JRFADDA

ICT Crash Course

 Generations of Computer JRFADDA

Generations Hardware Component Characteristics Example

First Main electronic ▪ Huge size ▪ ENIAC
Vacuum tube
Generation component ▪ Highly ▪ UNIVAC
(1942-1952) expensive ▪ EDVAC
Programming language Machine language ▪ High ▪ EDSAC
consumption of ▪ IBM-701
Magnetic tapes and electricity
Main memory
magnetic drums ▪ Batch OS
Paper tape and
I/O devices
punched cards
Second Main electronic ▪ Multiprogrammi ▪ IBM 7000
Transistor
Generation component ng OS ▪ Honeywe
(1952-1964)
Assembly ▪ FORTRAN, ll 400
Programming language
language COBOL ▪ IBM 1620

Main Memory Magnetic core

Magnetic tape and
I/O devices
punched cards.
 JRFADDA
Third Main electronic ▪ Remote ▪ PDP
Integrated circuits (ICs)
Generation component processing ▪ IBM 360
(1964-1974) Programming ▪ Time sharing ▪ CDC
High-level language OS 6600
language
▪ Faster, &
magnetic core, magnetic cheaper
Memory
tape/disk ▪ BASIC, ALGOL,
PASCAL
I/O devices monitor, keyboard, printer, etc.
Fourth Main electronic ▪ Age of ▪ CRAY-I/II
Very large-scale integration (VLSI)
Generation component microprocessor ▪ Apple II
(1974-1990) ▪ Network,
semiconductor memory (such as
Memory Distributed OS
RAM, ROM, etc.)
▪ C, C++
pointing devices, optical ▪ Internet used
I/O devices scanning, keyboard, monitor, first time in PC
printer, etc.
Fifth Main electronic Ultra Large-Scale Integration ▪ Age of AI ▪ IBM
Generation component: (ULSI) ▪ Parallel ▪ Pentium
(1990-till date) Processing ▪ Param
Touchpad, light scanner, printer, ▪ Java, .NET,
I/O device:
keyboard, monitor, mouse, etc. Python
 JRFADDA
Generations of Programming Languages
Language Generations Characteristics Example

Low Level First Generation ▪ Machine dependent language ▪ Binary code (0 / 1)

Language (Machine Language) ▪ Binary codes are used
▪ Difficult to find errors and to debug
Second Generation ▪ Machine-dependent, with a different ▪ Mnemonics
(Assembly Language) instruction set for different machines.
▪ Assembler is used
High Level Third Generation ▪ English-like words ▪ C, C++, Java, Visual
Language (Procedural Language & ▪ Compiler or Interpreter are used Basic, PASCAL,
Object Oriented FORTRAN, COBOL
Language)
Fourth Generation ▪ used mainly in database programming ▪ Perl, Python, Ruby, SQL,
(Human Resembling and scripting MatLab
Language)
Fifth Generation ▪ have visual tools to develop a program ▪ LISP, Mercury, OPS5,
(Natural Language) ▪ based on the concept of artificial and Prolog
intelligence
 JRFADDA
Von Neumann Architecture
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Primary Memory

RAM ROM
(Random Access Memory) (Read Only Memory)
SRAM vs DRAM JRFADDA
SRAM DRAM

Data is stored in Flip Flops Data is stored in transistors.

periodic refresh of power is

SRAM doesn’t need to be refreshed required in order to function.

used in cache memories used to implement main memory.

DRAM provides slow access

SRAM is faster compared to DRAM. speeds.

These are expensive. These are cheaper.

SRAM has higher data transfer rate DRAM has lower data transfer rate

Consumes less power and generates Uses more power and generates
less heat. more heat.

SRAMs are low-density devices. DRAMs are high-density devices.

 JRFADDA

Mask ROM (MROM)

Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM)

Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory

(EPROM)
Types of ROM
Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only
Memory (EEPROM or E2PROM)

Flash Memory

Mask-Programmed ROM (M-PROM)

 JRFADDA

commonly used for

manufactured with
firmware in
the data permanently it cannot be changed
embedded systems,
MROM encoded during the
fabrication of the
once the chip is
created.
such as game
consoles and
memory chip
appliances

Once programmed, used in situations

the data remains where data needs to
initially blank and fixed, and PROM be permanently
PROM can be programmed becomes read-only, stored after a one-
similar to Mask time programming
ROM. operation.

