UNIT-IV: SUPER CONDUCTIVITY and DI-ELECTRICS

Superconductivity:
 Introduction
Kamerlingh Onnes discovered the phenomenon of superconductivity in the year 1911.
When he was studying the temperature dependence of resistance of Mercury at very low
temperature he found that resistance of Mercury decreases with the decrease in temperature up
to a particular temperature 4.15K. At this temperature the resistance of mercury abruptly drops
to zero. Between 4.15K and 0K, Mercury offered no resistance for the flow of electric current.
The phenomenon is reversible and material becomes normal once again when temperature was
increased above 4.15K. He called this phenomenon as superconductivity and material which
exhibited this property as superconductor. In subsequent decades, superconductivity was
observed in several other materials.
“The phenomenon in which electrical resistance of certain metals, alloys and
compounds drops to zero abruptly, below a certain temperature is called
superconductivity”.

 Temperature dependence of resistivity of superconductors

Temperature dependence of resistivity of superconductor is as given below.

The resistivity (ρ) decreases with decreasing temperature, similar to a normal metal,
until it reaches a critical temperature Tc. At critical temperature Tc, resistivity drops abruptly
to zero signifying the transition from normal state to the superconducting state of the material
and it remains zero even up to 0 K.
Critical Temperature (Tc):
It is the temperature below which the material changes from normal conductor to
superconductor. The critical temperature is also called transition temperature.

Critical field (Hc) and temperature dependence of critical field

The magnetic field plays a significant role in the observation of the phenomenon of
superconductivity. When superconductor is placed in a magnetic field it expels magnetic lines
of force completely out of the body and becomes a perfectly diamagnetic material. But if the
strength of the magnetic field is further increased, it was found that for a particular value of the
magnetic field, material loses its superconducting property and becomes a normal conductor.
The value of the magnetic field at which superconductivity is destroyed is called the
Critical magnetic field, denoted by Hc. It is different for different Superconductors.

It was found that by reducing the temperature of the material further, superconducting
property of the material could be restored. Thus, critical field doesn’t destroy the
superconducting property of the material completely but only reduces the critical temperature
of the material.

The variation of critical field with temperature for a given superconductor is shown
below.

The minimum field required to destroy the superconducting property is given by

 𝑇
𝐻 =𝐻 1−
𝑇
where, H0 is the field required to destroy the superconducting property at 0K, Hc the minimum
field required to destroy the superconducting property at TK and Tc the transition temperature
of the material.

Under the influence of a magnetic field whose strength is greater than H0, the material
can never become superconductor however low the temperature may be.

Meissner effect
When a magnetic is applied to a superconducting specimen at a temperature below
critical temperature (TC), the magnetic flux lines are expelled from the interior of
superconductor. This phenomenon is called Meissner effect.

When a superconductor is cooled below its critical temperature (Tc), it undergoes a

phase transition and enters a superconducting state. In this state, the superconductor exhibits
perfect diamagnetism, meaning it repels any external magnetic field from its interior as shown
in the fig given below. This expulsion of magnetic flux is a characteristic feature of the
Meissner effect.

The magnetic susceptibility of a superconductor is –ve and equal to 1. (i.e χ = -1 ).

Further it is observed the Meissner effect is reversible. In a superconducting pure metal, the
magnetic flux is expelled from the sample, irrespective of its geometry and sequence in which
the magnetic field is applied.
  
The magnetization vector M ( M = magnetic dipole moment per unit volume) can be
expressed in the following form,
 
M  H

where, χ is the magnetic susceptibility and H the magnetic field intensity.
For a super conductor, χ = -1.

𝑀⃗ = −𝐻⃗

So magnetization in a superconductor is equal and opposite to that of magnetic field intensity.

Critical current (IC):

It is the threshold value of the current at which the magnetic field due to the current
flowing in a superconductor will be equal to the critical magnetic field.

