payment basis, from the concerned office or it can be down loaded from the website of
the organisation. For the government jobs, along with the application form, postal order of
specified amount payable to specified agency is required to be sent. In case of a printed or a
soft copy of the application form, the candidate has to fill up the details at specified columns.
He has not much freedom. For additional information, extra sheets can be attached. The
application form should be signed by the candidate and supported by copies of necessary
documents. The application should be sent by registered post and Xerox copy should be
retained by the candidate. For internal candidates, in government and semi-government offices,
it is necessary to apply through proper channel. The candidate has to apply through the local
controlling officer. An extra copy is marked for the local controlling officer. He forwards the
application further, with his remarks. In government and semi government office and
sometimes in private too, no objection certificate is required from the present employer.
Without this, the new employer may not consider the application and the present employer may
not relieve the candidate.

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RESUME

Resume is just not your back ground, qualities and achievements. It should reflect your
personality, to ensure interview call. If the resume is limited to one or two pages and carries
different titles, fast screening is possible by the scrutinizer. It should cover important
information on priority basis. It should match the requirement of the employer. White, A4 size
plain paper should be used. Avoid unnecessary information. Resume should be typed.

• Decide what will be relevant for the job.

• Decide general structure by identifying the important heads of items like personal details,
academic record, experience, achievements, special skills and expertise.
• Arrange topic heads, in a proper sequence.
• Give details in each head.
• The resume should be properly checked. Spelling and grammatical mistakes create a very
bad impression.

CONTENTS OF RESUME

Personal details:

Full name (first name, second name and surname), Address, phone number, email address.

Sex : Male/Female

Age : Caste

Nationality:

Religion :

(In India sex, age, caste, nationality and religion are part of the specified format. In advance
countries, these points are considered as discriminatory features and are avoided or
discouraged. Depending on the company and location of the company, one can use individual
discretion, to include or exclude these details).

Educational Qualification: It may start with the highest degree or recent degree. Usually,
along with the degree, the name of the university, year of passing and class or grade point are
covered.
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Achievement: It includes gold Medal, Award, special recognition, etc.

Skills: It includes knowledge of computer language, familiarity with special software or tools
like Matlab, Cadence, Zylink, Etap, Network, etc.

Training: If some training at industry or other organisation is taken, it can be mentioned.

Project: UG project, PG project, Ph.D project can be covered.

R & D and Consultancy: Only research and consultancy assignments can be highlighted.
Publications: Only number of papers published at national and international level may be
mentioned.

PRECAUTIONS FOR A RESUME

• Lined or coloured paper or non-standard size of paper, should not be used.

• It should not be handwritten.
• Typing on both sides should be avoided.
• It should not be more than two pages.
• Xerox copy of resume should be avoided.
• Do not write irrelevant details.
• Do not cover very old information.
• Instead of writing paragraphs, use bulleted points.
• Employment record should be continuous and consistent.
• Do not blame the present or previous employer.
• Do now show your impatience to leave the present job and join the new employer.
• The resume should be attractive by content and appearance.

Generally, job experience and qualification are covered in a reverse chronological sequence in
a resume. In case of a structural resume, depending on job requirement and position, the
candidate may concentrate on and club the relevant experience specific details. It will help him
to prove his competence for the nature of the job and specific position.

NOTE:- In case of a resume, generally the content is limited to two pages. It only
highlights the main points. The details may be avoided.

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Curriculum Vitae (CV)

When a person applies for a job or admission for higher studies, the specified application form
is accompanied by a resume or curriculum vitae. The resume is usually very short but,
curriculum vitae (CV), is much detailed. It runs for large number of pages, to include lot many
details. It also covers personal details and experience. Curriculum Vitae (CV) is usually
extensive. For a fresh graduate, the information to be covered may be less but, for a senior,
experienced professional, there is accumulation of a lot of information. Depending on the
nature of the job and industry also, some more information may be involved. The length of a
CV is usually more than two pages.

In some countries, resume and curriculum vitae are considered same. Actually, there is a small
difference between the two. Resume is more useful for a job in an industry or a private sector.
Depending on the job and industry requirement, the candidate may add or delete or modify
some information. It is somewhat flexible. The resume is in the form of a short summary of the
career, where many things be omitted or highlighted, without details. As the resume is
employer and employment specific, the strength related to that job maybe given more
weightage. Sometimes, the candidate may state his personal goal and ideology in a qualitative
form. Curriculum Vitae, on the other hand, may be exhaustive. It covers full details about the
candidate, without missing any details. The format is almost standard. Some countries have
developed their format with reference to migration. For employment purpose, the
advertisement in a newspaper and getting hard copy of applications is a costly and time-
consuming process. If the requirement of a particular type of personnel is displayed via internet
and if resumes or CVs are also collected through internet, the process is fast, cheaper and
effective. In an online application, the signature of the applicant is missing. It lacks
authentication. Somebody can apply on behalf of the other person. Of course, with s canning
and password the problem can be solved, indirectly. If the format is standardized, it is also easy
to scrutinize large number of applications.

