Mathematics

Grade 10 • Unit 6: Factoring Polynomials

LESSON 6.3
The Rational Root Theorem
Table of Contents

Introduction 1

Test Your Prerequisite Skills 2

DepEd Competencies 3

Objectives 3

Warm-Up! 3

Learn about It! 5

Rational Root Theorem 5

Proof of the Rational Root Theorem 6

Let’s Practice 7

Check Your Understanding 18

Key Point 19

Bibliography 20
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Grade 10 • Unit 6: Factoring Polynomials

Lesson 6.3
The Rational Root Theorem

Fig. 1. Gift Boxes

Introduction
In your previous lessons, you have learned how to illustrate the area of a rectangle using
quadratic functions and how to represent its length and width by factoring the function. How
about if you are going to illustrate the volume of a box? What kind of function are you going
to use?

In illustrating the volume of a rectangular prism such as boxes, you can use a cubic function.

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By factoring the function, you can determine the length, width, and height of the box.
However, factoring a cubic function may not be as easy as factoring a quadratic function since
there is no straightforward way of doing it. You can look for possible factors through the use
of the Rational Root Theorem.

In this lesson, you will learn about the Rational Root Theorem and how it is used in factoring
polynomials.

Test Your Prerequisite Skills

Before you get started, answer the following items on a separate sheet of paper. This will
help you assess your prior knowledge and practice some skills that you will need in studying
this lesson. Show your complete solution.

1. Identify the constant term and the leading coefficient in each polynomial and list
their factors.
a. 6𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 10
b. 𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 24
c. 3𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4
d. 11 + 7𝑥 5 − 4𝑥 3 + 2𝑥
e. 𝑥 3 − 9𝑥 + 9 + 2𝑥 4 − 19𝑥 2

2. Divide the following polynomials by the given linear divisor using synthetic division.
a. (5𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 + 12) ÷ (𝑥 − 3)
b. (2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 5) ÷ (𝑥 + 2)
c. (𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 − 20) ÷ (𝑥 − 5)
d. (2𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 2 + 11) ÷ (𝑥 − 3)
e. (4𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6) ÷ (2𝑥 − 1)

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Grade 10 • Unit 6: Factoring Polynomials

DepEd Competencies
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to do the following:

● Prove the Remainder Theorem, Factor Theorem, and the Rational Root
Theorem.

● Factor polynomials (M10AL-Ih-1).

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to do the following:

● Correctly identify the constant term and the leading coefficient in a

polynomial.

● Accurately list the factors of a given integer.

● Correctly find all possible rational roots of a given polynomial.

● Correctly solve real-life problems involving the Rational Root Theorem.

Warm-Up!

Factors, Line Up!

Materials
● scratch papers with a blank space on either page
● markers
● adhesive tape

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Grade 10 • Unit 6: Factoring Polynomials

Instructions
1. This activity is a game done by the whole class. The class shall be divided where every
group has 10 members each. It is advised that chairs be placed on the sides to allow
yourselves to freely move around.
2. Prior to the game, your teacher should have given a set of 10 papers per group with a
different number on each sheet. The number on each sheet may be an integer or a
fraction. The set of papers shall be the same for each group.
3. Each member of a group gets a sheet and attaches it to his/her chest using an adhesive
tape.
4. For each round, each of the groups shall stay together in one place at the sides of the
room.
5. Your teacher will then write a polynomial on the board.
6. Your task is to be able to determine if the number you are assigned to follows the form
𝑝
𝑞
, where 𝑝 is a factor of the constant term and 𝑞 is a factor of the leading coefficient.

7. For each round, your group has to have five members with such numbers. You have
to line up in the middle as fast as you could.
8. Once you and your groupmates are able to form such a line, you are to shout your
group number.
9. If the values are correct, your group receives a point. The first group that reaches 3
points wins.

Example:
Given polynomial: 3𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 2 + 9
Factors of the constant term 9: 1, −1, 3, −3, 9, −9
Factors of the leading coefficient 3: 1, −1, 3, −3
𝑝 1
Thus, possible values of are ±1, ±3, ±9, ± .
𝑞 3

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Learn about It!

We have learned in the previous lesson that the Remainder Theorem and the Factor Theorem
help us determine whether a certain number is a root or if a binomial 𝑥 − 𝑘 is a factor of a
polynomial.

However, if we are only given a polynomial, how do we select the values we have to try out
with the Remainder Theorem to see if it is a root?