Figure : A superconducting coil of wire

Consider a current of ‘I’ ampere applied to a superconducting coil of wire as shown in
figure. The application of the current induces a magnetic field and hence the superconducting
property is destroyed. The critical current required to destroy the superconducting property is
given by,
𝑰𝒄 = 𝟐𝝅𝑹𝑯𝒄
where, R is the radius of the superconducting wire, Hc is the critical magnetic field
required to destroy the superconducting property. Critical current is not an intrinsic property of
a superconductor, but is dependent upon the size of the conductor.

Critical Current density (Jc)

The current density at which the superconducting properties disappear is called critical
current density (Jc)

𝐽𝑐 =𝐼𝑐 /𝐴
Types of superconductors
Superconductors can be categorized into two groups based on their magnetization
properties when subjected to an external magnetic field. They can be classified as Type - 1 or
Type - 2 superconductors.

 Type-1 Superconductors:

In Type – 1 superconductors, the magnetic field gets totally expelled from the interior
of the material, below a certain critical magnetic field Hc. A plot of magnetization versus
magnetic field for a Type-1 superconductor is shown in figure below.

Figure. A plot of magnetization (M) versus magnetic field (H)

The figure shows that the magnetisation (M) increases with increase in magnetic field
(H) up to the critical field Hc. At Hc, it abruptly becomes zero. The material above Hc is said to
be in its normal state. This type of a superconductor demonstrates complete Meissner effect at
magnetic fields below Hc where, it becomes an ideal diamagnetic material. Lead, tin and
mercury are common examples of Type-1 superconductors. The transition to the
superconducting state at Hc is reversible. Most superconducting metals exhibit Type -1
superconductivity at very low Hc values (around 0.1T).

 Type-2 superconductors

Type-2 superconductors show two critical magnetic fields, Hc1 and Hc2. Typical
magnetization curves for Type - 2 superconductors are shown in figure below.
 Figure: Type-2 superconductors (Two critical magnetic fields)

In Type-2 superconductors, the transition from superconducting state to normal state is

more gradual. As the magnetic field (H) increased, magnetization (M) also increases up to the
lower critical field Hc1. Below Hc1, the magnetic flux is expelled completely from within the
material and hence exhibits complete Meissner effect (ideal diamagnetic behaviour). Between
the lower critical field Hc1 and upper critical field Hc2 , the material exists in a mixed state
(vortex state). The material still demonstrates superconducting property (Zero resistivity), but
exclusion of flux from within the specimen is partial (i.e. between Hc1 and Hc2, Type-2
superconductors do not exhibit Meissner effect). At the upper critical field Hc2, it becomes a
normal conductor.

Generally, alloys and transition metals demonstrate Type-2 superconductivity. The

values of Hc2 are 100 times or more than that of the Hc values of Type-1 superconductors. Hc2
values up to 50T have been obtained in some materials. Type-2 superconductors are used in
the fabrication of electromagnets to obtain high magnetic fields (10T or higher).

BCS theory of superconductivity:

This theory of superconductivity was given by three scientists Barden, Cooper &
Schrieffer in the year 1957 which is in short known as BCS theory. The BCS theory is based
on the formation of Cooper pairs, which is purely a quantum mechanical concept. According
to BCS theory, the basic interaction responsible for superconductivity is that two electrons
attract each other via exchange of virtual phonons (they are called so because of their very short
life time) which are emitted by lattice distortion. This is explained as under.
 When an electron approaches a positive ion core, it undergoes attractive coulomb
interaction thus setting the ion in distortion which emits phonons. Smaller the mass of the
positive ion core, the greater will be the distortion. This interaction called the electron-phonon
interaction leads to scattering of the electron and causes electrical resistivity. The distortion
causes an increase in the density of ions in the region of distortion. The higher density of ions
in the distorted regions attracts, in its turn another electron. If a second electron comes in the
vicinity of distorted ion, the energy of the second electron is lowered by exchange of energy
between with lattice ion. Thus, a free electron exerts an attractive force on another electron
through phonons. This type of interaction which is effective at very low temperature is called
electron – lattice – electron interaction. This interaction causes two electrons of opposite spin
& equal and opposite momenta to attract each other in the presence of phonon field and forms
a bound pair called Cooper pair.

