A Study into CPUs

Nandakrishna J#1, Arjun J Sankar#2 , Pooja Reddy #3 ,Yuvaraj Choudhury #4

Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering
Amrita School of Engineering, Bangalore
Amrita Nagar, Choodasandra, Junnasandra, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
#1
[email protected]
#2
[email protected]
#3
[email protected]
#4
[email protected]

Abstract— This document gives information on Structure

and Functionality of CPU’s.

Keywords— Processors, Fabrication, Architecture,

I. INTRODUCTION
A central processing Unit (CPU) is the most important
component of a computer system. A CPU is a hardware
that performs data input/output, processing and storage
functions for a computer system. A CPU can be installed
into a CPU socket. These sockets are generally located on
the motherboard. CPU can perform various data
processing operations. CPU can store data, instructions,
programs, and intermediate results.
Fig.1 Structure of CPU
II. CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT
A. Structure
B. Types of CPUs
The structure of the Central Processing Unit consists of the
following parts as shown in Fig.1. There are 5 major types of CPUs
1.) Single Core CPU: A single-core processor is a
1)Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU): The Arithmetic and microprocessor with a single core on its die. It
Logical Unit (or ALU) performs arithmetic and logical performs the fetch-decode-execute cycle once per
functions. The arithmetic functions are addition, subtraction, clock-cycle, as it only runs on one thread. A
multiplication division, and comparisons, whereas the computer using a single core CPU is generally
logical functions mainly include selecting, comparing, and slower than a multi-core system.
merging the data. The complex operations are performed by 2.) Dual Core CPU: Dual core is a CPU that has two
making repetitive use of the operations mentioned above. distinct processors that work simultaneously in the
same integrated circuit. This type of processor can
2) Control Unit (CU): It instructs the computer by using function as efficiently as a single processor but can
the electrical signals to instruct the computer system. It takes perform operations up to twice as quickly. Because
instructions from the memory unit and then decodes the each core has its own cache, the operating system is
instructions after that it executes those instructions. So, it able to handle most tasks in parallel.
controls the functioning of the computer. Its main task is to 3.) Quad Core CPU: A quad-core processor is a chip
maintain the flow of information across the processor. with four independent units called cores that read
and execute central processing unit instructions,
such as add, move data and branch.
3) Memory or storage Unit: The memory unit is
responsible for transferring information to other units of the
computer when needed. It is also known as an internal
storage unit or the main memory or the primary storage III. FABRICATION
or Random Access Memory (RAM) as all these are storage
devices. Its size affects speed, power, and performance. The semiconductor fabrication process is a complex and
There are two types of memory in the computer, which are highly specialized series of steps that transform raw
primary memory and secondary memory. materials into functional electronic components. This
process involves a multitude of techniques and technologies,
with each stage requiring precise control and attention to
detail.
The microchip components are so small, they are The etching process in semiconductor
measured in nanometres (nm). Fig.2 manufacturing is a crucial step used to selectively
remove material from the surface of a
semiconductor wafer. This step is employed to
define patterns on the wafer that will eventually
form the various components of integrated circuits
(ICs), such as transistors and interconnecting metal
lines.

6. Layer Interconnection (Metallization)

Process of depositing metal layers onto a
semiconductor wafer to create interconnections
between different components, such as transistors
and other devices. These metal layers are essential
for establishing electrical connections in integrated
Fig.2 Silicon Dies circuits (ICs) and ensuring the proper functioning of
the semiconductor device. Fig.4
1. Deposition
Wafers are sliced from an ingot of 99.99% pure
silicon and polished to extreme smoothness. Thin
films of conducting, isolating or semiconducting
materials – depending on the type of structure
being made – are deposited on the wafer to enable
the first layer to be printed on it.

2. Lithography
A micro-synthesis technique involving the use of
photoresist chemicals for transferring geometric
patterns onto the semiconductor substrate or films.
Fig.3
Fig.4 Metallization
7. Testing:
The fabricated wafer undergoes extensive testing to
identify and eliminate defective components.
8. Assembly and Packaging:
The individual ICs are separated, tested again, and
then assembled into packages. The packages
provide protection and electrical connections for
the IC.
9. Quality Control and Packaging:
Fig.3 Photolithography
The fully tested and functional ICs are packaged
3. Doping (Ion Implantation or Diffusion) into the final product, ready for distribution and
use.
Dopants (impurities)are introduced into specific
regions of the wafer to modify its electrical
properties and create regions with different IV. ARCHITECTURE
conductivity. CPU architecture refers to the design and layout of the
components. There are mainly two types of
4. Annealing architecture.

The purpose of annealing is to alter the physical Northbridge and southbridge architecture
and sometimes chemical properties of a material, It is the traditional architecture.
typically by heating it to a specific temperature and 1) Northbridge
then cooling it in a controlled manner. The process a) It connects the processor to memory and
helps relieve internal stresses, improve mechanical graphics
properties, and modify the microstructure of the controller.
material. b) It controls the system bus, which is the main
5. Etching communication pathway between the processors
and other devices on the motherboard.
 Arm.It is also used by TMSC.
2) Southbridge AMD.,. intel
a) It connects the northbridge to the rest of the
devices on the motherboard.
b) It controls the I/O ports, such as USB, SATA,
and PCIe, as well as the sound card
and network adapter.

B. PCH architecture
It is the latest chipset architecture. PCH stands for
platform controller hub. It combines both northbridge and
southbridge in a single chip which gives better performance.

A. Miniaturization of Chip
1) Moore’s law says double the number of transistors
per unit area in every two years.

B. Von Neuman Architecture

Sir Von Neuman designed a model for a stored
program digital computer that uses a processing
unit and a single separate storage structure to hold
both instructions and data.

C. Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)

1. It is the interface between hardware and software of

the system.
2. These are a group of commands inbuilt in the
processor which can directly decode and execute.
3. ISA is also called dictionary of instructions.
4. It can be modified to extend operational capability,
which allows to customize command.
5. It is implementation independent, that is even if the
hardware and software are not from the same
manufacturer, the ISA will run anyways.
6. ISA generally refers to the generation of processor.

7. Examples-X86, ARM, MIPS, etc.

C. Comparison of Two ISA

X-86 ARM
X86 started in 1968 by intel. Acorn RISC Machine
It is CISC which is complex (ARM), It is RISC which is
instruction set computing. reduced instruction set
computing.

CISC tries to do more in one RISC tries to do only one

instruction. CISC has more thing per instruction. RISC
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
complex, variable length has simpler instructions, fixed This work has been performed in the frame of Amrita
instructions . length instructions . Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Bengaluru campus’s research in
Simulation lab. I would like to express my sincere
gratitude to Ms. Deepa, for her guidance and support
2008 to present- i3, i5, i7, i9. Arm chips until recently were throughout this research. I would also like to express
In 2020 apple moves from designed for phones. It is my sincere gratitude to the scientists and engineers who
intel x86 to chips based on used by QUALCOMM and have dedicated their lives to the advancement of
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[1] Wylie, Andrew (2009). "The first monolithic integrated

circuits".