Structure of a CV

• It starts with the title “Curriculum Vitae” in a bold or capital letters.

• Personal Details: Complete name, in the form of the first name, second name and family
name or surname is the last entry. In some parts of India, the second name is father ’s name. In
northern India, the second name is usually extension of the first name e.g. Kumar in case of
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Rakeshkumar or Lal in case of Makhanlal, Sinh, etc. The name should be typed in bold or
capital letters. In some cases, before name Mr/Ms/Mrs/Dr is written. The name is followed by
address. Some people mention temporary and permanent address separately. Sometimes, office
and residential addresses or address for communication are mentioned separately. It may ensure
reliability of postal delivery. It further includes landline phone number with local, national and
international code, mobile phone number; and email address. Official and personal both email
address is mentioned.

• Photograph: In most of the cases, photograph may not be necessary. For admission purpose,
national/international employment, immigration, passport and visa purpose, if specified, photo
should be attached.

• Age: Years Months, Sex: Male/Female

• Marital Status: Married/Unmarried

• Caste: ____ _ __ Religion:
• Nationality: In Indian organisations, state and government office application forms, such
columns still exist. In line with that, these details may be covered optionally. At international
level age, sex, marital status, caste, religion, and nationality are considered as discriminatory
features. To avoid legal complication, they are discouraged or omitted from the application
forms and CVs in many cases.
• Job Seeker: The CV is identity of the individual. The beginning of the CV should be such
that the other side is tempted to go through it. The CV should be successful, at least to lead you
to the interview table. For this purpose, the CV can be started with the strengths of the job
seeker. It follows the personal details. It may prove the competence of the person concerned.
• Skills: By experience, training or qualifications, some special skills may be developed by an
individual. The special skills can be covered here. Some skills are job specific. Earlier, for a
clerical job, knowledge of typing and typing speed in words/minute was c onsidered
important. Knowledge of shorthand was also, important. Nowadays, familiarity with use of
computer, fax, Xeroxing, internet, intranet, email, websites, etc. is very important for e -
communication. For a marketing job, communication skill is important. For technical persons,
familiarity with branch specific dedicated software tools becomes an important skill. For a
senior position, managerial skill is necessary. In purchase department negotiation skill is
necessary. In any job, at any position, dealing with the people of different types and levels is
necessary. For a lawyer logical convincing is necessary. For a teaching job teaching skill and
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 research aptitude are necessary. For technicians, skill in specific trade required. If somebody
has mastered some skill, it is his asset and he can prove to be the asset for the organisation.
• Experience: Due to the globalization and out sourcing, a lot of opportunities are available.
A lot of mobility is observed. Youngsters usually change a number of jobs. At senior level, a
person may have rich experience to his credit. The experience may be in different companies
and in different capacities, with different responsibilities. The experience is mentioned in a
tabular form. It includes the name of the organisation, the position and the dates of
employment (from__ to _ ). Usually the experience is stated in a reverse sequence. So,
if somebody is interested, only in recent experience, it can be referred accordingly. Naturally
the current job may be on the highest position or with highest salary. The responsibilities
handled at present may be specified. In case of a very long career, more than twenty or twenty
five years, the earlier part may be clubbed and covered in short and the recent part may be
covered in detail.
• Achievements: In a long career, a person may get some good opportunities to work in
different departments in different positions. He may make some remarkable contribution or
improvement or innovation. It can be covered in the career history. His services may be
appreciated by some certificates, rewards or felicitations. It is his achievement.
• Education: Starting with the highest degree the educational qualification is mentioned. It
includes the Ph.D., post graduate and bachelor degree in engineering, management or in any
other faculty. • Competitive Examinations: If the candidate has covered some competitive
examinations for study, admission or job purpose that can be mentioned. It may be GRE,
GATE, GMAT, CAT, TOEFL, UPSC, IPS, IRS, etc.
• Training: On job, as per the requirement of the job or of the training, the candidate may
undergo some training. The training may be arranged by the industry, supplier, government
or private agency. The training may be in house or external. In a teaching line there may be
induction training, short term training under ISTE, AICTE, industrial training, etc. For non -
teaching staff and technical staff also, trainings are arranged.
• Professional Membership: Engineers are associated by membership with national or
international professional bodies like Institution of Engineers (I), Institute of Electronics
Engineers, IEEE, ISA, ASHRE, Management Association, CII, Chamber of Commerce, etc.
• Membership of Professional and Academic bodies: Universities have board of studies,
faculty, academic council, senate, syndicate etc. Membership of these bodies is prestigious.
Many organisations have governing council and its membership is usually by nomination.