Suppose, an electron of wave vector K emits a virtual phonon q which is absorbed by

another electron having wave vector K1. Then they are scattered as K-q and K1+q as shown in
figure. The resulting electron-electron interaction becomes attractive interaction (Vph). Two
electrons interacting attractively in the phonon field to form a bonded pair is shown in figure.

Figure: Cooper pair

At normal temperature, the attractive force is too small and pairing of electrons does
not take place. At lower temperature i.e., below the critical temperature Tc, the apparent force
of attraction reaches a maximum value for two electrons of equal and opposite spins and
opposite momentum. This force of attraction exceeds the Columbian force of repulsion
between two electrons and the electron stick together and move as pairs. These pairs of
electrons of opposite momenta are called Cooper pairs.

A pair of electrons formed by the interaction between the electrons with opposite
spin and momenta in a phonon field is called a Cooper pair.
 The Cooper pair has a total spin of zero. As a result, the electron pairs in a
superconductor are bosons. Each Cooper pair possesses a single wave function and wave
functions associated with similar cooper pairs start overlapping and may extend over the entire
super conductor. This dense cloud of Cooper pairs from a collective state where strong
correlations arise among the motions of all pairs because of which they drift cooperatively
through the material. This leads to union of vast number of cooper pairs resulting in the entire
union moving as a single unit. As we know that any number of Cooper pairs can occupy single
energy state, all Cooper pairs occupy lower energy state called superconducting state. Since
the density of Cooper pairs is quite high, even large currents require only a small velocity. The
small velocity of Cooper pairs combined with their precise ordering minimizes collision
process and hence they do not suffer any scattering. The extremely rare collisions of Cooper
pairs with the lattice leads to zero resistivity.

Quantum tunnelling of Cooper pairs:

The word ‘tunnelling’ came into use with the advent of quantum mechanics. It was
observed that micro particles like electrons possess the unique property of sneaking through
nano-sized barriers due to their de-Broglie wave nature. Josephson explored the probability of
the newly-found cohesive pair of electrons (i.e. Cooper pair) to tunnel through a thin layer of
oxide between two superconductors. Under certain circumstances, these Cooper pairs move
from one superconductor to the other across the thin insulating layer. Such motion of Cooper
pairs constitutes the Josephson current, and the process by which the pairs cross the insulating
layer is called Josephson tunnelling.

Josephson junction

In 1962, B.D. Josephson predicted a number of remarkable phenomena about

superconductivity, which are used to understand the
superconducting properties. An insulating material
of thickness nearly 1 to 2 nm sandwiched between
two different superconducting materials is known as
Josephson device or Josephson junction. The
Josephson device is shown in figure, where A and B
are the two different superconductors.
  DC Josephson Effect:

The pair of electrons present in a superconducting material is in the same phase.

Whenever a Josephson junction is formed by sandwiching an insulator in between two different
superconductors, the Cooper pairs present in two different superconducting materials need not
be in the same phase and their density may also be different. There will be a tunnelling of
superconducting electrons from one side with higher electron density to another side with lower
electron density across the junction. Due to this tunnelling of electrons, a dc voltage appears
across the Josephson device, even though no field is applied there. This phenomenon is said to
be DC Josephson effect.

The insulating layer introduces a phase difference (  ) between wave function of cooper
pairs on either side and hence super current appears even though the applied voltage is zero.
Super current (or junction current) is given by
I J  I C s i n

where Ic is the maximum junction current that depends on the thickness of insulating
layer. It is quite small (between 1μA to 1 mA).

