SUBJECT – HOME SCIENCE

SUBJECT CODE – 12
UNIT - III

9118 888 501

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 CHAPTER - 1
TEXTILE TERMINOLOGIES

A 'fibre' is defined as any product capable of being woven or otherwise made into
fabric. It is the smallest visible unit of textile product. It can be defined as a hair like strand
that is very small in diameter as compared to its length. They are 'pliable' in nature. They can
be called the fundamental unit used in making of textile yarns and later on its fabric.
A 'yarn' is a strand of fibres laid or twisted together by a process called spinning. The
yarns can be differentiated into types according to the methods of spinning –
a) Mechanical spinning for staple fibre yarns.
b) Chemical spinning for filament fibre yarns.
Simple yarns and complex or novelty yarns are the two large group of yarns. A simple
yarn is alike in all its parts. A single yarn is a strand of fibres all twisted in the same direction.
A two ply yarn is formed by twisting two or more single yarns together usually with a
twist opposite that is used in singles. A two ply yarn is stronger than a single yarn.

• Mixture fabrics – They are made up of two or more different kinds of yarns, each of
which is composed of only one kind of fibre. The yarns may be composed of filament or
staple length fibres.
• Blended fabrics – In this the yarns have two or more different kinds of fibres involved
that are spun together. Staple length fibres are used to make such yarns.
• Combination fibre fabrics – An intimate blend of fibres is involved in this. Each yarn
is made from a single species of fibre and the combination is developed by using some
yarns of one fibre and some of another.
• Engineered yarn / fibre blends – These are those that combine two or more textile
fibres where different fibre types can be blended in single yarns, yarns of different fibre
content can be woven or knitted into fabric, single yarns of different fibres can be plied
together and then formed into fabrics.
• Thread – It is a tightly twisted ply yarn having a circular cross section and used in
commercial and home sewing machines and for hard sewing. Thread is usually wound
on spools with thread size or degree of fineness indicated on the spool end.

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• Thread joins pieces of fabric together to create textile products. It is a plied
construction fine, even and strong. Thread qualities are high strength, adequate
elasticity smooth surface, dimensional stability, resistance to snarling, resistance to
damage by friction and attractive appearance. Various types of thread are simple ply
threads, cord threads, monofilament threads of manmade fibres and multifilament
threads.
• A yarn is a continuous thread or often a plied strand composed of either natural or
man-made fibers or filaments and used in weaving and knitting to form cloth.
• Weft and Warp are the two sets of threads that are woven together to produce fabric.
The weft refers to the threads that run horizontally on the loom and get woven in front
of and behind the warp. The warp refers to the threads that are strung vertically on the
loom.

• Weaving is a method of textile production in which two distinct sets of yarns or

threads are interlaced at right angles to form a fabricor cloth. Other methods
are knitting, crocheting, felting, and braiding or plaiting. The longitudinal threads
are called the warp and the lateral threads are the weft or filling.

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Classification of textile fibres –
According to their source from which textile fibres are obtained fibres are broadly
classified into

Vegetable fibres – Fibers derived from plants are known as vegetable fibres. Cellulose is
made up of elements like carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They have certain properties like low
resilience, high density & good conductor of heat. They are highly absorbent and resistant to
high temperature Cotton, flax, jute are examples.

Animal fibres – They are obtained from animals. They are made up of protein molecules.
The basic elements are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. They have high resiliency but
weak when wet because they are bad conductors of heat.

Mineral fibres – They are inorganic materials shaped into fibres and are mainly used in the
fire proof fabrics. They are also resistant to acids and used for industrial purpose.

Man made fibres – Those which are made by man and are not naturally present. They have
high strength, strong when wet, low moisture absorption characteristics.

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General Properties of Fibres-
1) Staple fibres – They are natural or manmade or short length fibres between ¾ of an inch
to 18 inches. Except silk, all other natural fibres are staple fibres.
2) Filaments – Long continuous fibres, strands of indefinite length which can be measured
in yards or meters. Natural silk fibre is 360 – 1200 mts Synthetic can be made into
kilometers.
3) Texture – The tactile sensation or touch experienced is rough for fabrics made out of
staple fibres and smooth for fabrics made out of filaments.
4) Resilience – Resistance to compression varies for different fibres. This is the quality for
wrinkles. Resiliency is high in wool & low in cotton. Also known as loft.
5) Lustre – The property of a fabric to reflect light from its surface. Synthetic silks have
high lustre which is removed during spinning.
6) Static Electricity – Created by the friction of a fabric when it is rubbed against itself or
other objects. It is more during hot and humid conditions.
7) Crimp – The waviness of a fabric is crimp. Wool has crimps. Finer the wool, more will
be the crimps in it. The property of having crimps gives elasticity to the fibre.
8) Elasticity – The ability of a stretched material to return to its normal size.

Based on their length, fibres can be classified into-

1. Filaments – long fibres
2. Monofilament yarn – Manmade fibre composed of a single filament extruded to the
diameter desired for the yarn. These yarns are stiff.
3. Staple – short fibres cut to length.
4. Tow – Staple fibres cut from filaments & extruded in large numbers.
5. Bicomponent fibres – It is made of 2 variants or modifications of the same generic fibre
type.
6. Biconstituent fibres – Composed of two different generic fibre types.

Other properties / Secondary properties –

1. Physical shape – Fibre length, surface contour & irregularities cross – sectional
shape, actual length & width dimensions are factors involved.
2. Density – It is the relative weight of a fibre as compared with water or mass per unit
volume. Specific gravity is the relative weight per unit volume. Nylon & Acrylic have
low density & light in weight while cotton and rayon have high density.
3. Colour – Cotton may be creamy, off white, black. Manmade fibres are pure white.
4. Moisture regain – Moisture regain is the certain amount of water present as an
integral part of the fibre & is expressed as the percentage of the weight of the
moisture free fibre.

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5. Moisture absorption – It is the moisture absorbed at saturation point. The better the
moisture absorption, more is the absorption of dyes and finishes. Rayon has low wet
strength but cotton has high wet strength.
6. Elastic recovery & elongation – Elongation is the amount of stretch that a fibre
accepts. Breaking elongation is the amount of stretch a fibre undergoes to the point
where it breaks. Elastic recovery indicates the percentage of return from elongation to
the original length.
7. Flammability & other thermal reactions – When fibre has good moisture
absorbency, it will be a poor conductor of electricity eg cotton. Synthetic fibres shrink
& melt. Cellulosic fibres keep burning & falling.
8. Strength – It is the resistance ability to stress & strain. It is expressed as tensile
strength & measured in (PSI) pounds per square inch or tenacity is measured in gms /
denier cotton gains strength when wet silk, wool loses strength. Dacron & orlon are
unaffected.
9. Abrasion resistance – It is the ability of the fibre to withstand rubbing or abrasion it
gets in daily use.
10. Cohesiveness – The ability of fibres to cling together. This is important in staple
fibres only.
11. Loft – The term used in relation to compressional resiliency.
12. Wicking or Wetting – This refers to the conduction of moisture along the fibre or
through the fabric. The property is related to surface wetting & is not the same as
absorbency.
13. Plasticity – The property of a fibre which enables the user to shape it semi –
permanently or permanently by moisture, heat and pressure.
14. Resistance to moths, mildew & silverfish – This is due to chemical composition of a
fibre. These properties are important to the consumer because they indicate the type of
care needed during storage.

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 CHAPTER – 2
PROCESSING & MANUFACTURE OF ALL NATURAL AND
MANMADE FIBRES

Cotton
Cotton is the universally used fibre. It is also the king of fibres as there is no cloth or
article for which cotton cannot be used. Its position is gradually changing though. Cotton
plant belongs to the 'Malvacae' family. It is derived from the Arabic Word 'quoton' or 'qutum'
which means plant that is found in conquered lands. India can be called the birthplace of this
fibre. The production and manufacture of cotton slowly spread through Persia and Egypt into
Europe and northern Africa. In the 13th century, cotton was first used in manufacture of
candle wicks. For many years, cotton fibres, which are the shortest of textile fibres, could not
be spun into yarns that were strong enough to serve as warp. It was therefore mixed with
linen & wool upland cotton is the cotton produced in United States. Cotton needs 6 to 7
months of warm climate, light loamy soil, plenty of rainfall & gradual rise in temperature.
Seeds are sown by machine. When plants are few inches high, the roves are thinned by
cutting unwanted plants called chopping.
Cotton grows to a height of about four feet & blooms two to three month after
planting. The blossoms last for a day after they fall, the bolls begin to develop. These bolls or
seed pot have seeds to which fibres are attached. On riping the bolls burst exposing soft fluffy
mass of fibres. This cotton should be soon picked up to avoid fibres from becoming
discolored & dirty. Cotton can be picked up by hand or by mechanical pickers. Hand picking
is considered better Mechanical pickers which work on principles of rotating spindle are of
two types –
a) Stripper – Pulls the entire seed pod from the plant.
b) Picker – Pulls the fibres from the open bolls or seed pods.
1. Ginning and Baling – Seeds are removed and fiber is made into a package or bale before
it is sold. Leaf & dirt are also removed. These bales of cotton fibres are known as lint or
raw cotton of commerce.
2. Classification – Fibre is then classified on the basis of colour, amount of foreign matter
& ginning preparation. These are then shipped to manufactures where yarns and fabrics
are made.
3. Carding – Here it goes into carding machine. The process and separation of short fibres
are done. The yarns are straightened too. In carding process the fibres are fed to a rapidly
moving cylinder covered with pointed wires and carried against another set of similar
wires that are moving slowly. The fibres are spread into a thin uniform web. The web

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 moves into a funnel shaped device, where it is gathered into a soft mass and formed into
card sliver. This card sliver is coiled in tall cans from which it may go directly to drawing
frame. For finer yarns the card slivers are subjected to a combing process which further
parallelizes the long fibres and removes short ones. Combing is optional, but it is used to
remove shorter fibres creating a strong yarn.