Rational Root Theorem

To help us determine the factors of a polynomial, we can use the Rational Root Theorem.

Definition 3.1: Rational Root Theorem. Suppose 𝑃(𝑥) is a

polynomial function whose leading term is 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛
and whose constant term is 𝑎0 , where 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑎0
𝑝
are nonzero integers. If the rational number 𝑞
is

a zero of 𝑃(𝑥) such that the GCF of 𝑝 and 𝑞 is 1,

then 𝑝 is a factor of 𝑎0 and 𝑞 is a factor of 𝑎𝑛 .

Essential Questions
How can you find the possible rational roots of a given polynomial?

Notice that this was what you did in the Warm Up! activity. In the given example,
𝑃(𝑥) = 3𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 2 + 9 has a leading coefficient 𝑎𝑛 = 3 and a constant term 𝑎0 = 9. To find the
𝑝
possible values of 𝑞 which are the possible zeros of the polynomial, we get the factors (both

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Grade 10 • Unit 6: Factoring Polynomials

positive and negative) of 9 and 3. The factors of 9 correspond to 𝑝, and the factors of 3
correspond to 𝑞.

The factors of constant term 9 are 1, −1, 3, −3, 9, −9. These are the possible values of 𝑝.
The factors of the leading coefficient 3 are 1, −1, 3, −3. These are the possible values of 𝑞. We
𝑝 𝑝
then form the rational numbers 𝑞 . The roots of the polynomial may be any of these 𝑞 values.

𝑝
It is important to note that not all possible values of are zeros of the polynomial function.
𝑞

What is sure is that should the polynomial ever have a rational root, it would have to be in the
𝑝
form where 𝑝 is a factor of the constant term, and 𝑞 is a factor of the leading coefficient.
𝑞

Proof of the Rational Root Theorem

The proof of this theorem is as follows:

Let the polynomial function be

𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0

𝑝
whose terms are arranged in decreasing order of degree. By assumption, is a zero of 𝑃(𝑥).
𝑞
𝑝
It follows that 𝑃 (𝑞 ) = 0 by the Factor Theorem. Consequently,

𝑝 𝑛 𝑝 𝑛−1 𝑝 𝑛−2 𝑝
𝑎𝑛 ( ) + 𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) + 𝑎𝑛−2 ( ) + ⋯ + 𝑎1 ( ) + 𝑎0 = 0
𝑞 𝑞 𝑞 𝑞

Multiply both sides by 𝑞 𝑛

𝑎𝑛 𝑝𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑝𝑛−1 𝑞 + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑝𝑛−2 𝑞2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑝𝑞 𝑛−1 + 𝑎0 𝑞𝑛 = 0

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Next, we transfer the last term to the right-hand side and factor 𝑝 from the left-hand side to
obtain

𝑝(𝑎𝑛 𝑝𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑝𝑛−2 𝑞 + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑝𝑛−3 𝑞2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑞𝑛−1 ) = −𝑎0 𝑞𝑛

This implies that 𝑝 is a factor of 𝑎0 𝑞𝑛 . However, 𝑝 cannot be a factor of 𝑞 because their GCF is
1. Therefore, 𝑝 is a factor of 𝑎0 . Proving that 𝑞 is a factor of 𝑎𝑛 is done similarly.

Essential Questions
How can you factor a given polynomial using the Rational Root Theorem?

Let’s Practice
Example 1
Use the Rational Root Theorem to find the possible rational roots of
𝑥 3 − 9𝑥 + 9 + 2𝑥 4 + 9𝑥 2 = 0.

Solution
Step 1: Identify 𝑎0 and 𝑎𝑛 .

To be able to identify the constant term and the leading coefficient, we need
to arrange the terms of the polynomial in decreasing degrees.

𝑥 3 − 9𝑥 + 9 + 2𝑥 4 + 9𝑥 2 = 2𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 + 9𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 + 9

Thus, the constant term 𝑎0 = 9 and the leading coefficient 𝑎𝑛 = 2.

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Step 2: Determine the values of 𝑝 and 𝑞.

The possible values of 𝑝 are the factors of 𝑎0 = 9: ±1, ±3, ±9

The possible values of 𝑞 are the factors of 𝑎𝑛 = 2: ±1, ±2

𝑝
Step 3: Form all possible values of 𝑞 .