 AC Josephson Effect

If we apply DC voltage across the Josephson junction, it introduces an additional phase

difference between the Cooper pairs and an alternating current is generated. This is known as
AC Josephson Effect.
The frequency of alternating current is directly proportional to applied voltage V and is
given by

ν=

The photon energy of emission or absorption at the junction is hν = 2eV

× . × ×
i.e. ν = = = 483.5 × 10 V Hz
. ×

* For an applied voltage of 1µV, the frequency of the ac signal is

ν = 483.5×1012 V = 483.5×1012×10-6 = 483.5 M Hz
By measuring the frequency of the AC signal accurately, the value of e/h and the photon
energy, 2eV are accurately measured.
SQUID
SQUID is an acronym for Superconducting Quantum Interference Device. It is based
on the principle of Josephson effect.
SQUID is basically a sensitive magnetometer and it is used to measure extremely weak
magnetic fields as small as 10-21 T. There are two types of SQUID namely DC SQUID and
RF SQUID (or AC SQUID).

 DC-SQUID

DC-SQUID consists of two Josephson junctions (P and Q) arranged in parallel to form

a loop and a DC source is connected across X and Y as shown in the figure. As a result, biasing
current enters at X and leaves at Y. Let I1 and I2 be the tunneling currents across P and Q. When
a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the arrangement, a phase difference is introduced
between I1 and I2 and they overlap to produce interference effect (very much similar to Young’s
double slit experiment).
In superconductors the current is caused by the Cooper pairs. Cooper pairs are
associated with de-Broglie waves. Applied magnetic field introduces phase shift between these
waves and hence they interfere when arrive at Y. The resultant current is

I c sin
0
Ir 

0

where  is the flux linked with the SQUID and 0 = (h/2e = 2.06 ×10-15 wb/m2) called fluxoid.
Ir 
A graph of v/s is as shown above. The graph is exactly similar to intensity distribution
Ic 0
in single slit diffraction of light.
By measuring the resultant current in the SQUID, one can determine the applied
magnetic field. It is possible to measure very small magnetic fields using this arrangement.
  RF-SQUID (or) AC-SQUID:
The RF (Radio Frequency) SQUID is a one-junction SQUID loop and is used as a
magnetic field detector. Although it is less sensitive than the DC SQUID, it is cheaper and
easier to manufacture and is therefore more commonly used. It is as shown in fig (i)

RF SQUID loop is placed near a LC circuit which is connected to RF AC source as

shown in Fig (ii). The loop is immersed in a magnetic field whose flux is  (to be measured).

Now pass an oscillating current (I)

through LC circuit from the RF source. It
induces magnetic flux  RF. This flux is
coupled with the loop. The total external flux
is
 ex     RF
The loop is linked to circuit through mutual
inductance. By chance if the flux in the loop
(  ) changes, there will be corresponding changes in  ex. Any changes in the total flux  ex
will induce emf (according to Faraday’s law) in the LC circuit and hence voltage (V) across
LC changes. By measuring the change in voltage V, one can measure the magnetic flux (  )
and its variation w.r.t. time.

SQUIDS are used in

 Measurement of magnetic fields as small as 10-21T produced by biological currents such
as in human heart and brain.
 Geophysical measurements (connected with rocks, seismic waves etc)
 Nondestructive testing (testing the material without damaging it)
 Fabrication of qubits (in quantum computing)
 Dielectric Materials

Dielectric materials are a type of electrical insulators that can be polarized through an external
applied electric filed. These materials, generally, do not contain any free charge carriers for
conduction. In such dielectric materials, positive and negative charge entities are bounded
together. The behavior of dielectric materials can be modified by an external electric field
through reorienting the charges within the atom or molecules. Generally, these materials do
not have any net dipole moment in absence of external electric field. As a consequence of
applied electric field, positive charge of dielectric is pushed in direction of the field while
negative the opposite way. The overall effect is a displacement of entire positive charge in the
dielectric relative to the negative charge, form induced electric dipoles.

Electric Dipole Moment

An electric dipole is an entity in which equal positive (+q) and negative (-q) charges are
separated by a small distance (dl) and the resultant electric dipole moment (𝑝⃑) due to it, is
given by,
𝑝⃑ = 𝑞 𝑑𝑙

The electric dipole moment is a vector quantity and it is directed from negative charge to
positive charge as shown in adjacent figure.