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 • Publications: Professors, researchers, engineers and scientists have large number of
technical papers, published by them. Some of them may be presented at the national and
international conferences. Papers are also, published in technical and professional journals.
Publications in referred journals are more creditable. Some people also publish books.
• Patients and IPR: Many scientists, engineers and researchers, carry out some unique or
innovative work and get the patents. It becomes intellectual property right of the researcher
or an innovator. It may earn a good reward by way of royalty. Apart from money, it adds to
the credentials.
• Project and consultancy: Professors at leading educational institutes, work for projects
sponsored by government, industry, R&D organisations and defence organisations. It brings
credit to the organisation and individuals. Many professors work as consultants to the industry
and government. They make value addition to the organisation
• Hobbies: In many cases, all round development of persons is given due consideration.
Music, art, culture, drawing, painting, reading, writing are the hobbies helpful for personal
growth.
All these points give a lot of scope to the candidate to project one’s self. Due advantage should
be taken, with proper discretion. Care should be taken, not to criticize any individual or
organisation. For the failure, nobody should be blamed. Earlier or current employer should
not be criticized. Love for the job, commitment, resourcefulness, initiative, sincerity, hard
work, integrity, honesty and ethics should be reflected in the CV and account of the past
career may be given systematically.
• Extra-curricular and co-curricular activities: For the fresh graduates, most of the above
points are not applicable. They can mention the participation in sports and cultural activities
and technical festivals at local, state and national level. Any prizes won, may help in proving
better edge.

Note: - The CV should be simple, compact and legible, must meet employer requirement,
reflect your image and convince the recruiter. CV is useful for all types of jobs and at all
levels of career. Nowadays, video form of CV is also coming in practice. Some perso ns are
excellent but, they do not realize their market value. CV is the best tool for the same. It
provides the opportunity to the candidate to prove better edge over others, in terms of skills,
expertise, experience, behavior, attitude and ethics. The presentation about your self should
be realistic. Boasting and false information are not advisable. Modesty should not prevent
presentation of your attributes. A good CV may boost up one‟s own morale, to become good,
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 better and the best. Nowadays, less importance is given by the employers to academic
qualifications. Much more weightage is given to attitude, achievements and attainability,
which lead the individual to high altitudes of a career.
In addition to personal information and self-statement, references are also given due
weightage. The reference letters given by a professor, research guides and previous employers
with high reputation in their area, are very useful. It is the third-party assessment.
In the data presented in the CV, there should not be factual errors, ambiguity, discontinuity,
manipulation of information or intentional hiding of information. It may trap the candidate in
an awkward situation.

KEY TO GOOD CV

CV is nothing but, the password, opening the window of opportunities for the can didate. It is
meant for marketing one’s self. It should convince the recruiter that selecting this person will
be a value addition to the organisation. The main requirements in marketing are drawing
attention and convincing. The key points should be highlighted. The points should be
arranged as per the priority requirement of the job. Before an interview, the words in a CV
speak for you. For variety of jobs, number of CVs can be prepared by the individual. Finally,
bandwidth or talents and impedance matching between the candidate and employer are
important.

• Personal Details: Depending on the law of the land or tradition, full personal details may
be given or only just necessary or demanded personal information may be given. Some
information is considered discriminatory, is discouraged and should be avoided in specific
cases but, should not be hidden where necessary.

• Address: Sometimes, contact number, email address and postal address are kept at the top
and sometimes, at the bottom. If it is at the top, it will draw the attention. The scrutinizer will
easily locate it otherwise it may be thought to be missing. For internal vacancy within the
organisation, the address at the top with present designation is necessary and helpful.

• Covering Letter: In response to the advertisement or announcement, many people just

forward the C.V. CV usually does not carry signature. CV should have covering letter,
referring to the advertisement, announcement, the job and position applied for. The covering
letter is addressed to the particular employer. It is signed at the end. Covering letter plus CV
makes the application for the job position. Only CV cannot be considered as an application.

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 In many cases, unsigned document is not considered authentic. Responsibility about the facts
presented is endorsed by the signature.

• Beginners: For the fresh graduates from the college, there is nothing to be mentioned
against experience and expertise. In such cases, the recommendation letters are very useful.
The candidate or the recommender may write about communication, sincerity, intelligence,
hardworking nature, team building, constructive leadership, creativity, analytical skill,
research aptitude, intelligence quotient, emotional quotient, spiritual quotient, integrity,
problem solving capability, habit of technical reading, extra and co -curricular activities,
association with the student sections of professional bodies, academic excellence, awards and
prizes won, certificates of merit received. Representation of the college or university at the
state or the national level, in cultural and technical activities, seminars prepared and
presented, minor and major projects undertaken, with title of project and name of industry or
R & D organisation, if any industrial or professional training is taken, if extra skills are
developed with hardware and software tools – all these will add colourful feathers in the cap
of the fresh candidate.