Erasure is typically used in situations

EPROM can be
achieved by where firmware or
erased and
EPROM reprogrammed
exposing the
memory to
data may need
occasional updates
multiple times.
ultraviolet (UV) light. or changes.
 JRFADDA

used in devices where data

or firmware may need
can be erased and
EEPROM or frequent updates or where
reprogrammed electrically,
individual bits or bytes can
E2PROM without the need for UV
be modified without
light
affecting other parts of the
memory.

type of EEPROM
used in situations
but is typically
where data needs
used for larger It is non-volatile
Flash storage and can be written
to be stored for
extended periods
capacities, such and erased
Memory as in USB drives, electrically.
and can be
modified many
SSDs, and
times
memory cards.
JRFADDA
Types of CD JRFADDA
Types of DVD JRFADDA
 JRFADDA
Memory Access Methods

Access Method Definition Examples

memory is accessed in a specific
magnetic tapes, magnetic disk
Sequential Access linear sequential manner, like
and optical memories
accessing in a single Linked List
memory can be accessed
Random Access RAM and ROM
randomly like accessing in Array
records have a unique address magnetic hard disk, read/write
Direct Access
based on physical location header
This access method is a special
Associate Access Cache memory
type of random access method
 JRFADDA

Types of Software

System Software Application Software

Difference between Firmware & OS JRFADDA
Firmware Operating System
It is a piece of programming code It serves as a bridge between the system
embedded in specific hardware. and the user. It is responsible for all system
functions.
It is stored in non-volatile memory. It is stored on a hard disk.
It is written in C or assembly language. It uses the C++ and Python programming
languages.
It is embedded in the hardware and may not It is a software system that the user may
be changed. install and change.
It manages the low-level operations, It manages the high-level operations,
including providing a limited set of including providing the graphical user
instructions to hardware to execute a basic interface to the end-user, multitasking, etc.
function.
Firmware examples are routers, video The operating system examples are Apple,
cards, keyboards, washing machines, etc. Linux, windows, Aix, etc.
 JRFADDA
Functions of OS
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Some terms related to OS JRFADDA
Disk Defragmenter: A utility tool that reorganizes files on a hard disk so that they
occupy contiguous storage locations, which can improve the performance of the
system.

Device Driver: A software program that allows the operating system to

communicate with hardware devices, such as printers, scanners, and video
cards.

File System: The way in which files are organized and stored on a disk. The most
common file systems used in Windows are NTFS and FAT.

Virtual Memory: A feature of the operating system that allows a computer to use
hard disk space as if it were RAM, which can help the system run more
programs simultaneously.

Process: An instance of a program that is currently running on the computer.

 JRFADDA
BIOS (Basic Input/Output System): A firmware program that initializes
hardware components and starts the boot process of the operating
system.

Bootloader: A bootloader, also spelled as boot loader or called boot

manager and bootstrap loader, is a computer program that is responsible
for booting a computer.

Task Scheduler: A utility tool that allows users to schedule tasks to be

performed automatically at specific times or on specific events.

Task Manager: A utility tool that displays information about processes and
programs running on a computer, and allows users to manage them.
Types of OS JRFADDA
Some Other Types of Software JRFADDA

Freeware Free and open-

Shareware Betaware
copyrighted source software
software, (FOSS)
Free to use with application that
application or allows users and
limitations, some is still in the
program that programmers to
feature may need development and
may be freely edit, modify or
payment. testing phase of
downloaded, reuse the
Also known as software
installed, used software's
liteware. development.
and shared. source code.

Proprietary

gives the legal

right to use the
software to
customer under
restrict
conditions
JRFADDA
Open Source Applications JRFADDA

GIMP Python Mozilla Firefox PyTorch GNU

VLC Media Player Audacity WordPress Bittorent PHP

Brave Browser Blender MYSQL Linux Ruby on Rails

FileZilla Inkspace Apace Open Office Krita graphics KeePass

graphics editor editor

LibreOffice
VirtualBox Zimbra 7-Zip
 Proprietary Software JRFADDA

MS Windows Apple Safari Yahoo Chat WinRAR iTunes Microsoft

OS Browser Client Office

Skype Mac Google Earth Gmail Adobe Acrobat McAfee

 JRFADDA
Printers Types of
Printers

Non
Impact
Impact

Character Line Inkjet Laser Thermal

Printers Printers Printers Printers Printers

Daisy
Dot Matrix Drum Chain Band
Wheel
Printers Printers Printers Printers
Printers

▪ The operating speed of the printer is usually calculated as PPM (pages per minute)
Additionally, the printer's resolution is measured in DPI (dots per inch).
▪ The higher the PPM and DPI, the better the printer performance and print quality.
JRFADDA
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3D Printer
✓ 3D printing, also known as additive manufacturing, is a method of creating a
three dimensional object layer-by-layer using a computer created design.
✓ 3D-printed objects are created through an additive process, where the printer
places layer after layer of material until the desired thing is ‘printed’.
✓ Each layer can be considered a finely sliced cross-section of the printed item.
With 3D printing, users can produce complicated shapes without consuming as
much material as traditional manufacturing methods require.
JRFADDA
 JRFADDA
LED vs LCD
LED (Light Emitting Diode) LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)
LED has a better response time than LCD. LCD is slower than LED in terms of response time.

Whereas it consumes less power in comparison to

LED consumes more power in comparison to LCD.
LED.