CARDING MACHINE COMBING MACHINE

In a wider sense, carding can be referred to the 4 processes

1. Willowing – Loosening the fibres.
2. Lapping – Removing dust to create a flat sheet or lap of cotton, carding-combing the
tangled lap into a thick rope of ½ inches in diameter.
3. Sliver
4. Drawing – In this drawing frame combines 4 slivers into one repeated for increased
quality. Each sliver will have thin and thick, spots and by combining several slivers
together a more consistent size can be reached. Since combining several slivers produces
a very thick rope of cotton fibres, directly after being combined, the slivers are separated
into rovings or slubbings. These are then what are used in the spinning process.
a) Drawing frame draws the strand out
b) Slubbing frame adds twist and winds onto bobbins
c) Intermediate frames are used to repeat the slubbing process to produce a finer yarn.
d) Roving frames reduce to a finer thread, gives more twist, makes more regular and even in
thickness and winds onto a smaller tube.

4. Spinning - The spinning is the last process where drawing the material to its desired size,
adding the required twist & the winding or packaging is done.
5. Checking – Each bobbins is removed to give tighter bobbin.
6. Folding and twisting – Plying is done by pulling yarn from two or more bobbins and
twisting it together in opposite directions that in which it is spun. Depending upon its wt,
the desired cotton may or may not be plied and the number of strands twisted together
varies.

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7. Gassing – Process of passing yarn as distinct from fabric very rapidly through a series of
Bunsen gas flames in a gassing from, in order to burn off the projecting fibres and making
the thread round and smooth and also brighter. Only good quality yarns are gassed.

2. Flax / Linen – 'Fine linen' is associated to ceremony. Linen cloths were used to wrap
mummy in ancient times. Flax is a bast fibre obtained from stalk or stem of the 'Linum
usitatissimum'. The plant grows in cool, damp climate and rich soil. Grows to a height of
3 to 4 feet. The delicate plants are pulled by hand or by machines so as to keep the roots
intact. If the flax is cut, the fibres become permanently discoloured.

Rippling – Process of removing seeds from the stem. This should strip off the leaves & seed
bolls without breaking straw. It is done by passing the head of the plant through a coarse
comb or between two wide pulleys held together by springs. The straw is again tied in
bundles and placed in small stacks to cure fit is to be retted

Retting – The process which removes the fibres from the stem of the flax plant.

In this the connective tissue is destroyed either by

a) bacterial action or by
b) decortications in which the stalk is beaten to loosen the connective tissue.

The principle methods of retting are –

(1) Dew retting – Spreading flax straw in thin layer exposed to sunlight and dew for 4-8
weeks for fermentation to set in. Straw is then raked up and stacked to dry. Inexpensive
process but fibre is uneven quality.
(2) Water retting – Can be done in stagnant or running water (slow running is preferable to
avoid bacteria from settling). The crates of flax straw are submerged a few inches below
the surface of the water and anchored it in place. Requires 2 to 3 weeks.
(3) Stagnant water / Pool retting – Flax is placed in ponds of water and watched over
constantly to allow over retting. Sometimes under ret flax is removed and spread on grass.
(4) Tank retting – Fibre stacked in large tanks and covered with warm water.
(5) Chemical retting – Fibres immersed in tanks and require chemical solution.
Storing, Breaking and scutching – The retted straw can be stored for any desired time.
The dried bark and pith are removed and bundles of fibre are separated which lie under the
bark. Breaking is reducing the stem to small pieces. Scuthing is removing these broken pieces
of stem and the beginning of the cleaning of bundle of fibres.
Combing / Hackling is done to separate short fibres, called tow from long fibres
called line. After this the flax fibres are drawn out into yarn, and twist is imparted.
The spinning of flax fibres is of two types-dry spinning and wet spinning that gives
the best quality yarn.
Tow fibres – coarse, short and tangled.
Line fibres – Long, fine line fibres

3. Jute – It is the weakest and least durable in terms of fibres. The inner dark of the plant
'corchorus capsularis' and 'corchorus olitoruis' is used to get the fibre. Bangladesh,
Pakistan & India constitute for the main production of jute fibres. The seeds are sown by

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 hand. When plants are 5-10 inches high, the weeds are pulled by hand. Fabrics made from
jute are referred to as burlap. Process are similar to that of flax. After retting the fibres are
washed & dried and sent to mills for spinning into yarns. Jute is difficult to bleach and is
available in colours of yellow to brown or grey.
It is a natural bast fiber. It is one of the most affordable natural fibers and is second
only to cotton in amount produced and variety of uses of vegetable fibers. It is harder than
other textile fibers. It is environment friendly. Normally jute are used for sacking, burlap, and
twine as a backing material for tufted carpets.

Selection: In this, experienced workers open raw jute bales to find out any defect and to
remove the defective portion from the mora. Raw jute bales are of two types i.e. 150 kg
weight and 180 kg weight with or without top portion cutting. The bales are assorted
according to end use like Hessiean weft, Sacking wrap, Sacking weft etc. they are then
carried to softening section by workers.

Batch & Batching: A batch is the number of bales of jute selected for the purpose of
manufacturing a particular type of yarn. Batching cover all the process preparatory to
carding. Adding oil and water to make the jute fiber flexible, soft and stiff free is the main
purpose of batching.

Softening: In this process, jute moras are made soft and pliable. Two methods are used for
softening; use of softening machine and use of jute spreader. Generally an emulsion plant
with jute softener machine is used to lubricate and soften the bark and gummy raw jute. The
emulsion plant consists of gear pump, motor, vat, jet sprayer, nozzles, emulsion tank and the
jacket. In this softening process jute becomes soft and pliable and suitable for carding.

Conditioning or Piling and Pile Breaking: it is the rest stage, in which jute is given after
the water and oil have been applied. It lasts longer with low grade batching to allow the hard
barky root material to become softened before passing on the cards. Pile breaker breaks the
pile and serves it to the carding machines. The softener machine output material is carried by
pilemen through bile to the pile place for piling. During piling superficial moisture penetrates
inside fiber and thermophilic action take place because of which hard portion of root
softenes. After piling for nearly 24 hours the pile breakers carry the material to the carding
machine.

Jute Carding: In this long reeds of jute while passing through high speed pinned roller are
broken down into an entangled mass and delivered in the form of ribbon uniform weight per
unit length called jute carding.

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There are two different carding sections:
1. Breaker Carding
This machine softens the jute after piling is fed by hand in suitable weight. The
machine by action with different rollers turns out raw jute in the form of jute sliver for
finisher carding. In this process root cutting is necessary before feeding the material to the
hand feed breaker carding machine.

2. Finisher Carding
This machine makes the sliver more uniform and regular in length and weight
obtained from the breaker carding machine. Finisher carding machine is identical to the
breaker carding machine, having more pair of rollers, staves, pinning arrangement and speed.
Nearly 4 to 12 slivers obtained from breaker carding machine is fed on this machine. The
material thus obtained is send to drawing section.

Jute Drawing: Reducing sliver width and thickness by simultaneously mixing 4 to 6 slivers
together is called drawing. There are three types of Drawing Frame machine. In most mills 3
Drawing passages are used in Hessian and 2 Drawing passages are used in Sacking.

First Drawing: The slivers obtained from finisher carding machine is fed with four slivers on
to the first drawing frame machine. The first drawing frame machines makes blending,
equalizing the sliver and doubling two or more slivers, level and provide quality and color.
This machines includes delivery roller, pressing roller, retaining roller, faller screw sliders,
check spring, back spring, crimpling box etc.

Second Drawing: In second drawing, the Second Drawing Frame machine obtain the sliver
from the First drawing machine and use six slivers and deliveries per head. The Second
Drawing machine makes more uniform sliver and reduce the jute into a suitable size for third
drawing.

Third Drawing: The Third Drawing frame machine uses the sliver from second drawing. It
is of high speed makes the sliver more crimpled and suitable for spinning.

Jute Spinning: Spinning is the process for producing yarn from sliver obtained from Third
drawing. The jute spinning frame machine is fitted with slip draft zone and capable of
producing quality yarns at high efficiency with auto-doffing arrangements also.