Non-Polar and Polar molecules

If the centre of gravity of the positive and negative charges
in a molecule are separated by a short distance, such
molecules are known as Polar Molecules. It behaves as an
electric dipole with direction of dipole moment from negative
charge to positive charge. These have permanent electric
dipole moment. Examples of polar molecule substance are
water molecules (H2O), ammonia (NH3), Sulphur dioxide
(SO2), hydrogen sulphide (H2S), and ethanol (C2H6O). In
absence of external electric field, the net electric dipole
moment of polar dielectric is zero due to random orientation
of various dipoles inside the material
.
If the centre of gravity of the positive and negative charges in a
molecule coincide with each other, the molecule is called Non-polar
Molecule. These materials do not have electric dipole moment.
Examples of non-polar molecules are noble gases. Examples of non-
polar molecules are noble gases (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe), H2, N2, 02, Cl2,
C02, C2H6, CH4, and C2H4.

Polarization in dielectrics

Dielectrics are a class of material which respond to external electric fields, and find extensive
use in the electronics and electrical industry.

From our knowledge of capacitors, the dielectric constant of a material is

𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐶
𝜀𝑟 = =𝐶
𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑜

𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑜

𝜀𝑟 = =
𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐸

where Eo is the applied electric field and E is the net electric field across
the dielectric.

An external electric field can cause the center of positive and

negative charges in the crystal to shift from their mean position.
This separation of charges results in creation of dipoles in the
system. The net dipole moment created per unit volume is called
the polarization P. The polarization in the material is dependent on
the net electric field experienced by the dielectric.

If Eo is the applied electric field applied to a parallel plate capacitor the surface charge density
on the plates of the capacitor 𝝈 = 𝜺𝒐 𝑬𝒐 ------- (1)

If a dielectric material is placed between the plates of the capacitor, the surface density of
𝝈𝒑
charge due to polarization 𝝈𝒑 = 𝜺𝒐 𝑬′ 𝑬′ = --------- (2)
𝜺𝒐

where 𝑬′ is called the depolarization field.

The net electric field E between the plates is reduced by a factor which is the dielectric
𝑬𝒐
constant 𝜀𝑟 of the material ie., 𝑬= 𝜺𝒓
𝒐𝒓 𝑬𝒐 = 𝜺𝒓 𝑬 ------- (3)
 𝝈𝒑
The net electric field 𝑬 = 𝑬𝒐 − 𝑬′ = 𝜺𝒓 𝑬 − 𝜺
𝒐

Simplifying 𝝈𝒑 = 𝜺𝒐 𝜺𝒓 𝑬 − 𝜺𝒐 𝑬 = 𝜺𝒐 (𝜺𝒓 − 𝟏)𝑬

Hence the polarization in the material due to a net electric field is given by

𝑷 = 𝝈𝒑 = 𝜺𝒐 (𝜺𝒓 − 𝟏)𝑬

The polarization of the material can also be written as

𝑷 = 𝜺𝒐 𝝌𝑬 where 𝝌 is the dielectric susceptibility of the material

and is a measure of the ability to create dipoles in the material.
The polarization is linearly proportional to the applied electric
field for pure dielectrics.

This gives us the relation between susceptibility and dielectric

constant

𝝌 = (𝜺𝒓 − 𝟏) or 𝜺𝒓 = 𝟏 + 𝝌.

If N is the number of atoms per unit volume and 𝜶𝒆 is the polarizability of the individual
dipoles then the polarization can be written as 𝑷 = 𝜺𝒐 𝝌𝑬 = 𝑵𝜶𝒆 𝑬 .
𝑵𝜶𝒆
Or 𝝌 = 𝜺𝒐

Polarization in dielectrics is thus proportional to the net electric field.