LED delivers good picture quality in comparison to the LCD also delivers good picture quality but less than
LCD display. LED.

LED is costlier than LCD. While it is less costly than LED.

LED delivers better color accuracy in comparison to While it also delivers good color accuracy, we can
the LCD. notice the difference if we compare these two.

LED TVs can be up to 90 inches and they are much

LCD Screen size comes in the range of 13-57 inches.
similar to LCD TVs.

LEDs use no mercury and are therefore LCDs require mercury for their products causing harm
environmentally friendly. to the environment.

LED uses gallium arsenide phosphide. LCD uses liquid crystals and glass electrodes.
OLED (Organic Light Emitting Diode) JRFADDA

Advantages:

▪ Organic layers present in an OLED are better than the crystalline layers in LED or
LCD as they are flexible, lighter, and thinner than crystalline layers.
▪ Due to the presence of organic layers, OLEDs are brighter than LEDs.
▪ OLEDs consume less power than LCD and LEDs.
▪ They have faster response time and better picture quality and viewing angle than
LEDs.

Disadvantages:

▪ Currently, the biggest drawback of an OLED is its lifetime. The Red and Green OLED
films have a lifetime ranging from 46, 000 to 230, 000 hours while Blue organics have
a shorter lifetime of around 14, 000 hours.
▪ The process of manufacturing an OLED is expensive right now.
▪ They are easily damaged by water.
 JRFADDA
Email
✓ Email, i.e., electronic mail, is a method of exchanging messages between the
sender’s and receiver’s systems using the Internet.
✓ You can even send non-text files like images, videos, and audio files as
attachments.
✓ Email relies on protocols such as the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) for
sending mail and the Post Office Protocol 3 (POP3) and Internet Message Access
Protocol (IMAP) for receiving mail.
✓ The Gmail attachment size limit is 25 MB.
✓ You can have more than one attachment, but they can't add up to more than 25
MB.
 JRFADDA
Components of Emailing
CC recipients
are visible to
others, while
BCC recipients
are not.
 JRFADDA
Difference between Email and Webmail
Aspect Email Webmail
A web-based e-mail service to access e-mail
An electronic message is sent and stored via a
Definition server or a computer network system.
accounts from anywhere through an internet
connection.
Requires e-mail client software such as
Accessible from any web browser, even without
Dependency Microsoft Outlook, Apple Mail, or Mozilla
installing a specific app.
Thunderbird to access and manage e-mails.
SSL encryption, spam filtering, and two-factor
E-mail encryption and two-factor authentication
Security depend on the e-mail service provider.
authentication are available in most webmail
service providers.
The E-mail needs an additional click to open a Webmail allows a single tap to open a link in a
Tap-able Links link in a web browser. new browser.
Features include Calendar Integration, Task Webmail offers the same features as E-mail but
Features Management, and Contacts. is often included within the web interface.
Webmail services have memory requirements as
E-mail clients require more memory to store the e-mails get stored on the server. This storage
Storage e-mails. capacity can increase after payment of a certain
subscription amount.
Microsoft Outlook, Apple Mail, Mozilla
Examples Thunderbird, etc.
Gmail, Outlook, Yahoo, etc.
 JRFADDA
Infrastructure: Internet
a vast global network of computers, servers and other electronic devices
connected underground, overground, undersea and through space by wires,
cables, radio and satellite. - The project to create the Internet began in the
1960s, long before the World Wide Web came into being.

Service: WWW
an information service on the Internet
accessible to users through browsers
using a standard hyper-text transfer
protocol (HTTP) that allows websites
and webpages to link to each other
and transport visitors around the web.
 WWW vs Internet JRFADDA
Aspect Web Internet
A system of interconnected documents and
A global network of interconnected computers
Definition multimedia content accessible via the
that communicate with each other.
Internet.
The Web was invented by Tim Berners-Lee The concept of the Internet emerged in the
Founded in 1989. 1960s.
Operates on a client-server model where
Consists of a vast network infrastructure
Architecture web browsers (clients) request and receive
including routers, cables, and data centers.
data (servers).
First Version NSFNET ARPANET
Primarily focused on delivering and Enables a wide range of digital
Functionality displaying hypertext documents and communications, including the Web, email,
multimedia. FTP, and VoIP.
Provides the foundational connectivity that
Connectivity & Requires a web browser to navigate and
allows various networked services, including
Browsing access web pages using URLs.
browsing.
Primarily uses HTTP/HTTPS for accessing Uses a suite of protocols, notably TCP/IP, for
Protocol and transferring web content. general data transmission.
Websites, web applications, online media, Broad applications including web services,
Application and interactive services. email, online gaming, file sharing, and more.
A service and application layer that operates The underlying infrastructure and network that
Type on the Internet. connects computers globally.
 JRFADDA
Internet vs Intranet vs Extranet
 JRFADDA
Transmission Modes
Basis for
Simplex Half Duplex Full Duplex
Comparison
Direction of Two-directional, one Two-directional,
Unidirectional
Communication at a time simultaneously

Sender can send Sender can send

Sender can only
Send / Receive and receive data, and receive data
send data
but one a time simultaneously

Worst performing Best performing

Performance mode of Better than Simplex mode of
transmission transmission
Keyboard and
Example Walkie-talkie Telephone
monitor
 Guided vs Unguided Media JRFADDA
Guided Media Unguided Media

The guided media is also called wired communication or bounded The unguided media is also called wireless communication or
transmission media. unbounded transmission media.