Winding : This process provides yarn as spools and cops for the requirement of beaming and
weaving operations. Winding is of two types:
1. Spool Winding: In Spool Winding yarn is produced for warp (the longitudinal yarn).
Spool winding machine consists of a number of spindles. There is wide variation in the
number of spindles per machines from one make to another. Productivity of spool
winding depends on the surface speed of the spindle and machine utilisation. Spool
winding machine uses the bobbins contain smaller length of yarn. This machine wound
the yarn into bigger packages known as 'spool'. The Spool are used in making sheets of
yarn to form warp portion used during interlacement of weaving.
2. Cop Winding: Cop Winding machine obtain yarns from the spinning machines. The
spinning bobbins is placed on a suitable pin on top of the cop machine and yarn tension is
maintained by means of a small leaver. The yarn on the bobbins are converted into hollow

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 cylindrical package said to be cop. The cop is used to form Transverse thread or weft
during interlacement of weaving. Generally a cop winding machines consist 120 spindles.
Beaming : This follows after spool winding. In beaming operation yarn from spool is
wounded over a beam of proper width and correct number of ends to weave jute cloth. To
increase the quality of woven cloth and weaving efficiency, the warp yarns are coated with
starch paste. Adequate moisture is essential in this process. Quality characteristic of a beam is
width of beam - number of ends and weight of stand and there is a continuous passage of yarn
through starch solution from spools to the beam.
Weaving : Weaving is a process of interlacement of two series of threads called "warp" and
"weft" yarns to produce the fabric of desired quality. There are separate looms for hessian
and sacking in weaving section. The Hessian looms, shuttle which contents cops (weft yarn)
is manually changed. The sacking looms are equipped with eco-loader to load a cop
automatically into the shuttle.
Damping : Damping is the process in which the rolled woven cloth is unrolled and water is
sprinkled on it continuously to provide desired moisture. Each roll is generally104 yards or
95.976 meters. Damping is done manually.
Calendering: After damping the damped fabric passes through pairs of heavy rollers
rendering threads in fabric flattened and improve the quality and appearance. Calendering is a
process similar to ironing of fabric
Lapping : In this the Hessian fabrics are folded into the required size used in "Bale press"
operation on the lapping machine.
Cutting : Cutting is the process where the sacking cloth is cut to the required length for
making bags for different size such as A-Twill bags and B-twill bags of 100 kg capacity.
Hemming : The raw edges of sacking cloth cut pieces are shown by folding it with sewing
machine.
Herackele Sewing : In Herackele sewing the sides of sacking cloth cut pieces are shown to
make a complete bag.
Bailing : Bags or Bale processing cloths are pressed compactly according to buyers need.
Export: The end product is ready to be exported

4. Ramie – Ramie is a bast fibre producing plant grown in China, India and Formosa. It is
commoly known as China grass & sometimes known as Rhea. The Fibre is taken from the
ramie plant and hand woven fabric is made from the fibres. It is a member of the nettle
family and is a perennial shrub that can be cut several times a season after preliminary
growth.
After cutting, the ramie stalks are decorticated by hand or machine. The thin bark is
scraped away or beaten off, known as decortication. The scraped, cleaned ribbons of fibres
are hung on rods in a cellar where they are dried by a charcoal fire. The following day the
fibre is dried in the sun. The omission of charcoal drying results in inferior fibre. The ramie
fibre is then degummed before spinning into a yarn.
Degumming reduces large portions of fibres to individual cells which are longer than
cells of any other fibre. Degumming is done in caustic soda. Finally the fibre is washed &
dried. Ramie fabrics resemble fine linen, or they can be heavy & coarse like linen.

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 CHAPTER - 3
FABRIC CONSTRUCTION – DEFINITION AND TYPES OF WOVEN,
NON WOVEN, KNITTED AND OTHER CONSTRUCTION
TECHNIQUES

A fabric is a cloth produced by knitting, weaving, or felting threads fibres. The

characteristics and quality of a fabric are determined by the fibres, construction of yarns and
fabric and the finishes applied to the fabrics.

Mixture fabrics – They are made up of two or more different kinds of yarns, each of which
is composed of only one kind of fibre. The yarns may be composed of filament or staple
length fibres.

Blended fabrics – In this the yarns have two or more different kinds of fibres involved that
are spun together. Staple length fibres are used to make such yarns.

Combination fibre fabrics – An intimate blend of fibres is involved in this. Each yarn is
made from a single species of fibre and the combination is developed by using some yarns of
one fibre and some of another.

Engineered yarn / fibre blends – These are those that combine two or more textile fibres
where different fibre types can be blended in single yarns, yarns of different fibre content can
be woven or knitted into fabric, single yarns of different fibres can be plied together and then
formed into fabrics.

Thread – It is a tightly twisted ply yarn having a circular cross section and used in
commercial and home sewing machines and for hard sewing. Thread is usually wound on
spools with thread size or degree of fineness indicated on the spool end. Thread joins pieces
of fabric together to create textile products. It is a plied construction fine, even and strong.
Thread qualities are high strength, adequate elasticity smooth surface, dimensional stability,
resistance to snarling, resistance to damage by friction and attractive appearance. Various
types of thread are simple ply threads, cord threads, monofilament threads of manmade fibres
and multifilament threads.

YARN : A yarn is a continuous thread or often a plied strand composed of either natural or
man-made fibers or filaments and used in weaving and knitting to form cloth.
Weft and Warp are the two sets of threads that are woven together to produce fabric.
The weft refers to the threads that run horizontally on the loom and get woven in front of and
behind the warp. The warp refers to the threads that are strung vertically on the loom.
Since the warp is stretched taut on the loom, it typically needs to be made from a
stronger, courser material than the weft. Wool, linen, alpaca and silk are all examples of
strong fibers that make good warp threads. The warp provides the structure for the fabric and
is what gives fabric its strength and form. Because the warp is tightly stretched during the
weaving process, fabric does not stretch any further along the warp in its finished form.
Fabric may stretch along the weft.
Weft threads are subjected to less strain in the weaving process and are, therefore,
generally chosen for their appearance rather than their strength. The way in which the weft is
woven in and around the warp determines the look of the finished fabric. Variations in
pattern, texture and color in traditionally woven fabric are all created by the weft. Weft

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threads are sometimes referred to as "filling/ woof" thread because they make up the body of
the fabric.
Twist is generally expressed as the number of turns per unit length of yarn. Eg. Turns
per inch (tpi), turns per metre (tpm). Twist in the yarn helps keep the fibres together and
helps to bind them in their respective position. It gives sufficient strength to yarn. Higher the
twist, more compact, stronger and finer the yarn. Higher the twist more is the resistance to
abrasion, more elasticity, smoother uniform, and low lustre.

Yarn Number
Yarn number is a measure of the fineness or size of a yarn expressed either as mass
per unit length or length per unit. Yarn Count and Yarn Size are synonymous with Yarn
Number.

Yarn Numbering System

There are two systems of expressing yarn number or yarn count.
1. Direct yarn numbering system (mass/unit length)
2. Indirect yarn numbering system (length/unit mass)

Direct yarn numbering system

In a direct yarn counting system, the yarn number or count is the weight of a unit
length of yarn. This means the higher the yarn count number, the heavier or thicker the yarn.
It is fixed length system. This system is generally used for jute or silk yarn.

The following formula is used to calculate direct yarn count system.

Where, w=yarn number or count

W=the weight of the sample (yarn) in units of the system at the official regain
L=length of the sample, and
l=unit of length of the system

Major direct numbering System

Denier: In the direct Denier system, the yarn count number indicates “the weight in grams of
9000 meters of yarn”.
e.g. 30D indicates that 9000 meters of yarn weight 30 grams.

Tex: In the direct universal Tex system, the yarn count number indicates “the weight in
grams of 1000 meters of yarn”.
e.g. 30 Tex indicates that 1000 meters of yarn weight 30 grams.

Dtex: In the direct Decitex system, the yarn count number indicates “the weight in grams of
10000 meters of yarn”. (1 dtex=0.9 denier)

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e.g. 50 Tex indicates that 1000 meters of yarn weight 30 grams.

WEAVING

Weaving is a method of fabric production in which two distinct sets of yarns or

threads are interlaced at right angles to form a fabric or cloth. Basic weaving speration steps
include –
(a) Shedding – In this alternate warp yarns are raised to insert the filling yarn into the warp
to form a shed. Shedding is automatically performed by harness on the modern weaving
looms. A Harness is a rectangular frame to which a series of wires called heddles are
attached. As each warp yarn comes from the warp beam, it passes through an opening in
the heddle. The operation of drawing each warp yarn through its appropriate heddle eye is
known as drawing in
(b) Picking – As the warp yarns are raised through shedding the weft yarn is inserted through
the shed by a carrier device. A single crossing of the filling from one side of the loom to
the other is called a pick. Different methods are used for carrying the filling yarn through
in different kinds of looms. There are many types of looms including shuttle loom, shuttle
less loom and circular loom.
 Shuttle loom – It is the oldest type of weaving loom which uses a shuttle which
container a bobbing of filling yarn that appears through a hole situated in the side. The
shuttle is batted across the loom and during this process, it leaves a trail of the filling
at the rate of about 110 to 225 picks per minute (ppm). Though effective and versatile,
it becomes very noisy sometimes the shuttle leads to abrasion of the warp yarns and at
other times cause thread breaks. The machine then has to be stopped for tying the
broken yarns.
 Shuttle less loom – Many kinds of shuttle less looms are used for weaving such as
Projectile looms, Rapier looms, water jet loom and air jet looms.

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 (i) Projectile loom – It is called missile loom as picking action is done by a
series of small bullet like projectiles which hold the weft yarn and carry it
through the shed and then return empty. It can produce upto 300 ppm and is
less noisier then shuttle loom.
(ii) Rapier loom – It has one or two rapiers (one on each side of the loom). They
may be rigid, flexible or telescopic. They are very efficient and their speed
ranges from 200 to 260 ppm. They manufacture muslin fabrics, drapery and
upholstery fabrics.
(iii) Water jet looms – In this a premeasured length of weft yarn is carried across
the loom by a jet of water. These looms are very fast with speeds upto 600
ppm and very low noise. Also they don‟t place much tension on the filling
yarn. As the pick is tension less, very high quality of warp yarns are needed
for efficient operation. Also only the yarns that are not readily absorbent can
be used to make fabrics on water jet looms such as filament yarn of acetate,
nylon, polyester and glass. It produces very high quality fabrics having great
appearance and feel.
(iv) Air jet looms – In the airjet looms, a jet of air is used to propel the weft yarn
through the shed at speeds of upto 600 ppm. Uniforms weft yarns are needed
to make fabrics on this loom. Heavier yarns are suitable for air jet weaving
looms as higher fabrics are very difficult to control through shed.