Types of Polarization
(i) Electronic Polarization (Pe)
(ii) Ionic Polarization (Pi)
(iii) Orientation Polarization (Po)
(iv) Interfacial or Space-charge Polarization (Ps)

(i) Electronic Polarization (Pe)

Electronic polarization is the result of the displacement of positive and negative charges of an
atom in presence of an external electric field. In absence of field, the positive nucleus and
negatively charged electrons are balanced by each other with zero net dipole moment. But when
electric field is applied, the electrons and nucleus experience Lorentz forces in opposite directions.
This leads to displacement of the centre of the negatively charged electron cloud relative to the
positively charged nucleus of an atom leads to dipole moment. Monoatomic gases exhibit only
this type of polarization. This type of polarization is temperature independent.
The induced dipole moment (Pe) is proportional to applied electric field (E)
𝑃𝑒 ∝ 𝐸
If there are N atoms in dielectric medium, then 𝑃𝑒 ∝ 𝑁 𝐸
𝑃𝑒 = 𝛼𝑒 𝑁𝐸
Where αe is the electronic polarizability, N is number of dipoles
𝛼𝑒 = 4𝜋𝜀𝑜𝑅3, where R is radius of the atom
The electronic polarizability depends only on the radius of atom and independent of temperature.

(ii) Ionic Polarization (Pi)

Ionic dielectric materials such as NaCl show ionic polarization. In case of ionic crystals each ions
are at a distance d0 in absence of the field. When the sample is subjected to an external field, each
ion displaced in opposite direction as shown in the figure. The displacement between ions causes
an increase or decrease in distance between the atoms leads to a net dipole moment. Ionic
polarization is time dependent but temperature independent.

𝑃𝑖 ∝ 𝐸
If there are N atoms in dielectric medium, then 𝑃𝑖 ∝ 𝑁 𝐸
𝑃𝑖 = 𝛼𝑖 𝑁𝐸
(iii) Orientation Polarization (Po)
Orientation polarization occurs in polar dielectrics. These materials exhibit polarization even in
absence of electric field. Due to the random orientations of dipoles or molecules the net dipole
moment is zero. When polar dielectric materials are placed in an electric field, the permanent
dipoles rotate about their axes of symmetry to align with applied field, which exerts a torque on
them. Hence this type of polarization is called as orientational polarization. The orientational
polarization is strongly temperature dependent, it decreases with increase in temperature.

4
 𝑃𝑜 = 𝛼𝑜 𝑁𝐸
𝜇𝑜2
𝛼𝑜 =
3𝑘𝑇

(iv) Interfacial or Space-charge Polarization (Ps)

In some dielectric materials, due to the application of an electric field, charges accumulate at the
interfaces of the multiphase dielectric material. The ions are diffused over a distance due to
redistribution of charges in the dielectric medium. The tendency of redistribution of electric
dipoles/charges in dielectric medium in an external electric field is known as space charge
polarization. It is not significant in most of the dielectrics

Therefore, total polarization in dielectric material is given by

P = Pe + Pi +Po+Ps
the total polarizability is given by α = 𝛼𝑒 + 𝛼𝑖 + 𝛼𝑜

Expression for Internal field in the case of Liquids and Solids

When dielectric material is placed in the external electric field, it is polarized creating electric
dipoles. Each dipole sets electric field in the vicinity. Hence the net electric field at any point
within the dielectric material is given by "The sum of external field and the field due to all
dipoles surrounding that point". This net field is called internal field or Local field.

Expression for Internal field

Consider a dielectric material placed in external electric field of strength ‘E’. Consider an array of
equidistant dipoles within the dielectric material, which are aligned in the field direction as shown
in the figure.

5
 1

1 2
Dielectric Loss
Dielectric loss is a measure of the energy lost as heat in a dielectric material when an
alternating (AC) electric field is applied. Dielectric loss is the dissipation of energy through the
movement of charges in an alternating electromagnetic field as polarization switches direction.
Dielectric loss is frequency-dependent, meaning it varies with the frequency of the applied
electric field. Dielectric loss can be attributed to various polarization mechanisms, and the
frequency dependence of dielectric loss is closely tied to these mechanisms. Different types of
polarization processes contribute to dielectric loss at different frequency ranges. Dielectric loss
tends to be higher in materials with higher dielectric constants.
The frequency dependence of dielectric loss is often represented by a curve that shows
how the dielectric loss varies with frequency. It may exhibit peaks or shoulders corresponding to
different polarization mechanisms. When the frequency of the applied electric field matches the
natural frequency of a particular polarization mechanism such as electronic, ionic, or
orientational polarization, then di-electric material exhibits a peak response or maximum
absorption of energy as shown in the figure.
Dielectric loss