The signal energy propagates through wires in guided media. The signal energy propagates through the air in unguided media.

Unguided media is generally suited for radio broadcasting in all

Guided media is used for point-to-point communication.
directions.

It is cost-effective. It is expensive.

Continuous network topologies are formed by the unguided

Discrete network topologies are formed by the guided media.
media.

Signals are in the form of voltage, current, or photons in the Signals are in the form of electromagnetic waves in unguided
guided media. media.

Examples of guided media are twisted pair wires, coaxial cables, Examples of unguided media are microwave or radio links and
and optical fiber cables. infrared light.

By adding more wires, the transmission capacity can be

It is not possible to obtain additional capacity in unguided media.
increased in guided media.

It sends out a signal that indicates which way to go. It does not indicate which way to travel.

For a shorter distance, this is the best option. For longer distances, this method is used.

It is unable to pass through walls. It can pass through walls.

Network Devices JRFADDA
 JRFADDA
Web Generations
 JRFADDA
Web 1.0 Web 2.0 Web 3.0

Read-only Web Read-write web / Social web

Read-write-
Static web pages execute web /
Dynamic pages Semantic web
Uncategorized content No ownership of
Interactive content content, anyone
Broadcast Communication can contribute

lack of interactivity User participation Uses artificial

intelligence &
machine learning
content delivery network (CDN) Software as a Service

Owning Content Resource Pooling

Mass Participation
Web and File Servers Collaborative consumption
platforms Open source
Search Engines: AltaVista,Yahoo software
Social networking sites: Facebook, blogs,
wikis, folksonomies ("tagging" keywords
E-mail accounts: Yahoo, Hotmail on websites and links)

Peer-to-Peer File Sharing: Napster, Video sharing sites: YouTube

BitTorrent.
Core web protocols: HTML, HTTP, URI Image sharing sites: Flickr
 MAC Address vs IP Address JRFADDA
MAC Address (Media Access Control Address) IP Address (Internet Protocol Address)
IP Address is either a four-byte (32 bit) (IPv4) or a sixteen-byte (128
MAC Address is a six byte(48 bit) hexadecimal address.
bit) (IPv6) address.

A device attached with MAC Address can retrieve by ARP protocol. A device attached with IP Address can retrieve by RARP protocol.

NIC Card’s Manufacturer provides the MAC Address. Internet Service Provider provides IP Address.

MAC Address is used to ensure the physical address of a computer. IP Address is the logical address of the computer.

MAC Address operates in the data link layer. IP Address operates in the network layer.

MAC Address of computer cannot be changed with time and

IP Address modifies with the time and environment.
environment.

MAC Addresses can’t be found easily by a third party. IP Addresses can be found by a third party.

Example:
Example:
00:FF:FF:AB:BB:AA
IPv4 192.168.1.1
or
IPv6 FFFF:F200:3204:0B00
00-FF-FF-AB-BB-AA

MAC addresses can be used for broadcasting. The IP address can be used for broadcasting or multicasting.

MAC address is hardware oriented. IP address is software oriented.

While communication, Switch needs MAC address to forward data. While communication, Router need IP address to forward data.
 JRFADDA
OSI Layers

Bits
Media Layers

Frames

Packets
 JRFADDA

Segments/
Datagram
Host Layers

Data

Data

Data
 JRFADDA
Web Browser vs Search Engine
 JRFADDA
Types of Malwares

Worms
Virus Bots & Botnets Trojan Horses
Live in your
computer's memory A piece of code that A collection of Trojan is a
and rely on security is loaded onto your programs remotely malicious program
failures to spread website or computer controlled to that disguises or
itself to other without your perform automated embeds itself as a
computers across a knowledge, tasks. They can legitimate-looking
network. They can attaching consist of millions file and tricks users
quickly infect large themselves to files of infected into downloading it.
numbers of or programs and computers and can Frequently, they
computers, rapidly spreading to send spam or be open a backdoor to
consuming computers of used in DDoS capture keystrokes
bandwidth and everyone in your attacks to bring to enable sensitive
overloading a contact list. down a website. data collection.
webserver.
 JRFADDA