 Circular loom – These looms are particularly used for making tubular fabrics rather
than flat fabrics. A shuttle device in it circulates the weft in a shed formed around the
machine. A circular loom is primarily used for bagging material.
(c) Beating up – Also called battening. In it all warp yarns pass through the heddle eyelets
and through opening in another frame that looks like a comb and is known as reed. With
each picking operation, the reed pushes or beats each weft yarn against the portion of the
fabrics that has already been formed. It results in a firm and compact fabric constitution.
(d) Taking up and letting off – As the shedding, picking and battening processes are being
operated, the new fabric is wound on the cloth beam. This is known as 'taking up'. At the
same time, the warp yarns are released from the warp beam which is known as 'letting
off'.
Different types of weaves –
1. Plain Weaves – It is the simplest weave and is also known as 'calico' or 'tabby weave'. It
has reversible, alternate interlacing warp and filling yarns. It is inexpensive and durable.
It has stripes, checks and plaids which are frequently woven in a plain weave eg muslin,
print cloth cheese cloth, gingham, lawn, organdy, chiffon, china silk, heavily linen etc. It
has 2 variations.
Rib weave – In this the filling yarns are larger in diameter than the warp yarns. A rib
weave produces fabrics in which fever yarns per square centimeter are visible on the
surface.
Matt / Basket weave – Here two or more yarns are used in both the warp and filling
directions. These groups of yarns are woven as one producing a basket effect.
2. Twill weave – A twill weave has diagonal line on the face and often on the back of the
fabric. The line angle varies from 14 to 75. They are strong and durable. The warp yarn

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 goes over two filling yarns and under diagonal line right hand twill and left hand twill. Eg
Denim, gabardine, jean, tweeds and drill. This weave is more expensive and soils less
quickly.
3. Satin weave – In this type of weave, these is a glossy surface and dull back. The satin
weave has 4 or more fill or weft. Yarns floating over a warp yarn or vice versa. The floats
are missed interfacings where the warp yarn lies on top of the weft in a warp – faced satin
and where the weft yarn lies on top of the warp yarns in weft faced satins.

Sequence of Weaving
Yarn from spinning department goes to Cone winding. Cone winding is the process of
transferring yarns from ring bobbins, hanks, cones etc into a convenient form of packages
containing considerable long length of yarns.
The main purpose of winding or packaging is to form a single yarn package suitable
for the next operation.

Warping: it is aimed at preparing the weaver‟s beam to be set up on the weaving machine.
Sectional warping is used for short runs especially for fancy patterned fabrics. Direct/ high
speed/ beam warping is used for long runs of grey fabrics.

Sizing: it is the application of the adhesive coating in the warp threads before weaving. The
warp yarns can withstand the complex stresses to which they are subjected in the weaving
machine.

Looming: before the weaver‟s beam is mounted on the loom, each end is threaded through a
healed eye and the reed. It also supports the drop wire.
Drafting is known as the selection of heald frames or harnesses for individual warp threads
according to the design
Drawing in is to pull the warp threads through the heald eye of the heald wire.

Denting: it means drawing the warp thread through the warp thread through the dent as
required by reed plan and this determines more accurately the width of the fabric and the ends
per cm.

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Tying in: it is used when a fabric is mass produced. The tail end of the warp from the
exhausted weaver‟s beam is tied to its corresponding end on the old beam, the drawing –in
process can be omitted
Following the tying in process, all knots are pulled through the drop wires, heddles and the
reed. The loom is now ready for operation.

[19]
 CHAPTER- 4

FINISHES
A finish or a fabric finish is applied to a fabric once it has been made, to improve its
appearance, feel or other properties. The processes of finishing are carried out to improve the
natural properties or attractiveness of the fabric and to increase its serviceability. The
resulting fabric is softer, crisper of firmer, if finish is applied to increase its feel. It is
embossing, brushing or soothing by which the texture is changed. The wearing qualities are
changed by making it crease resistance, stain resistant, etc. The care requirements are
modified by making it easy to wash, quicker drying times and colourfast.
Finishing provides aesthetic value, improves performance, provides safety and adds to
durability and comfort.

Classification of finishes
A. Aesthetic finishes
B. Functional finishes

Classification according to quality

A. Temporary
B. Semi permanent
C. Permanent

Classification according to type of machinery

A. Chemical finishes
B. Mechanical finishes
Aesthetic finishes – The appearance of fabric is deceiving at times. The appearance depends
upon the type of fibres, construction of yarns and fabrics and dyeing and printing aesthetic
finishes change the appearance of the fabrics. They include luster, drapability and surface
appearance of the fabric.
Functional finishes – They represent the next generation of finishing industry, which make
textile materials by themselves. This means that they may keep us warm in cold
environments or cool in hot environments or provide us with considerable convenience
support, and even fun in our normal day-to-day activities. Antimicrobial finishing is one of
the special types of finishing given to textiles where chances of bacterial growth are high.
Signeing – It consists of burning off the fuzz or fibre ends of fabrics in order to obtain a
smooth surface by passing the cloth over a hot plate or through a gas flame at a high speed.
Desizing means removal of any stiffening agent (starch).
Scouring and bleaching – Done to remove foreign materials like wax, dirt, processing, oils
and sizing compounds. The scouring agents are soaps or synthetic detergents with alkaline
builders. Bleaching follows scouring operation by using bleaching agents such as caustic
hydrogen peroxide or chlorine compounds to make the fabrics, yarns or fibres or to prepare
them for dying or printing.
Tentering – It is the mechanical straightening and drying of fabrics to be brought to the
required dimensions of width and length.

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Calendering – It is a mechanical finishing to give soft smooth surface to the fabric. Silky
appearance, decrease air permeability, to give lustre or glaze, and to flatten the slubs, the
calendaring is done. The calendaring machine has 2 to 7 rollers with more common being the
3 bowl calendar. Textile calendar are made with alternate, hard steel and elastic bowls. The
finish is similar to ironing but is done with greater pressure. Types of calendered effects are –
1. Surface glazing – They are created by saturating the fabric in starch, wax or resin
solution and allowing it to dry before calendaring it.
2. Cire effect – These fabrics with their glossy wet look are produced in a manner similar to
glazing. Cire fabrics are coated with a wax or resin before being calendered with heated
rollers when thermoplastic fibres are used, the fibre surface comes in contact with the
metal roll, it melts and flattens slightly and produces highly polished fabric.
3. Moire effect – These fabrics have a distinctive water marked look created in the
calendaring process. Moiré is developed using either a moiré embossing roller or a high
compression calendaring of two layers of ribbed – base fabric in a single pass.
4. Schreinering effect – Schreiner finishes on fabrics produce soft lustre on hand by
flattening the yarns and surface of a fabric through calendaring. Used on cotton and
sateen and table damask to make them more lustrous.
5. Embossing effect – Embossed fabrics have a pattern imprinted or embossed into the
fabric. The embossed pattern is created by passing the fabric between a heated embossing
roller and a shaped paper roll.
6. Beetled fabrics – They have a smooth, lusterous linen look. In this process the yarns of
the fabrics are flattened as the fabric revolves around a drum while the surface is pounded
with hammers.
7. Burn-out finishes – They are created by applying chemicals that dissolve, burn out or
shrink parts of a fabric creating distinctive patterns. Acid designs are created by printing a
chemical solution, causes the fabric to burn out and become transparent rest portions
remain opaque.
8. Plisse – This means to create to fold or to pleat. It refers to an intentionally wrinkled,
pleated or puckered fabric. The word can either be used to denote the finish. 2 processes
of creating this fabric are through the use of caustic soda, such as sodium hydroxide
solution, or through tension weaving. Both processes lighten the fabric in the areas where
the puckering or creasing is desired. Gives a seersucker fabric effect but seersucker fabric
is achieved by different work tensions during weaving and is not finish.
9. Stiffening finishes – Done to add stiffness and finishes to fabrics and keep sheer fabrics
crisp and attractive, prevent sagging and slipping of yarns and wilting of fabrics.
10. Softening finish – It improves the hand and drape of the fabric.

Optical finishes
1. Delusterants – Manmade fibres have a high degree of lustre, for their relative
transparency and their shape reflect light. To reduce lustre, pigments are incorporated into
fabric solution before spinning.
2. Optical brightness – The optical bleaches are added to fabrics to prevent their loss of
brightness, whiteness and clearness during processing and maintenance, and to maintain
white and bright fabrics.