𝑝 ±1 ±3 ±9 ±1 ±3 ±9
: , , , , ,
𝑞 ±1 ±1 ±1 ±2 ±2 ±2
𝑝 1 3 9
: ± 1, ±3, ±9, ± , ± , ±
𝑞 2 2 2

Thus, the possible rational roots of 𝑥 3 − 9𝑥 + 9 + 2𝑥 4 + 9𝑥 2 are

𝟏 𝟑 𝟗
±𝟏, ±𝟑, ±𝟗, ± , ± , ± .
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

Try It Yourself!
Find the possible rational roots of the polynomial 8𝑥 2 − 3 + 6𝑥 3 − 7𝑥.

Example 2
Use the Rational Root Theorem to find the factors of the polynomial function
𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 3.

Solution
Step 1: Arrange the terms in decreasing order of degree.

This is already done, so we may proceed to the next step.

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Step 2: Determine the values of 𝑎0 and 𝑎𝑛 .

In this case, 𝑎0 = −3 and 𝑎𝑛 = 1.

Step 3: List the factors of 𝑎0 and 𝑎𝑛 to obtain the possible values of 𝑝 and 𝑞,
respectively. Be sure to consider both positive and negative values.

𝑝: ±1, ±3
𝑞: ±1

Step 4: Use the possible values of 𝑝 and 𝑞 from the previous step to obtain the possible
𝑝
values of 𝑞 .
𝑝
: ± 1, ±3
𝑞

Step 5: Test the possible rational roots.

For 𝑥 = 1, we have 𝑃(1) = (1)3 + 3(1)2 − (1) − 3 = 0. Since 𝑃(1) = 0, we

conclude that 𝑥 = 1 is a root, and 𝑥 − 1 is a factor of the polynomial.

Similarly, 𝑥 = −1 leads to 𝑃(−1) = (−1)3 + 3(−1)2 − (−1) − 3 = 0. Again, since

𝑃(−1) = 0, we conclude that 𝑥 = −1 is a root, and 𝑥 + 1 is a factor of the
polynomial.

Meanwhile, if 𝑥 = 3, we have 𝑃(3) = (3)3 + 3(3)2 − (3) − 3 = 48. This time,

𝑃(3) = 48 ≠ 0. This means 𝑥 = 3 is not a root, and 𝑥 − 3 is not a factor of the
polynomial.

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Finally, if 𝑥 = −3, we have 𝑃(−3) = (−3)3 + 3(−3)2 − (−3) − 3 = 0. Since

𝑃(−3) = 0, we conclude that 𝑥 = −3 is a root, and 𝑥 + 3 is a factor of the
polynomial.

By the Rational Root Theorem, we have determined that the factors of the
polynomial function 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 3 are (𝒙 − 𝟏), (𝒙 + 𝟏), and (𝒙 + 𝟑).

Try It Yourself!
Use the Rational Root Theorem to find the factors of the polynomial function
𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 3.

Example 3
Determine the factors of 𝑅(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 8 using the Rational Root Theorem.

Solution
Step 1: Arrange the terms in decreasing order of degree.

This is already done, so we may proceed to the next step.

Step 2: Determine the values of 𝑎0 and 𝑎𝑛 .

In this case, 𝑎0 = −8 and 𝑎𝑛 = 1.

Step 3: List the factors of 𝑎0 and 𝑎𝑛 to obtain the possible values of 𝑝 and 𝑞,
respectively. Be sure to consider both positive and negative values.

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𝑝: ±1, ±2, ±4, ±8

𝑞: ±1

Step 4: Use the possible values of 𝑝 and 𝑞 from the previous step to obtain the possible
𝑝
values of 𝑞 .
𝑝
: ± 1, ±2, ±4, ±8
𝑞

Step 5: Test the possible rational roots.

We will only show the solutions for the actual roots and their corresponding
factors. As an exercise, you may verify that the rest are not roots of the
polynomial.

If 𝑥 = 1, then 𝑅(1) = (1)4 − 6(1)3 + 7(1)2 + 6(1) − 8 = 0. This means that 𝑥 = 1

is a root, and 𝑥 − 1 is a factor of the polynomial.

If 𝑥 = −1, then 𝑅(−1) = (−1)4 − 6(−1)3 + 7(−1)2 + 6(−1) − 8 = 0. This means

that 𝑥 = −1 is a root, and 𝑥 + 1 is a factor of the polynomial.

If 𝑥 = 2, then 𝑅(2) = (2)4 − 6(2)3 + 7(2)2 + 6(2) − 8 = 0. This means that 𝑥 = 2

is a root, and 𝑥 − 2 is a factor of the polynomial.