Adware Spyware
Ransomware Phishing
Automatic
advertising software
Malware that is
that delivers A social engineering
Encrypts, denies or designed to spy on
unwanted attack by sending
restricts access to a user's activity.
promotions and fake emails to look
your files and harvesting your data
pop-ups while you like they're from
demands payment and collecting
are browsing the authentic
through Bitcoin in personal
web; if you click on companies to
order for access to information such as
one of these ads fraudulently acquire
be granted again. usernames,
you will be personal and
passwords and
redirected to a financial information
surfing habits.
malicious site.
 JRFADDA
Phishing Vs Spear phishing Vs Whaling

Phishing Spear phishing Whaling

A broader term that A type of phishing A form of spear
covers any type of attack that targets phishing that targets
that tries to fool a victim individuals. high-ranking victims
into taking some action. within a company
Does not have a specific
target.
 JRFADDA

Vishing: Fraudulent phone calls urging the recipient

to reveal sensitive information.

Smishing: Text messages urging the recipient to

click a link that downloads malware onto their
device.

Angler phishing: It is phishing via fake social media

accounts that masquerade as the official account of
trusted companies’ customer service or customer
support teams.
 JRFADDA

DOS & DDOS SQL injection

Sniffing Attack
Man in The Attack attack
Middle (MITM) A Denial of Service
A sniffing attack in
Attack (DoS) attack is The attacker gets system hacking is a
meant to crash a unauthorized access form of denial-of-
network by flooding to a web application service attack which
method by which it with traffic. database by adding is carried out by
attackers manage to This attack employs a string of malicious capturing packets
interpose themselves various remote code to a database on the network, and
secretly between the devices, bots, or query. then either sending
user and a web zombies, allowing Allows the attacker them repeatedly to a
service they’re trying the attacker to send to obtain victim machine or
to access. vast amounts of confidential, replaying them back
traffic from different sensitive data, such to the sender with
locations as credit card modifications.
simultaneously. information.
 JRFADDA

Cryptojacking Pegasus Social

Pegasus is a engineering XSS or cross-
spyware – that is scripting attack
One of the most
developed,
recent and nuisance- It is a type of cyber-
marketed and
creating cyber-attack, attack based on the
licensed to
cryptojacking aims psychological
governments
only at the manipulation of the
around the world by Cross-site scripting
cryptocurrency target. Unlike other
the Israeli company makes a vulnerable
owners. cyber-attacks, it
NSO Group. site return malicious
Hackers gain the needs the expertise
It has the capability JavaScript to the
access to your to bend the human
to infect billions of user so that the
resources and start mind, use emotional
phones running code is executed in
the cryptomining biases, and track
either iOS or the user's browser.
process. personal/sensitive
Android operating
systems. information.
JRFADDA
JRFADDA
 JRFADDA
Types of Hackers
New unskilled hacker
Malicious Hacker Motivation : Become an Experienced
Motivation : Personal Gain; Money, Data Hacker
Actions : Steal, Destroy, Manipulate Actions : Simple attacks
Behavior : Illegal Behavior : Who knows?

Ethical Hacker Vengeful (intended for revenge)Hacker

Motivation : Provide Security Motivation : Revenge
Actions : Cyber Security Activities Actions : Simple attacks
Behavior : Legal Behavior : Illegal

Vigilante hacker (unofficial way to prevent

Not Malicious but not always ethical crime)
Motivation : Data Gain Motivation : Revenge
Actions : Steal Critical Data Actions : Cyber Security Activities, Attack
Behavior : Illegal back
Behaviour : Legal aggressive
 JRFADDA

Hacktivist

Motivation: breaking into a computer system,

for politically or socially motivated purposes.
Potential targets: government or corporate
targets, religious groups, drug dealers, terrorists

State-sponsored hackers

Motivation: Hack into private international

networks under the order of government
organizations.
Potential targets: International government
agencies or critical companies.
Encryption Vs Decryption JRFADDA
Encryption Decryption
Encryption is the process of converting normal message into While decryption is the process of converting meaningless
meaningless message. message into its original form.

While decryption is the process which take place at receiver’s

Encryption is the process which take place at sender’s end.
end.

Its major task is to convert the plain text into cipher text. While its main task is to convert the cipher text into plain text.

Any message can be encrypted with either secret key Whereas the encrypted message can be decrypted with either
or public key. secret key or private key.

In encryption process, sender sends the data to receiver after Whereas in decryption process, receiver receives the
encrypted it. information(Cipher text) and convert into plain text.

The only single algorithm is used for encryption-decryption

The same algorithm with the same key is used for the
with a pair of keys where each use for encryption and
encryption-decryption process.
decryption.

Encryption is used to protect the confidentiality of data by

Decryption is used to reverse the encryption process and
converting it into an unreadable form that can only be read by
convert the ciphertext back into plaintext.
authorized parties.

The output of encryption is a ciphertext that is unintelligible

The output of decryption is the original plaintext message.
to anyone who does not have the decryption key.
Cryptography JRFADDA

Cryptography is a technique of securing information and communications through the

use of codes so that only those persons for whom the information is intended can
understand and process it.