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Abrasion resistant finishes – Nylons have inherent resistance to abrasion. Natural fibres and
some man-made fibres of high abrasion resistance with those of low resistance or they can
apply soft thermoplastic resins, which appear to increase the fabrics resistance to abrasion
damage eg carpet backings, trouser, pockets.
Absorbent finishes – These increase the moisture holding power of fabrics and thereby
accelerating the drying action of the textile product.
Antislip finishes / Slip resistant / Non clip finishes – These are applied to a fabric to reduce
or eliminate yarn slippage.
Antistatic finishes – These are to reduce the crackling sound and visible spark produced by
rubbing the fabric. This finish improves the surface conductivity / neutralize the electrostatic
charges eg Fybrite (polyester) ultron (nylon).
Bacteriostats – The antiseptic finishes are finishes which control the spread of disease and
reduce the danger of infection following injury, inhibit the development of unpleasant odours
from perspiration and other soil on fibrous structures.
Renewable bacterioplatic finishes are external finishes that produce a climate
unfavourable to the microorganisms. Internal finishes are insolubilized eg socks, shoe linings,
sportswear, baby clothing, sheets, pillow etc.
Durable press and minimum care finishes – The ability of a fabric to recover from folding
deformation while the fabric is dry is called wrinkle recovery.
Crush resistant fabrics – Describes the recovery from crushing of a pile fabric.
Durable press – The ability of a fabric to retain an attractive appearance during wear and to
return to its original smooth surface and shape after laundering.
Flame inhibitors – They reduce the flame spread, and rate of fire developments. They reduce
flaming, charring or afterglow of fibres. Flame retardants are insoluble salts, water soluble
compounds, oils, waxes or resins. THTC – Telakis hydroxyl methyl phosphonium chloride
are used generally. These are expensive in nature. Fume fading resistant finishes – They are
to prevent colour loss or change by atmospheric fumes eg nylon.
Metallic and plastic coatings – By applying aluminium coating to increase warmth or
coolness, eg lining coats or jackets. Plastic coating decreases heat loss by reducing air
circulation eg arapery linings.
Moth proof finishes – Fibres like cotton are attacked by moth and silverfish. Flourine
compounds, naphthalene, DDT, par dichlorobenzene etc are used for imparting moth proof
finishes Cellulosic fibres are also treated with boric acid to prevent the rapid growth of the
mildew fungus etc.
Micro encapsulation – It is a process in which tiny droplets are surrounded by a coating to
give small capsules of many useful properties. The material inside is called core internal
phase or fill whereas the wall is called shell, coating or membrance enxapsulation of flavours
/ perfumes are most common.
Antinucrobial finish – This prevents garments from unpleasant flavour. This finish inhibits
the growth of microorganisms such as bacteria, virus, fungi, algal, mold and mildew.
Nanotechnology – This finish gives high performance skywax breathable water proof sky
jacket, wrinkle resistant, stain repellent garments, CED digital camera etc.

Routine finishes

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Heat setting – It is for thermoplastic fibres to ensure a stable fabric or as a means of
producing a special shape.
Brushing – In is a mechanical finish which involves the removal of short, loose fibres from
the surface of the fabric eg corduroy.
Weighting – It is a technique used to add weight and body to a fabric. A metallic salt like
stannous chloride is used.
Shearing – It is a process that evens out the length of the pile of the fabric in a controlled
manner. During shearing the fabric is passed through a series of tension bars and over an
angled shearing bed. The prominent fibres are cut by blades, wound helically around a
rotating cylinder against a stationary blade. Strong suction removes cut fibres.
Sizing – The application of various materials to a fabric to produce stiffness or firmness.
Gelatin used in rayons is an example.
Other Finishes are -
Raised surfaces – Gigging and napping are used to provide raised surfaces. Staple or short
fibres in spun yarns are essential in fabrics that are to be napped. The nap hides the yarns and
weave and produces a soft hairy appearance.
Gigging – It is napping process used for wool, rayon and other fibres where a short lustrous
nap is desired eg blankets.
Napping – It is a layer of fibre ends raised from the ground weave of the fabric. Velvets,
flannel, corduroy and satin are all examples of napped fabrics. The rich hand and surface
texture of napped fabrics make them ideal for luxury garments. The wire brushes such as
raising cards are used to raise the nap.
Tufting – Tufted finishes or decorative finishes are created by sewing additional yarns to the
surface of a fabric, creating a multi-dimensional appearance.
Flocking – Texture can also be developed by adding fibres (natural or synthetic) in the
finishing processes on the base fabric. Flockes finishes add texture by adhering short fibres to
surface of a fabric. Flocking can be used to create the appearance of a pile design or allover
piles.
Pleating – A pleated fabric is made by using a variation of embossing. Pleating is highly
specialized option done by either paper pattern technique or by the machine process.
Puckered surface are created by partially dissolving the surface of nylon or polyester with
phenol.
Fabric Shrinkage – Shrinkage is the process in which a dimension of fabric reduces and
fabric becomes smaller than its original size (widthwise or lengthwise). The types of
shrinkages are
1. Relaxation shrinkage – When the yarns are woven into a fabric, they are subjected to
considerable tensions, particularly in the warp direction, although the filling (weft) yarns
are also stretched. In the subsequent tentering and calendaring operations, this 'stretch'
may be further increased and temporarily 'set' in the fabric. The fabric is then in a state of
dimensional instability, and when it is wetted thoroughly, it tends to recover dimensional
stability which results in contraction of yarns, giving rise to 'relaxation shrinkage'.
2. Residual shrinkage – It is the relaxation shrinkage remaining in the fabric when it is
purchased.

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3. Swelling – Shrinkage that results from the swelling and de-swelling of fibres because of
the absorption and desorption of water is called swelling shrinkage. In a loosely woven
fabric, the effect of this swelling of the yarns is greater than in a tightly woven fabric,
since there is greater freedom of movement.
4. Felting – Shrinkage that results primarily from the frictional properties of the component
fibres which cause them to migrate within the fabric / yarn structure is called felting
shrinkage. This is normally considered to be significant only for fibres having scales on
their surface, such as wool.
5. Contraction – This is the decrease in length that takes place in synthetic yarns / fabrics
when they are exposed to temperatures higher than 21 oC. The tendency of synthetic
fabrics toward contraction shrinkage can almost be eliminated by heat setting.
Residual or relaxation shrinkage in cotton and linen fabrics is eliminated by
mechanical methods. Thermoplastic fibres are stabilized by heat setting Rayon fabrics are
highly subjected to shrinkage.

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 CHAPTER-5
DYING AND PRINTING

Dyeing – Dyeing is a finishing process of adding colour to a fabric to enhance the

Dyeing – Dyeing is a finishing process of adding colour to a fabric to enhance the beauty of
that fabric, fibre or yarn. Dyeing is done in a special solution containing dyes and by the use
of a particular chemical material. Dyes are molecules which absorb and reflect light at a
specific wavelength to give human eyes the sense of colour. There are two major types of
dyes natural and synthetic.
Natural dyes – Direct printing is the most common approach to apply a colour pattern onto a
fabric, if done on a coloured fabric, it is known as over printing. The desired pattern is
produced by pressing dye onto the fabric in a paste form. To prepare the print paste a
thickening agent is added to a limited amount of water and dye is dissolved in it. Earlier
starch was preferred as a thickening agent for printing. Now guns or alginates derived from
seaweed are preferred as they allow better penetration of colour and are easier to wash out.
Most pigments printing is done without thickeners because the mixing up of resins, solvents
and water produces thickening anyway.
Synthetic dyes – Synthetic dyes are classified based upon their chemical composition and the
method of their application in the dyeing process.
Basic (Cationic dyes) – They are water soluble and used to dye mainly acrylic fibres. They
are mostly used with a mordant. A mordant is a chemical agent which is used to set dyes on
fabrics by forming insoluble compound with the dyes. With a mordant basic dyes are used for
cotton, linen acetate, nylon, polyesters, acrylics and modacrylics other than acrylics, basic
dyes are not very suitable for any other fibres as they are not fast to light, washing or
perspiration. Thus they are generally used for giving an after treatment to the fabrics that
have already been dyed with acid dyes.
Direct dyes (substantive dyes) – They are water soluble and colour cellulose fibres directly
without the use of mordants. They are used for dyeing wool, silk, nylon, cotton, rayon etc.
They are not very bright and have poor fastness to washing although they are fairly fast to
light.
Mordant dyes – The mordant or chrome dyes are acidic in nature. Sodium or potassium
dichromate is used with them in the dyebath or after the process of dyeing is completed. This
is done for getting the binding action of the chrome. They are mostly used for wool which
gets a good colour fastness after treatment with mordant dyes. They are also used for cotton,
linen, silk, rayon and nylon but are less effective for them.
Vat dyes – They are insoluble in water and cannot dye fibres directly. However they can be
made soluble by reduction in alkaline solution which allows them to affix to the textile fibres.
Subsequent oxidation or exposure to air restores the dye to its insoluble state. Indigo is an
original vat dye. They exhibit excellent colourfastness for cotton, linen and rayon. They are
used with mordants to dye other fabrics such as wool, nylon, polyesters, acrylics and
modacrylics.
Reactive dyes – These react with fibre molecules to form a chemical compound. They are
applied either from alkaline solution or from neutral solutions which are then alkalized in a

[25]
separate process. Heat treatment may sometimes be used in different shades. After dyeing,
the fabric is washed well with soap so as to remove any unfixed dye. Reactive dyes were
originally used for cellulose fibres only but now their various types are used for wool, silk
nylon, acrylics and their blends as well.
Disperse dyes – They are water soluble and finely ground. They are available as paste or
powder that gets dispersed in water. They dissolve in fibres and impart colour to them. They
are used to dye nylon, cellulose, triacetate and acrylic fibres too.
Sulphus dyes – Insoluble in nature but made soluble by the help of caustic soda and sodium
sulphide. Dyeing is done at a high temperature with large quantity of salt so that colour
penetrable into the fibre. After dyeing, the fabric is oxidized for getting desired shades by
exposure to air or by using chemicals. Excess dyes and chemicals are removed by thorough
washing. They are fast to light, washing and perspiration and are mostly used for cotton and
linen.
Pigment dyes – Although pigments are not dyes in a true sense, they are extensively used for
coloring fabrics like cotton, wool, and other manmade fibres due to their excellent light
fastness. They do not have affinity to fibres and are affixed to the fabric with the help of
resins. After the process of dyeing the fabrics are subjected to high temperatures.
Dyeing methods – Color is applied to the fabric by different methods and at different stages
of the textile manufacturing process –
Stock dyeing – Fibre is dyed before spinning.
Top dyeing – The fibre is dyed in the stage first before the appearance of the finished yarn.
Top is referred to the combed wool.
Piece dyeing – In piece dyeing, according to the demands for a given colour, small batches of
constructed natural coloured fabric are dyed. Solution pigmenting or dope dyeing – Dye is
added to the solution before it is extruded through the spinnerets for making synthetic
filaments.
Garment dyeing – In this a garment dyeing dye is applied to finished products such as
apparels and garments.
Yarn dyeing – Staple fibres are packed in a vessel and then dye liquid is forced through
them. Although the dye solution is pumped in large quantities, the dye may not penetrate
completely into the fibres and some areas may be left without dyeing. However, the
following blending and spinning processes mix up the fibres in such a thorough way that it
results in an overall even colour. When dyeing is done after fiber has been spun into yarn, it
is called yarn dyeing. In this method the dyestuff penetrates the fibres to the core of the yarn.
Forms of yarn dyeing are skin (hank) dyeing, package dyeing, warp beam dyeing, space
dyeing.
(a) Skin dyeing (hank) – The yarns are loosely arranged in skins or coils. These are then
hung over a rung and immersed in a dyebath in a large container. In this method the
colour penetration is the best and the yarns retain a softer loftier feel. It is mostly used for
bulky acrylic and wool yarns.
(b) Package dyeing – The yarns are wound on spools, cones or similar units and these
packages of yarns are stacked on perforated rods in a rack and then immersed in a tank.
There, in the tank the dye is forced outwards from the rods under pressure through the
spools and then back to the packages towards the centre to penetrate the entire yarn as
thoroughly as possible. Mostly carded and combed cotton is dyed through this method.