Frequency of AC field

At low frequencies, the applied electric field varies slowly. The loss in this regime is
primarily due to energy dissipated as electrons respond to the changing electric fields. In the
intermediate frequency range, Ionic polarization becomes significant. Energy is lost as ions
attempt to reposition themselves in response to the alternating electric field. At higher
frequencies, where the electric field changes rapidly, molecular or orientational polarization
becomes prominent. The loss is associated with the frictional forces opposing molecular rotation
in the rapidly changing AC field.
As frequency increases, the material’s net polarization drops as each polarization
mechanism ceases to contribute, and hence its dielectric constant drops. At higher frequencies
the movement of charge cannot keep up with the alternating field, and the polarization
mechanism ceases to contribute to the polarization of the dielectric. At sufficiently high
frequencies (above ~1016 Hz), none of the polarization mechanisms are able to switch rapidly
enough to remain in step with the field. The material no longer possesses the ability to polarize,
and the dielectric constant drops to 1 – the same as that of a vacuum.
Dielectric loss is utilized to heat food in a microwave oven. The frequency of the
microwaves is close to the frequency of the orientational polarization mechanism in water. Hence
any water molecules present in the food stuff absorbs a lot of energy that is then dissipated as
heat.
The dielectric loss in capacitors which is often in the form of heat is called as loss tangent
also called as dissipation factor (tan δ).
𝑋𝑐 1
tan 𝛿 = =
𝑅 𝜔𝐶𝑅
In summary, the frequency dependence of dielectric loss is intricately connected to the
specific polarization mechanisms operating in a material. Understanding these mechanisms helps
in optimizing materials for various applications, such as designing capacitors, microwave ovens
and other electronic components.

Classification of Dielectric materials

Dielectric materials may be divided into the two categories
(i) linear dielectrics
(ii) nonlinear dielectrics.
(i) Linear dielectrics are those materials in which the polarization P is directly
proportional to the intensity of the electric field E; and relative permittivity 𝜺𝒓 and
susceptibility 𝝌 do not depend on the intensity of electric field. They are also known
as passive dielectrics.
(ii) Nonlinear dielectrics are those materials in which P v/s E plot is non-linear These
materials are known as active dielectrics. Piezoelectrics, pyroelectrics and
ferroelectrics belong to the category of nonlinear dielectrics.

Piezoelectric Effect
Piezoelectric Effect is appearance of an electrical potential across some faces of some crystals
when pressure is applied to the crystal. Pierre Curie and his brother Jacques discovered the effect
in 1880. The term piezoelectricity refers to the fact that, when a crystal is strained, an electric
field is produced within the substance. As a result of this field, a potential difference develops
across the sample, and by measuring this potential one may determine the field. The inverse effect
- that an applied field produces strain has also been observed. It is explained by the displacement
of ions, causing the electric polarization of the crystal’s structural units. When an electrical field
is applied, the ions are displaced by electrostatic forces, inducing electric dipole moment,
resulting in the mechanical deformation (changes in the structural dimension) of the whole
crystal. The dimensions of the crystal have increased in the field direction.

The piezoelectric effect is often used to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy, and
vice versa; i.e., these materials are used to make a transducer. For instance, an electric signal
applied to the end of a quartz rod generates a mechanical strain, which consequently leads to the
propagation of a mechanical wave - a sound wave - down the rod.

In practice, electromechanical coupling factor, k is used to describe the piezoelectric effect in

actual piezoelectric elements. Energy can be given to a piezoelectric element either mechanically
by stressing it or electrically by charging it. All the energy given to it is not converted in producing
the effect. Therefore, the piezoelectrics are characterized by strength of piezoelectric effect. This
strength is measured by the electromechanical coupling factor, k. In case of direct piezoelectric
effect, the external force is spent not only on the deformation of the element but also on its
polarization. The square of the piezoelectric coupling factor is defined as the ratio of the electrical
energy generated by the piezoelectric element to the total energy spent on the deformation.
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
Thus, 𝑘2 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

Ammonium phosphate, quartz, PZT (lead zirconate titanate) are examples of piezoelectric
materials. Piezoelectric materials like PZT (Pb(Zr,Ti)O3) and Quartz find extensive application
in electronics as sensors and actuators.