• Role definition: In a growing company, team building is essential. The candidates for
executive level should have the vision for the growth of the organisation. The candi date has
to define the scope of what can be done. He has to define his own role. He should have a plan
for best use of time, resources and manpower. Strategic planning capacity is necessary. The
job also expects objectivity, tolerance, maturity, patience and wisdom. Initiative and
resourcefulness should be reflected in the CV. The person should provide the role model and
should be able to lead the colleagues.

• Project/Training/Internship placement: In the good engineering institutes and business

schools, there are Industry Institute Interaction (III) cells and placement cells. They
communicate on behalf of the candidates for project/training/internship placements. Some
private companies also, provide placements for job and higher studies on payment basis. In
absence of such cells, the candidates have to apply individually. The main problem is to locate
the target organisations or industries. Internet and websites may be very useful for this
purpose. Apart from other details discussed for beginners, the cand idate can state the nature
of training acquired, duration of the training and schedule. For project or research placement,
the candidate has to clarify whether his interest and familiarity is for hardware, software or
combination of the two.

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 • Presentation: The shape and size of a paper, quality of typing/printing/Xerox, legibility,
richness of language used, grammar, spelling, continuity, consistency and updating of
information, sequence of information are important components of the presentation style.
Tailor made CVs for a specific organisation and position are appreciated. Some organisations
insist on traditional form of CV. Some employers encourage and appreciate innovation in CV
presentation styles.

• Subheadings: Under various subheadings, arranged in a proper sequence, all the necessary
information should be covered. It may include personal details, attributes, educational
qualifications, experience, specialisation, capabilities, achievements, career history, etc.

• Covering Letters: Whether the CV is sent in response to an advertisement, or an

announcement, or without any advertisement, a covering letter is necessary. In case of
advertisement or announcement, its dated reference may be given. In a covering letter, the
candidate can mention about his attributes and interests matching with the job e.g. loyalty,
reliability, problem solving capability, team building, leadership, experience and expertise,
oral and written communication skill, interpersonal skill, administrative, planning and
managerial capability. It adds job specific touch. A signed covering letter, written to a
particular organisation for a specific position is more specific and authentic. The words,
phrases and statements used in the covering letter should reflect the strength and capabilities
of the jobseeker, which will satisfy the requirement of the specific employer.

• Experience: While highlighting the experience, only recent and the experience relevant to
the job should be emphasized.

• Personal Weakness: Some people are very frank in mentioning their weaknesses, along
with the strength. It should be mentioned trickily and the candidate should be able to justify,
how he has overcome it. Good employer may appreciate it. But, if not presented properly and
is misinterpreted, it may come in your way.

NOTE: - As you are just out of your study life, you are freshers who only look forward to
seek a job. Understanding how to get to a job is a knack. Even before you get to a job, you
need to work towards creating opportunities to get an interview call. There are 3 things what
we talk about when we are hunting for a job i.e. Resume, CV & Bio data.

Do you know the difference between the 3??? Here it goes……

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 RESUME
Resume is a word originated from the French word. Education, skills & employment
summarized together is called a Resume. A resume is an outline of what you are and does not
list down all details of a profile, but showcases specific skills customized to the target job.
For a fresher a resume generally starts with the career objective, followed by education
qualification, project details, major skills, internships, workshops, strengths, interests,
personal details etc. It is always a good idea to get your resume prepared by experts. It is easy
for them to identify the best in you and are expertized to construct a resume which highlights
the best in you. Usually details about a person are broken into bullets & written in the third
person to appear objective and formal. Focus is always to have the best in you showcased and
easily readable. Interviewer don’t spend more than 30 seconds to select or reject a resume.

CURRICULUM VITAE (C.V.)

Curriculum Vitae are words originated from a Latin word. CV contains details which are
more relating to education and life. It is a more in-depth details than a resume. It may be 2 to
3 pages or even longer depending on one’s requirement. It covers all details in a chronological
order. It covers general talent rather than specific skills for any specific positions.

BIO-DATA
Bio data is nothing but an old-fashioned terminology for Resume or CV. Bio Data is the short
form for Biographical Data and is an archaic terminology for Resume or C.V. In a bio data,
the focus is on personal particulars like date of birth, gender, religion, race, nationality,
residence, marital status etc. other than education and experience. At times Bio-data also
includes applications made in specified formats as required by the company. The term bio -
data is mostly used in India and are usually used while applying for government jobs.
workshops, strengths, interests, personal details etc. It is always a good idea to get your
resume prepared by experts. It is easy for them to identify the best in you and are expertized
to construct a resume which highlights the best in you. Usually details about a person are
broken into bullets & written in the third person to appear objective and formal. Focus is
always to have the best in you showcased and easily readable. Interviewer don ’t spend more
than 30 seconds to select or reject a resume.

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