[26]
(c) Warp beam dyeing – It is similar to package dyeing more economical. Here the yarn is
wound on to a perforated warp beam and then immersed in a tank for dyeing it by
applying pressure.
(d) Space dyeing – The yarn is dyed at intervals along its length. For these, two procedures –
knit – deknit method and OPI Space-Dye Applicator are adopted. In the first method, the
yarn is knitted on either a circular or flat bed knitting machine and the knitted cloth is
then dyed and subsequently it is deknitted. Since the dye does not readily penetrate the
areas of the yarn where it crosses itself, alternated dyed and undyed spaces appear. For
dyeing long yards of fabric. The fabric is passed in rope form through the dyebath. This
rope of the fabric moves over a rail onto a reel which immerses it into the dye and then
draws the fabric up a forward and brings it to the front of the machine. This process is
repeated many times until the desired colour intensity is reached.
Jig dyeing – Similar to beck dyeing with the variation that fabric in the jig dyeing is held on
rollers at full width rather than in rope form as it is passed through the dyebath.
Pad dyeing – Padding is also done while holding the fabric at full width. The fabric is passed
through a trough having dye in it. Then it is passed between two heavy rollers which force the
dye into the cloth and squeeze out the excess dye. It is then passed into a heat chamber for
letting the dye to set. After that it is passed through washer, rinser and dryer.
Jet dyeing – Fabric is placed in a heated tube where jets of dye solution are forced through it
at high pressures. The fabrics too move along the tube. The solution moves faster than the
cloth while colouring it thoroungly.
Solution pigmenting or dope dyeing – This is a method applied for dyeing the synthetic
fibers. Dye is added to the solution before it is extruded through the spinnerets for making
synthetic filaments. This gives a colourfast fibre as the pigments are used which are the
fastest known colours.
Garment dyeing – When the finished textile product like sweaters or hosiery are dyed, it is
called garment dyeing. A number of garments are packed loosely in a nylon net and put into a
dyestuff filled tub with a motor driven paddle. The dye is thrown upon the garments by the
moving paddles effect.
Union dyeing – Dyeing of two or more fiber types in a single uniform colour is called union
dyeing.
Polychromatic dyeing – Results are like printing. Talk dyeing method used on carpeting is a
variation of the polychromatic process.
Acid dyes – They are used on protein, acrylic, nylon and modified polyester fibers. The
dyeing process involves a chemical reaction with the fibre molecules.
Batik is a form of resist dyeing which produces patterns like those in prints. It mainly
consists of three stages-waxing, dyeing and de-waxing. A full sized design is drawn or traced
on the material. Hot melted wax is applied on the lines of the design with a paint brush. After
coating the lines with wax, the fabric is immersed in cold water to harden the wax and to wet
the fabric. Then cold water dyes are used at low temperature in which the wet fabric is
dipped. The dyed fabric is then ruised and dried and the wax is removed by immersion in
boiling water for few minutes.
The and dye (Bandhani) is a form of resist dyeing. The parts of the fabric on the yarn
which are to resist the dye are tied with strings of narrow strips of cloth. The skeins of the
yarn or the material is then dipped in the dye bath. These are then rinsed, dried and strings
removed Produces beautiful patterns.

[27]
Textile Printing
Traditional textile printing techniques may be broadly categorised into four styles:
1. Direct printing, in which colorants containing dyes, thickeners, and the mordants or
substances necessary for fixing the colour on the cloth are printed in the desired
pattern.
2. Mordant printing The printing of a mordant in the desired pattern prior to dyeing
cloth; the color adheres only where the mordant was printed.
3. Resist dyeing, in which a wax or other substance is printed onto fabric which is
subsequently dyed. The waxed areas do not accept the dye, leaving uncoloured
patterns against a coloured ground.
4. Discharge printing, in which a bleaching agent is printed onto previously dyed fabrics
to remove some or all of the colour.
Resist and discharge techniques were particularly fashionable in the 19th century, as
were combination techniques in which indigo resist was used to create blue backgrounds
prior to block-printing of other colours. Modern industrial printing mainly uses direct printing
techniques.
Tie and dye – Tiny puffs of fabrics are pulled over a pointed object, tied tightly with waxed
thread below the puff and dipped into colour. It can also be made by folding the fabric so that
certain areas are protected from the dye or by knotting or plaiting the fabric itself to prevent
dye penetration.
Stencil printing – In this, the design areas are cut from sheets of paper coated with oil, or
varnish or from their sheets of metal.
Screen printing – In this the screen is made by covering a frame with a fine mesh of fabric
like silk, nylon, metal, or polyester filament. The fabric is covered with a film, leaving the
fine mesh fabric open for the dyestuff to pass through the print fabric. A squeeze of dye is
forced to move across the fabric for colour to enter the open areas of the fabric.
Block printing – A separate block is required for each colour. The design area is raised on
the block whereas the background area is curved away. The fabric is laid flat on a smooth
padded surface and anchored securely. The block is pressed then onto the fabric so that the
dye is transferred to the fabric.
Roller printing – A copper roll is used onto which the design is etched. As the roll rotates in
the dye solution, the design area picks up the colour. A special blade removes dye from all
the smooth areas of the roll. When the roll makes contact with the fabric, the dye form the
etched areas is then transferred to the fabric. Each colour is applied by its own roll.
Photographic printing – The fabric in this is treated with a light reactive dye. A negative is
placed on the fabric, light is transmitted through it and the design is developed. After
stabilization, the fabric is thoroughly washed and the print becomes permanent.
Transfer printing – The process utilizes a basic chemical principle whereby certain
substance can be made to pass from a solid state directly to a vapour when heated and return
directly to a solid when cooled.
Warp printing – A design is printed only on the warp threads before the fabric is woven. A
solid colour filling thread is used with the result that the design appears in the finished fabric
in a rather shadowy or hazy form.

Printing Process

[28]
 The printing process does involve several stages in order to prepare the fabric and
printing paste, and to fix the impression permanently on the fabric:
 pre-treatment of fabric,
 preparation of colors,
 preparation of printing paste,
 impression of paste on fabric using printing methods,
 drying of fabric,
 fixing the printing with steam or hot air (for pigments),
 after process treatments.

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 CHAPTER – 6
TRADITIONAL TEXTILES OF INDIA

Different weaves of India

Andhra Pradesh - It is renowned for its handloom. It produces the most exclusive
sarees and dress-materials, having delicate and distinctive designs. Each saree boasts of an
intricate pallu and a delicate border adorned with gold thread work. The looms of
Pochampalli, Venkatagiri, Gadwal, Narayanpet, Dharmavaram, Uppadas are well-kown for
their silk and cotton sarees all over India. Mangalgiri cottons and Kalamkari prints are the
other varieties of the state. Usually, both the loom and the fabric are known by the name of
the place.

Bihar- Bihar is known for Tussar silk which is a non mulberry silk variety and
handwoven cotton Mulmuls. The weaver community developed high level of silk in tussar
silk spinning to give unique low-twist tussar silk yarns which helped create the characteristics
tussar textured silk fabrics that are unique. The Mulmuls of Madhubani, like the paintings,
are still a craze amongst lovers of fine cotton fabrics.

Chattisgarh - The „Kosa‟ of Chhattisgarh is a type of tussar. It comes in varied

weave patterns that are block printed, painted or embroidered, The sturdy kosa yarn called
giccha is coarse and is more durable. The silk is is valued for its purity and texture. Kosa Silk
is drawn from cocoons especially grown on Arjun, Saja or Sal trees.

Gujarat - Gujarat is famous for its Patola print. This is a tie and dye technique which
requires intricate weaving thereby making it expensive and exclusive. They are known for

[30]
their flaming vibrant colors and geomatric designs interspersed with folk motifs. Gujarat
handlooms are also well known for the block prints using vegetable dyes and the famous
Kutch embroidery.

Jammu and Kashmir - Jammu and Kashmir is popular for its printed pure silk, crepe
and chiffon sarees, kashida embroidered dresses, the pashmina shawls with delicate hand
embroidery. The tweeds and embroideries are so unique that it is a pride to be in possession
of them.

Karnataka - Karnataka is the home of mulberry silk. The Mysore silk sarees with
pure zari borders are the dream possessions of every woman in India. The printed silk, silk
sarees with kasuti embroidery, the belgaum sarees are the other famous varieties available in
the state.