Applications

 Piezoelectric microbalances.
 Atomic force and scanning tunneling microscopes
 Energy Harvesting from impact on the ground
 Electric igniters
Ferroelectric materials

Ferroelectrics are a class of non-centro symmetric crystals which are also a subclass of the pyro
electric/piezoelectric materials. These materials possess dielectric polarization even in the
absence of an electric field ie., spontaneous polarization.

The spontaneous polarization observed in ferroelectric materials depends on the crystalline phase
of the material (generally referred to as perovskites). BaTiO3 is a classic example of a perovskite
material. Ferroelectricity was first discovered in Rochelle salt (NaKC4 H4 O6 ⋅ 4H2O). It exhibits
spontaneous polarization over a range of temperature –18°C to 22°C. Barium titanate, potassium
phosphate and potassium niobate are other examples of ferroelectrics.

The main characteristics of ferroelectric substances are as follows:

1. They possess very high values of permittivity 𝜺𝒓 of the order of 1000 to 10,000.

2. The dielectric susceptibility of the material is highly temperature dependent and is given by
C
χ= for all T>Tc
T−Tc

where C is a constant dependent on the material and Tc is the curie temperature. At temperature
below Tc, the material shows spontaneous polarization and is classified as a ferroelectric material.
At temperatures greater than Tc, the material is paraelectric with the susceptibility inversely
proportional to temperature.

3. They possess spontaneous electric polarization, that is, polarization without the help of an
external electric field. However, the spontaneous polarization occurs only within a definite
temperature range and up to the Curie temperature Tc.

4. Ferroelectric dielectrics differ from dielectric materials in their response to external applied
electric field. Ferroelectrics display a nonlinear response of polarization to changing electric
fields and display a hysteresis in the P versus E variations. The polarization versus electric field
curve is known as a ferroelectric hysteresis loop. The hysteresis loop is caused by the existence
of permanent electric dipoles in classes of materials, which develop spontaneously below the
Curie temperature.

Consider a ferroelectric specimen which has a large number of

domains within which all the dipoles are oriented in a particular
direction which is spontaneous polarisation. This direction varies from
domain to domain in purely random manner. Thus, the net
polarisation for the specimen as a whole becomes zero.

When the specimen is subjected to an electric field, polarisation increases rapidly and gets
saturated Ps. In the presence of electric field, the domains oriented in a favorable direction start
growing in size at the expense of unfavorably oriented domains. The growth occurs initially
slowly, and then more rapidly. Finally, the unfavourable domains are rotated into the favourable
direction till all the domains are lined up in the direction of the applied field. When electric field
is gradually reduced to zero, the domains cannot rotate back to their original orientation and the
sample has a residual amount of polarisation called as remnant polarisation Pr. With further
decrease in field (negative electric field), will disorient the domains and polarisation becomes zero
and this field is called as coercive field Ec. With further decrease in field, the polarisation takes
place in opposite direction and saturates. And further increase in field, polarisation increases and
the loop continues.

Applications

 The polarization state of the ferroelectric material has a memory effect and hence is used
extensively in DRAMs and SRAMS. The ferroelectric RAMs (FRAMs) made from
ferroelectric thin films make use of this phenomenon to store data. Data is stored by localized
polarization switching in the microscopic regions of ferroelectric thin films. The
ferroelectrics, which exhibit a square loop in polarization versus electric field characteristics,
are more useful in memory technology. Barium-strontium titanate, strontium bismuth
titanates are used in this application.
 Ferroelectric materials find numerous applications as sensors and actuators taking advantage
of the temperature and field dependencies of the susceptibility (dielectric constant).