Features Of Cryptography
Confidentiality: Information can only be accessed by the person for
whom it is intended and no other person except him can access it.

Integrity: Information cannot be modified in storage or transition

between sender and intended receiver without any addition to
information being detected.

Non-repudiation: The creator/sender of information cannot deny his

intention to send information at a later stage.

Authentication: The identities of the sender and receiver are

confirmed. As well destination/origin of the information is confirmed.

Interoperability: Cryptography allows for secure communication

between different systems and platforms.

Adaptability: Cryptography continuously evolves to stay ahead of

security threats and technological advancements.
JRFADDA
 JRFADDA
Units of Computer Memory Measurement

KB = 210 B = 103 B
MB = 220 B = 106 B
GB = 230 B = 109 B
TB = 240 B = 1012 B
PB = 250 B = 1015 B
EB = 260 B = 1018 B
ZB = 270 B = 1021 B
YB = 280 B = 1024 B
JRFADDA
 JRFADDA
Tricks:

✓ Conversion between small base to higher base → Multiply with smaller base
✓ Conversion between higher base to small base → Take LCM with smaller base

✓ Binary to Octal / Hexadecimal → Pair of 3 / 4 bits from right side

✓ Octal / Hexadecimal to Binary → write 3 / 4 bits representation for each value
✓ 1’s Complement → by interchanging 1’s into 0 and 0’s into 1
✓ 2’s Complement → 1’s Complement + 1
Number System Addition JRFADDA
Binary addition:
1+0=1
1 + 1 = 10
1 + 1 + 1 = 11

In other number systems, addition involves adding the face values of

corresponding digits. If the sum of these values exceeds the radix (base), we
subtract the radix from the sum and record the remainder as part of the result,
carrying over 1 to the next digit.
Hot Media & Cool Media JRFADDA

Hot media is that which engages one sense

completely.

▪ Books It demands little interaction from the user

▪ Radio because it ‘spoon-feeds’ the content.
▪ Lectures
▪ Film
Typically the content of hot media is
restricted to what the source offers at that
specific time.

▪ Specialized “A medium is hot if it extends only one sense,

▪ Linear transmits highly defined information, and
▪ Single Sense involves a low participation activity.
▪ High data
 JRFADDA

▪ Telephone Cool media are those that require high participation from users,
due to their low definition (the receiver/user must fill in missing
▪ Television information).
▪ Seminar
▪ Cartoon
Since many senses may be used, they foster involvement.

The user must be familiar with genre conventions in order

to fully understand the medium.

▪ Non-Specialized a medium is cool if it involves many senses at the same time,

▪ Multiple Sense carries imprecise information, and requires a high level of
▪ Low data receptors’ involvement.”
 JRFADDA

Surface Web vs Deep Web vs Dark Web

 JRFADDA

VR(Virtual Reality) is more of hot media because it gives people very

immersive experience whereas AR(Augmented Reality) and MR(Mixed
Reality) has more of cool media as they focus both reality and
virtuality.
 JRFADDA
Cell Referencing in MS Excel

Relative cell reference type in Excel

changes when a formula is copied or
Relative cell dragged to another cell. A cell reference
references may come in B2, where B corresponds to
the cell column letter in question and 2
represents the row number.

Absolute cell reference contains dollar

Absolute cell signs attached to each letter or number in a
Cell References reference, e.g., $B$4. It makes cell
references reference remains constant even if it is
copied or dragged to another cell.

In Excel, mixed cell references contain

Mixed cell dollar signs attached to either the letter or
the number in a reference. E.g., $B2 or B$4.
references It is a combination of relative and absolute
references.
 JRFADDA
✓ SUM: Adds the value in several cells together.
✓ AVERAGE: This function computes the average of a set of cells.
✓ MAX: Finds the maximum value in a cell range.
✓ MIN: Finds the minimum value in a cell range.
✓ COUNT: Counts the number of cells containing numbers in a particular range.
✓ COUNTA: Counts the number of cells other than blank ones in a range of cells.
✓ IF: Tests a particular condition and returns one value if the given condition proves
true and another if it turns out false.
✓ ROUND: A number rounds to the specified number of digits.
✓ CONCATENATE: Combines two or more strings of text or otherwise into a single
string.
✓ VLOOKUP: Finds a value in the first column of a table and returns a value from
another column in the same row.
 JRFADDA
Special Symbols in Excel
Equal Sign (=): The most commonly used symbol in Excel is the equal (=) sign. Every
single formula or function used has to start with equals to let Excel know that a
formula is being used.

Colon (:) : used to Specify a Range of Cells

Dollar Symbol ($): it’s used to “fix” a cell address in place in order that a single cell can
be used repetitively in multiple formulas by copying formulas between cells.