Finally, if 𝑥 = 4, then 𝑅(4) = (4)4 − 6(4)3 + 7(4)2 + 6(4) − 8 = 0. This means that
𝑥 = 4 is a root, and 𝑥 − 4 is a factor of the polynomial.

Therefore, by the Rational Root Theorem, the factors of the polynomial

𝑅(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 8 are 𝒙 − 𝟏, 𝒙 + 𝟏, 𝒙 − 𝟐, and 𝒙 + 𝟒.

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Note: Synthetic division, instead of direct evaluation of the polynomial function for
different values of the variable, may also be used to verify if the values are zeros
of the polynomial function.

Say, we start out testing for 𝑥 = 1 using synthetic division.

1 1 −6 7 6 −8
1 −5 2 8
1 −5 2 8 0

This verifies that 𝑥 = 1 is indeed a root.

The advantage of using synthetic division is that it is easier to perform addition

and multiplication instead of raising a value to a power. Another advantage is
that you can immediately see the depressed polynomial.

Note that the depressed polynomial is 𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 8 which you may take as

a new polynomial for which you apply the Rational Root Theorem and synthetic
division.

𝑝
Note that −1 is in the form 𝑞 where 𝑝 is a factor of 8 and 𝑞 is a factor of 1 (the

constant term and the leading coefficient of the depressed polynomial,

respectively).

Applying synthetic division once again, we have

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Grade 10 • Unit 6: Factoring Polynomials

−1 1 −5 2 8
−1 6 −8
1 −6 8 0

This means that 𝑥 = −1 is a root of the depressed polynomial and

consequently, of the original polynomial. See it in a way that we keep on
breaking down the polynomial into simpler factors.

The new depressed polynomial that we have is 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 8. This polynomial is

easy to factor since it is already quadratic. We know its factored form to be
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 4) using the factorization technique we learned in the previous
lessons.

Thus, by the Rational Root Theorem, the factors of the polynomial

𝑅(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 8 are 𝒙 − 𝟏, 𝒙 + 𝟏, 𝒙 − 𝟐, and 𝒙 + 𝟒.

Try It Yourself!
Determine the factors of 𝑅(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 − 11𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 30 using the Rational Root Theorem.

Real-World Problems
Example 4
A government agency studied the water quality in a particular city. They
were able to determine that under some improvements 𝑥 years from now,
the amount in parts per million of a certain substance in the city’s water
can be modeled by the function 𝐴(𝑥) = −𝑥 5 − 2𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 + 8𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 2. It
is known that a year ago, there were zero parts per million for this

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particular substance. Determine after how many years will there again be zero parts per
million of this substance.

Solution
To know when the amount of the substance will again be zero, we can find the roots of the
equation −𝑥 5 − 2𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 + 8𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 2 = 0. We shall use the Rational Root Theorem to find
the possible roots.

Step 1: Arrange the terms in decreasing order of degree.

This is already done, so we may proceed to the next step.

Step 2: Determine the values of 𝑎0 and 𝑎𝑛 .

In this case, 𝑎0 = 2 and 𝑎𝑛 = −1.

Step 3: List the factors of 𝑎0 and 𝑎𝑛 to obtain the possible values of 𝑝 and 𝑞,
respectively. Be sure to consider both positive and negative values.

𝑝: ±1, ±2
𝑞: ±1

Step 4: Use the possible values of p and q from the previous step to obtain the possible
𝑝
values of 𝑞 .

𝑝
: ± 1, ±2
𝑞

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Step 5: Test the possible rational roots.

It is given in the problem that a year ago (that means 𝑥 = −1), the amount of
the substance was zero parts per million. This means that 𝑥 = −1 is a root, and
𝑥 + 1 is a factor.

To verify, we have

−1 −1 −2 2 8 7 2
1 1 −3 −5 −2
−1 −1 3 5 2 0

Indeed, 𝑥 = −1 is a root, and 𝑥 + 1 is a factor of 𝐴(𝑥).

The depressed polynomial we now have is −𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 2. Similarly,

𝑝
the values we have for this new polynomial are ±1, ±2.
𝑞

Let us use 𝑥 = −1 again since it is a possible root for this polynomial.

−1 −1 −1 3 5 2
1 0 −3 −2
−1 0 3 2 0

This shows that 𝑥 = −1 is a root of the depressed polynomial and consequently

of the original polynomial 𝐴(𝑥).