Madhya Pradesh - It is the home of delicate Chanderi Silk and Maheshwari sarees.
Soft, subtle shades in delicate weaves come off the looms in Chanderi. Here, silk is used as
the wrap and cotton for the weft to produce the famous Chanderi sarees. The Maheshwari
craftsmen have perfected the art of weaving a wide variety of checks and designs.

Maharashtra - It is known for its rich and exquisite Paithani brocades that are the
prized heirlooms and possessions for many even today. They come in Kum-kum colors with
contrasting borders with gold coin or dot motifs. The Vidarbha Karvati saree in kosa silk is
famous for its texture and pattern with temple design borders which are unique and elegant.

Orissa - Orissa is famous for its sambalpuri and Bomkai handlooms. Sambalpuri ikat
is a double tie and dye art where intricate designs based on mythology are created by the tie
and dye technique in both silk and mercerized cotton. The bomkari is the other special variety
where border designs are based on mythology with animal and floral patterns. Due to the
richness in fabric used, these handlooms are priced higher and look more elegant with time.

Rajasthan - It is very famous for the bandhani or bandhej which is also a tie and dye
technique. The leheriya is a special variety of tie and die where diagonal stripes are created in
cotton, silk, crepe, chiffon and kota doria fabrics. It is also famous for its sanganeri block,
Dabu and bagru prints. Gota, zardosi and zari are used for bridal and formal ensembles. The
patch work especially in home furnishing is gaining popularity.

Tamil Nadu - The Chettinads and Coimbatore cottons are famous of Tamil Nadu.
They come in stripes and checks with traditional borders which appear rich and aristocratic.

Uttar Pradesh - The Lucknow chickan embroidery is very famous of Uttar Pradesh.
Delicately designed and embroidered on cottons, crepes and chiffon, they are usually
available in pastel colors and reflect elegance.

West Bengal - The Baluchari and Kantha work sarees in cotton and silk of West
Bengal are of great attraction. The Balucharis reflect the rustic culture of our villages while
the Kantha embroidery exhibits the creativity of our artisans. It is an exotic form of
embroidery in which the eye, emotion and skills are combined into one. The Dacaai‟s
Tangails and Batiks are the popular cottons of the state.

[31]
 Stitch
Stitch is very important during manufacturing a garment. Stitch can be defined as,
one unit of conformation resulting from one or more strands or loops of thread by intra-
looping, inter-looping and interlacing. Stitch quality is measured with stitch size, stitch
length, width, depth, tension, sequence, elongation, elasticity, resilience, fabric distortion,
yarn severance and abrasive strength. There are six types of stitch, which are deeply
discussed in this article.

Types of Stitch Used in Garments:

There are different types of stitch used in garments; those are mentioned in the following:
1. Class-100 (Chain Stitch),
2. Class-200 (Hand Stitch),
3. Class-300 (Lock Stitch),
4. Class-400 (Multi Thread Stitch),
5. Class-500 (Over Edge Stitch),
6. Class-600 (Covering Chain Stitch).

All the above types of stitch have discussed in the below:

1. Class-100 (Chain Stitch):
Class-100 named as chain stitch, which is produced by one or more needle threads
and are characterized by interloping. In chain stitch, one needle thread is passed through the
fabric, form needle loop and is secured by the next loop formed by the same thread. It should
be noted that, chain stitch is elastic and thicker than lock stitch and can easily be raveled,
where particular care is required to prevent run back from the last stitch.

Class-100 (Chain Stitch)

Class-100 (Chain Stitch) has three types- 101, 103 and 104. These types of stitch is used in
hemming, belt loops, padding operations and felling.

2. Class-200 (Hand Stitch):

Class-200 named as hand stitch which is produced from a single thread. This single
thread is passed through the fabric from one side to another and the stitch is secured by the
single line of thread passing in and out of the garment.

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Class-200 (Hand Stitch)
Class-200 (Hand Stitch) has four types- running basting, back stitch, diagonal basting and
buttonhole stitch. These types of stitch is used for stitching costly dresses, jackets and sample
dresses.

3. Class-300 (Lock Stitch):

Class-300 named as lock stitch which is produced with two or more groups of threads
and two threads are joined by interlacing. Here, loops of one group are passed through the
fabric and are secured by the thread of second group, where one group is referred as needle
thread and other as bobbin thread. Class-300 (Lock Stitch) has enough strength and same
appearance on both sides.

Class-300 (Lock Stitch)

Class-300 (Lock Stitch) has four types- 301. 304, 308 and 309. These types of stitch is used
for stitching underwear, most types and apparels and decorative purposes.

4. Class-400 (Multi Thread Stitch):

Class-400 named as multi thread stitch which is formed with two or more groups of
threads. Here, loops of one group of thread are passed through the fabric and are secured by
interlacing and interloping with loops of another group. Among two groups, one group is
called needle thread and another group is called looper thread.

[33]
Class-400 (Multi Thread Stitch)
Class-400 (Multi Thread Stitch) has an appearance of lock stitch on the top but has a double
chain effect formed by a looper thread on the under-side.
Class-400 (Multi Thread Stitch) has three types- 401, 404 and 406. These types of stitch is
used for setting elastic in waist bands and decorative stitching on belts.

5. Class-500 (Over Edge Stitch):

Class-500 named as over edge stitch which is formed with one or more groups of
threads. In Class-500 (Over Edge Stitch), one group of thread passes around the edge of
fabric so that no thread from the fabric can come out. The most used stitch of this type have
one or two needle threads and one or two looper threads and thus forms a narrow band of
stitching along the edge of the fabric.

[34]
 CHAPTER - 7
TEXTILE, TESTING AND QUALITY CONTROL

Testing Of A Fabric:-
During the manufacturing and finishing process cloth is subjected to various strains.
Some of these are recoverable it the fabric is allowed to relax in an open state and is free
from restraint. Recovery is often greater when fabric is immersed in water.
Measurement of cloth dimensions should be made in a standard testing atmosphere.
The fabric quality characteristics determined may be classified into the following three
categories:
A. Constructional characteristic
B. Performance characteristics
C. Analytical characteristics

A. CONSTRUCTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS:-
The various textile items are manufacture as per the specificational requirements of
the customer or ultimate user. Thus, it becomes imperative to ensure the satisfaction of the
customers. The various constructional characteristics of fabrics are:

1. Fabric dimensions:-
Fabric dimension is a measure of length and width of the fabric.
The checking of fabrics length as the cloth moves over an inspection table, plaiting
machine, or some other cloth handling machine has been simplified by the development of
accurate measuring devices which are mounted on the machine itself.
The width of the fabric, when it is removed from the loom, may not be the same when
it finally reaches the customer. Some processes cause contraction in width (wet treatments)
and some may stretch the cloth (sauntering). Textile materials possess powers of recovery
from imposes strains and when allowed to relax free from tension, contraction may occur.
It is recommended that the fabric should be exposed to a standard atmosphere for
atlases 24 hours before final measurements are taken. Measurements made before and after
conditioning will then show whether the change in width, if any is within the order of
accuracy required. The measurement of the sample is done with the help of a metallic scale
and the dimension is recorded in metres or yards.

2. Weight per unit area:-

The weight of the fabric is expressed in terms of mass per unit area. Weight per
square metre of fabric plays an important role in defining the type of fabric. In the laboratory
this test is carried out by cutting test specimens of known dimensions, conditioning at
standard atmosphere and weighing. When a fabric is woven with different types of threads
along the warp, from one selvedge to another selvedge, its weight is calculated in terms of
weight per linear metre.

3. Thickness:-
Essentially the determination of thickness of a thickness of a compressible such as a
textile fabric consists of the process measurement of the distance between two plane parallel
plates when they are separated by the cloth. A known arbitrary pressure between the plates
being applied and maintained. It is convenient to regard one of the plates as the presser fort
and the other as the anvil.

[35]
 A clock-type gauge is usually built into a thickness tester. It should be rigidly
mounted in a suitable frame and setting to zero, be capable of measuring to an accuracy of 1
percent for cloth of 5/1,000 in. or more, and to 0.00005 in. for thinner fabrics.

4. Count of yarn removed from fabric:-

Count of yarn removed from the fabric is determined through removing a specific
number of threads of suitable length and weighing them after they are being conditioned to
moisture equilibrium in the standard atmospheric condition. Count or yarn number is
computed in terms of cotton count, worsted count, denier or tex as per the requirement. Count
of yarn is determined for warp and weft separately.

5. Thread density:-
It is a measure of the number of warp of filling yarns per inch for woven fabrics or
number of wales and courses per inch for knitted fabrics. In laboratory, number of ends and
picks per inch is measured by using counting glass, densitometer and Shirley grating. It is
also determined by dissection method, where a fabric strip of one inch or two inch width is
unraveled and threads are counted.

6. Crimp (%):-
Crimp percentage is defined as the mean difference between straightened thread
length and the distance between the ends of the thread, while in cloth expressed as a
percentage. For the determination of crimp the distance between disappear and its length is
measured. The difference between the straightened length and original length is measured
and expressed as a percentage. Crimp tester is used for the determination of crimp percentage
of fabrics.

B. PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS:-

1- Strength of Fabric:-
The strength of textiles are evaluated after conditioning the test specimens to moisture
equilibrium in the standard testing atmosphere, in terms of six paramenters. These are:

(i) Tensile strength:-

Tensile strength is the maximum force acting upon a specimen at the time of
breaking. It is the ability of fabric to resist breaking under tension. This can be determined
with the help of an instrument known as tensile tester.