Exclamation Point (!): The exclamation point (!) is critical if you want to create a
formula in a sheet and include a reference to a different sheet.

Square Brackets [ ]: Excel uses square brackets to show references to linked

workbooks. The name of the external workbook is enclosed in square brackets, while
the sheet name in that workbook appears after the brackets with an exclamation point
at the end.

Curly Brackets { }: Curly brackets are used in array formulas. An array formula is
created by pressing the CTRL + SHIFT + ENTER keys together when entering a
formula.
 JRFADDA
Internet vs Ethernet
 JRFADDA
WiMax
WiMax stands for Worldwide Inter-operability for Microwave Access.

This technology is based on IEEE 802.16.

It is used to provide higher data rates with increased coverage.

It is based on MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) technology.

Its range is upto 50 Km. It may provide speed upto 70 Mbps and it can operate in
Non-Line-of-Sight.
Providing portable mobile broadband connectivity across cities and countries
through various devices.
Providing a wireless alternative to cable and digital subscriber line (DSL) for
"last mile" broadband access.

Providing data, telecommunications (VoIP) and IPTV services (triple play).

 JRFADDA
RFID (Radio Frequency Identification)
▪ RFID (radio frequency identification) is a form of wireless communication that
incorporates the use of electromagnetic or electrostatic coupling in the radio
frequency portion of the electromagnetic spectrum to uniquely identify an object,
animal or person.
RFID tags Barcodes
Can identify individual objects without direct Direct line of sight required for scanning.
line of sight.
Can scan items from inches to feet away, Require closer proximity for scanning.
depending on type of tag and reader.
Data can be updated in real time. Data is read-only and can't be changed.
Require a power source. No power source needed.
Contain a sensor attached to an antenna, often Printed on the outside of an object and more
contained in a plastic cover and more costly subject to wear.
than barcodes.
JRFADDA
JRFADDA
 JRFADDA
Geographic Information System (GIS)
▪ a computer system that analyzes and displays geographically referenced
information. It uses data that is attached to a unique location.
▪ GIS connects data to a map, integrating location data (where things are)
with all types of descriptive information (what things are like there).
AI, ML & DL JRFADDA
Applications of AI JRFADDA
 JRFADDA
Quantum Computing vs Classical Computing
 Applications of Quantum Computing JRFADDA

could break many of the current cryptographic algorithms, but they

Cryptography
could also be used to create new, more secure ones.

could be used to simulate complex systems such as chemical

Simulation reactions, which would be very difficult for classical computers to
do.

could be used to solve optimization problems, which are important

Optimization
in fields such as logistics, finance, and transportation.

Machine could be used to improve machine learning algorithms, allowing

Applications
learning for faster and more accurate predictions.

could be used to study and design new materials and drugs,

Quantum
potentially leading to breakthroughs in fields such as medicine and
chemistry
energy.

Financial could be used to simulate financial markets and optimize

modeling investment portfolios.

Weather could be used to improve weather forecasting models, leading to

forecasting more accurate predictions and better disaster preparedness.
VR, AR & MR JRFADDA
JRFADDA
 JRFADDA
Logic Gates

Logic Gates

Basic Logic Universal Other Logic

Gates Logic Gates Gates

AND NOT OR NAND NOR EX-OR Ex-NOR

Gate Gate Gate Gate Gate Gate Gate
JRFADDA
 JRFADDA
The & (bitwise AND)
takes two numbers as
operands and does AND
on every bit of two
numbers. The result of
AND is 1 only if both bits
are 1.

The | (bitwise OR) takes two

numbers as operands and
Bitwise does OR on every bit of two
Operator numbers. The result of OR is
1 if any of the two bits is 1.

The ^ (bitwise XOR) takes two

numbers as operands and does
XOR on every bit of two numbers.
The result of XOR is 1 if the two
bits are different.
 JRFADDA

The << (left shift) takes two

numbers, the left shifts the bits
of the first operand, and the
second operand decides the
number of places to shift.

The >> (right shift) takes two

numbers, right shifts the bits of
Bitwise the first operand, and the second
Operator operand decides the number of
places to shift.

The ~ (bitwise NOT) takes one

number and inverts all bits of
it.
VoIP JRFADDA
✓ Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), is a technology that allows you to make voice
calls using a broadband Internet connection instead of a regular (or analog) phone
line.
✓ Some VoIP services may only allow you to call other people using the same service,
but others may allow you to call anyone who has a telephone number - including
local, long distance, mobile, and international numbers.
✓ Also, while some VoIP services only work over your computer or a special VoIP
phone, other services allow you to use a traditional phone connected to a VoIP
adapter.
✓ VoIP services convert your voice into a digital signal that travels over the Internet. If
you are calling a regular phone number, the signal is converted to a regular
telephone signal before it reaches the destination.
✓ VoIP can allow you to make a call directly from a computer, a special VoIP phone, or a
traditional phone connected to a special adapter.
LTE vs VoLTE JRFADDA