The new depressed polynomial we now have is −𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 + 2.

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𝑝
Again, the 𝑞 values for this new polynomial are also ±1, ±2.

Let us try 𝑥 = 1 for this new depressed polynomial.

1 −1 0 3 2
−1 −1 2
−1 −1 2 4

Since it did not result in a zero, 𝑥 = 1 is not a root of the new depressed
polynomial nor the original polynomial 𝐴(𝑥).

Let us try 𝑥 = 2, instead.

2 −1 0 3 2
−2 −4 −2
−1 −2 −1 0

It resulted in a zero. Thus, 𝑥 = 2 is a root of the depressed polynomial and

consequently, of 𝐴(𝑥) also.

Notice that the most recent depressed polynomial resulting from trying 𝑥 = 2
is already quadratic: −𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 1. This polynomial can be easily factored.

−𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 1 = −(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1)
= −(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 1)

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From these factors, we see again that 𝑥 = −1 is a root (of multiplicity two) for
the resulting quadratic polynomial.

Combining these results to the previous trials, we have the factored form for
𝐴(𝑥) to be −(𝑥 + 1)4 (𝑥 − 2).

Thus, there are only two roots: 𝑥 = −1 (of multiplicity 4) and 𝑥 = 2.

An 𝑥 value of 2 indicates two years from now.

Therefore, the amount of the substance present in the city’s water will again
be zero two years from now.

Try It Yourself!
The function ℎ(𝑡) = −2𝑡 3 + 3𝑡 2 + 149𝑡 + 410 for 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 10 models the
height of a weather balloon from the ground after 𝑡 seconds. For what
value(s) of 𝑡 is the weather balloon exactly 980 m above the ground?

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Check Your Understanding

A. Find the possible rational roots of the following polynomials:

1. 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 + 20
2. 𝑃(𝑥) = 8𝑥 2 − 43𝑥 + 15
3. 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 11𝑥 2 + 31𝑥 − 21
4. 𝑃(𝑥) = 7𝑥 3 − 57𝑥 2 + 57𝑥 − 7
5. 𝑃(𝑥) = 5𝑥 4 − 46𝑥 3 + 84𝑥 2 − 50𝑥 + 7
6. 𝑃(𝑥) = 3𝑥 4 − 10𝑥 3 − 24𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 5
7. 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 5 − 4𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 3 + 10𝑥 2 − 13𝑥 − 14
8. 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 5 + 5𝑥 3 + 17𝑥 2 + 85

B. Factor the following polynomials completely, and find all their roots:
1. 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6
2. 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 6
3. 𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 15𝑥 2 + 31𝑥 − 12
4. 𝑃(𝑥) = 3𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 3 − 41𝑥 2 + 43𝑥 − 10
5. 𝑃(𝑥) = 6𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 − 22𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 + 6
6. 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 5 − 12𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 27𝑥 − 18

C. Solve the following problems:

1. The function 𝑆(𝑥) = 44 − 113𝑥 + 200𝑥 2 − 17𝑥 3 models the projected sales of
e-books (in millions) where 𝑥 is the number of years since 2000. Determine
the year when the sales will be equal to 3.222 billion.

2. A company that manufactures products made of plastic produces a food

storage container with the following properties:

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• The container is a rectangular prism in shape.

• The length of the base is 7 cm longer than the width.
• The height of the container is 6 cm shorter than the width.
• The volume of the container is 1 368 cm3.

Find the dimensions of the food storage.

Key Point

● Suppose 𝑃(𝑥) is a polynomial function whose leading term is 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 and whose constant
term is 𝑎0 , where 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑎0 are nonzero integers. The Rational Root Theorem states
𝑝
that if the rational number 𝑞 is a zero of 𝑃(𝑥) such that the GCF of 𝑝 and 𝑞 is 1, then 𝑝

is a factor of 𝑎0 and 𝑞 is a factor of 𝑎𝑛 .

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 Mathematics
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Grade 10 • Unit 6: Factoring Polynomials

Bibliography

SparkNotes. “The Rational Zeros Theorem.” Accessed March 20, 2019.

https://www.sparknotes.com/math/algebra2/polynomials/section4/.

Dawkins, Paul. Paul’s Online Notes. “Section 5.4: Finding Zeroes Of Polynomials.” Accessed
March 20, 2019.
http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/Alg/FindingZeroesOfPolynomials.aspx.

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