LTE Vs VoLTE
Supercomputers List JRFADDA
 JRFADDA

Indian Supercomputers in Top 500 List

Liveware JRFADDA

▪ Liveware is a term that was widely used in the computer

industry in early 1966.
▪ The term refers to computer users that are used humorously
along with hardware and software.
▪ The term was used as slang for the people who spent most of
their time on the computer.
Cloud computing JRFADDA

✓ It is the on-demand availability of computer system resources, especially data

storage (cloud storage) and computing power, without direct active management by
the user.
✓ Rather than keeping files on a proprietary hard drive or local storage device, cloud-
based storage makes it possible to save them to a remote database.
JRFADDA
 JRFADDA
GPT
➢ Generative Pre-trained Transformers, commonly known as GPT, are a family of
neural network models that uses the transformer architecture and is a key
advancement in artificial intelligence (AI) powering generative AI applications
such as ChatGPT.
➢ GPT models give applications the ability to create human-like text and content
(images, music, and more), and answer questions in a conversational manner.
➢ Organizations across industries are using GPT models and generative AI for Q&A
bots, text summarization, content generation, and search.
 File Formats vs Generic File Formats JRFADDA
File Formats Generic File Formats

➢ Designed for a specific type of content, ➢ Not designed for a specific type of content,
such as text, images, audio, or video. but can be used for a variety of data types.
➢ Optimized for specific features, such as ➢ Can be read and edited by many different
high-quality images, compression, or software applications that support the
interactivity. format.
➢ Can be read and edited by specific ➢ Usually have less advanced features
software applications that are designed compared to specific file formats, but are
to work with that format. more widely compatible.
➢ May have proprietary features that limit ➢ Can be used to exchange data between
compatibility with other software different software applications and
applications or platforms. platforms.
Image File Formats JRFADDA
JPEG: Joint Photographic Experts Group file INDD: Adobe InDesign Document

GIF: Graphics Interchange Format RAW

PNG: Portable Network Graphics EPS: Encapsulated PostScript

TIFF: Tagged Image File Format SVG: Scalable Vector Graphics

XCF: eXperimental Computing

BMP: Bitmap Facility

PDF: Portable Document Format WebP

HEIF: High-Efficiency Image File

PSD: Photoshop Document Format
 JRFADDA
Image Format Transparency Compression Generic Raster/Vector
Format
JPEG No Lossy Yes Raster
GIF Yes Lossless Yes Raster
PNG Yes Lossless Yes Raster
TIFF Yes Lossless Yes Raster
BMP Yes Lossless Yes Raster
PDF Yes Variable Yes Vector
PSD Yes Variable No Raster
EPS No Lossless Yes Vector
SVG Yes Lossless Yes Vector
RAW Yes Variable No Raster
HEIF Yes Lossy Yes Raster
AI Yes Lossy No Vector
Audio File Formats JRFADDA

PCM: Pulse- WAV: Waveform AIFF: Audio

MP3: MPEG-1
Code Audio File Interchange File
Audio Layer 3
Modulation Format Format
FLAC: Free ALAC: Apple
AAC: Advanced WMA: Windows
Lossless Audio Lossless Audio
Audio Coding Media Audio
Codec Codec
MIDI: Musical
OGG: Ogg DSD: Direct M4A: MPEG-4
Instrument
Vorbis Stream Digital Audio
Digital Interface
OPUS: Opus
AU: Audio File APE: Monkey's VQF: TwinVQ
Interactive
Format Audio Audio File
Audio Codec
 JRFADDA
Audio Format Compression Generic Format

PCM Uncompressed Lossless Yes

WAV Uncompressed Lossless Yes

AIFF Uncompressed Lossless Yes

MP3 Lossy Yes

AAC Lossy Yes
WMA Lossy No
FLAC Lossless Yes
MIDI Lossy Yes
OGG Lossy Yes
DSD Uncompressed Lossless No

M4A Lossy No
ALAC Lossless Yes
Video File Formats JRFADDA

MPEG: Moving
MP4: MP4 stands MOV: QuickTime
Picture Experts
for MPEG-4 Part 14 Movie
Group

AVI: Audio Video AVCHD: Advanced

WMV: Windows
Interleave is Video Coding High
Media Viewer
compatible Definition format

FLV: flash video MKV: Matroska WEBM: Web Media

format format File
JRFADDA
 Text File Formats JRFADDA

JSON: XML: Extensible

TXT: Text RTF: Rich Text
JavaScript Markup
Format
Object Notation Language

HTML: Hyper
CSV: Comma
Text Markup
Separated Values
Language

Compressed File Formats

RAR (Roshal 7Z (7-Zip TAR (tape
ZIP
ARchive format ) archiver) archive)

LZMA (Lempel–
ARJ (Archived by
CAB (cabinet file) Ziv–Markov chain
Robert Jung)
algorithm)