(ii) Tearing strength:-

It is the ability of the material to resist rupture by tearing and is the force required to
start or continue to tear in a fabric. A fabric which tears easily is known as inferior product.
Tearing strength is carried out using Elmendorf or Ballistic testers and is represented in gms.
Kg. or pounds.

(iii) Bursting strength:-

It refers to the amount of pressure, required to rupture a fabric. Unlike the strength
test the force applied during the bursting strength test is at right angle to the surface of the
fabric. This test is mainly to test knitted fabric, felts, nets and non woven materials. The
instruments used are Goodbrand Bursting Strength Tester (with diaphram) and Bursting
Tester with ball attachment.

[36]
(iv) Seam Breaking strength:-
Seam strength relates to the force required to break the sewing thread at line of
stitching or the rupture of the fabric threads during the strength test. It is done through Fabric
Tensile Tester.

(v) Single Thread strength:-

A yarn undergoes various stress during processing such as weaving, scouring,
bleaching, dyeing and finishing which affects its strength. In laboratory, single thread
strength is carried out by removing a specific length of yarn from the fabric. Testing is done
with the help of a Tensile tester. Single thread strength is expressed in gms. Kg. or pound.

(vi) Bonding strength:-

It refers to a process of adhering of fibres or layers fabric together by a bonding agent,
bonding agents can be either chemicals, Adhesives or yarns. Bonding may be done to protect
the fabric deformation and also to increase the thickness of the fabric. The tensile testers help
in testing the bonding strength.

2- Abrasion Resistance:-
Abrasion is just one aspect of wear and is the rubbing away of the component fibres
and yarn of the fabric. Abrasion may be classified as follows:
1. Plane or flat abrasion: A flat area of material is abraided.
2. Edge abrasion: For example, the kind of abrasion which occurs at collars and fold.
3. Flex abrasion: In this case rubbing is accompanied by flexing and bending.
4. Wear tester and abrasion tester are used to measure the abrasion properties of fabrics

3- Pilling Resistance:-
Pilling is a fabric surface fault characterized by little pills of entangled fibre clinging
to the cloth surface and giving the garment an unsightly appearance. The pills are formed
during wear and washing by the entangle mat of loose fibres which protrude from the fabric
surface. Pilling is reduced by increasing the nylon filament denier. It must be remembered
that whatever anti pilling technique is used, the fabric must not lose its desirable handle or
other qualities. The testing is done with help of an instrument called pilling tester.

4- Fabric stiffness/ drape:-

When a fabric is chosen for, say dress material one looks at its appearance luster,
smoothness, roughness, stiffness of limpness, and good or poor draping qualities.
Fabric handle, as its name in flies, is concerned with the feel of the material and so
depends on the sense of touch. Drape has a rather different meaning and very broadly is the
ability of a fabric to assume a graceful appearance in use. It has said that fabric stiffness is a
key factor in the study of handle and drape, Flexometer is an instrument designed to measure
stiffness. A more recent one is Shirley stiffness Tester. Drape meter or stiffness tester are
used for measuring the fabrics stiffness and drape.

5- Air Permeability:-
Due to the manner in which yarns and fabric are constructed, a large proportion of the
total volume occupied by a fabric is infact, airspace. The distribution of this airspace
influence a number of important fabric properties such as warmth and protection against wind
and rain in clothing, and efficiency of filtration in industrial clothes.

[37]
 Air permeability of a fabric is the volume of air measured in cubic centimeters passed
per second through 1 cm2 of the fabric at a pressure of 1 cm of water. Air flow testers are
used to determine air permeability.

6- Water repellency:-
It is defined as the ability of the textile fibre, yarn on fabric to resist wetting. This
property is imparted to fabric by certain finishes like melamine resin and stearamides and
certain silicon compounds.
The merit of fabric intended for rainwear, wagon covers, or tents is judged amongst
other properties, by its ability to keep water out: conversely when intended for house pipes or
canvas buckets to keep water in.

7- Fire Resistance:-
Flammable fabrics are absolutely necessary for protective clothing in much industrial
process where the chances of inflammable fabrics ignited are high. In the domestic sphere
many serious and tragic accidents are the results of clothing catching fire, e.g. a dress is
ignited when a young lady is powdering her face and using a mirror placed over a
mantelpiece.

Flammable:-
A flammable fabric is one which propagates flame, i.e. it continues to burn after the
ignited flame has been removed.

Flame proof:-
A flame fabric is one which does not propagate flame, i.e. any flame goes out quickly
when the igniting flame is withdrawn.

Flame resistant:-
A flame resistant fabric is one whose flame resistance rating is high i.e. above 150.

Inherently flame proof material:-

Material which, although not submitted to a flame proofing process, is flame proof.
The equipments used for testing are plane flammability tester vertical flammability tester, etc.

8- Dimensional changes:-
Dimensional stability is necessary for any type of fabric. The extent of shrinkage of
fabric depends on fabric weave, tension during weaving, finishing treatment given etc. the
shrinkage (dimensional changes) test may be carried out either by immersion of the fabric in
water for a specified period (Relaxation Shrinkage) or by subjecting it to washing
(laundering ) treatment at various temperatures (Potential shrinkage.)

9- Colour fastness Properties of fabric/yarn:-

It requires a considerable amount of skill and knowledge to obtain correct colour
matching. In general the fastness depends not only on the nature and depth of shade of
dyestuff but also on the nature of fibre and method of dyeing or printing employed. There are
various colour fastness test-some of them are-

(i) Colour fastness to washing:-

[38]
 Evaluation of change in colour of the main fabric while washing and staining on the
adjacent fabric is done under controlled conditions, by using certain devices called
"Geometric scales" Numerical ratings are given for both change in colour and staining on
adjacent fabrics.

(ii) Colour fastness:-

Many textile materials are affected due to exposure to sunlight. In the laboratory, the
textile samples are subjected to direct sunlight or exposed to artificial light in instruments.
Compared to direct exposure, instrumental testing is very speedy in which the test specimens
are mounted on the specimen holder with a part of it covered. The calibrated standard fabrics
are also exposed along with the test pieces. Facing of test pieces and that of standard fabrics
are compared and assessed and numerical rating is xemotest instrument is not used for testing
colour fastness to light.

(iii) Colour fastness to rubbing:-

Standard methods are adopted in the laboratory to evaluate the fastness to rubbing. In
the laboratory a crock meter used for the test. Test piece is fixed to the crock meter and a dry
or wet undyed cloth is rubbed for specific rubs with fixed force. The degree of staining on
undyed cloth is assessed.

(iv) Colour fastness to perspiration:-

Fastness to perspiration is an important test which is out in the laboratory. It involves
different chemicals which give the effect of human perspiration either acidic or alkaline.
Composite specimen with adjacent cloth is soaked in alkaline and acidic perspiration
chemicals. Change in colour and staining is assessed, subsequently.

(v) Dry cleaning:-

In order to assess the colour fastness of fabrics to dry cleaning in the laboratory, a
specimen of fabric is subjected to mild agitation in perchloroethylene or petroleum either for
a specific period and change in colour of the fabric is assessed by standard methods.

(vi) Hot pressing:-

In the laboratory the test specimen is subjected to hand ironing. The temperature is
selected as per the nature of the fibre. The specimen may be dry, damp or wet depending
upon the use of garment. The change in the shade due to hot pressing is assessed, for dry
damp band wet conditions.

[39]
 CHAPTER- 8

TEXTILE AND ENVIRONMENT

Textile industry has been plagued with one problem or the other at different
points of time. One of the problems has been that of growing sickness in that industry. The
RBI has compi1ed a list of non-SSI sick mills in different industries including textiles. The
main reasons for sickness in textile industry can be attributeci to the structural
transformation in the mill sector and competition faced from power loom. The other
reasons could be excess capacity, lower productivity, lack of modernization and technical
upgradation, increase in cost of inputs particularly in the key raw materials.
One of the major issues of Indian textile industry in the background of the
proposed removal of quantitative restrictions by 2005 is the concern about export sector.
At this juncture to achieve global competitiveness, India should make products globally
competitive with the best quality at minimum price. In order to compete more efficiently at
the global level, the industry has to expand the garment and apparel range, reduce the cost,
increase quality and adopt latest method and technology to ensure product quality at the
user satisfaction level. The increasing: green consumerism, especially in developed
countries has promoted their governments to bring in environment related guidelines that
will regulate trade. The result is the realization of dire necessity of environment related
eco-friendly textiles for increasing global competitiveness of the industry
All living organisms -microbes, plants, animals and man-have survived by
adjusting themselves to the environment and attuning their lives to its rhythm. It is
therefore, absolutely necessary that these cycles should be maintained unimpaired - the
state of affair thus maintained can be called environment - friendly or eco-friendly.
It was in this context that United Nations environmental agencies organized
the International Conferences on Human Environment from time to time with the
specific motto "only one Earth" (Stockholm Conference 1972), "The World Environment
1972-82" (a report adopted at Nairobi Conference 1982), "our common future" (the Rio
Summit 1992 at Rio de Janeiro).

BANNED DYES –
Chemicals in Textiles
Before basic material turned into clothing, there must be a lot processes in it. Start from basic
material, then it turns into fibers, then fibers transforms into fabrics, then fabrics will
produced clothing. In making synthetic fiber, there is a process that what is called as wet
processing. So wet processing is a process to apply chemicals liquid to a fabrics.
2. Formaldehyde - Formaldehyde or commonly known as formalin is a colorless,
flammable and strong odor chemicals. It is the simplest among other aldehydes with
CH2O formula, it can leads to a lot of health issues, such as skin irritation, eyes
irritation, and even cancer. Textile industry, automobile industry, and plywood
furniture industry, usually using it for industrial purpose. In textile industry, people
used formaldehyde to prevent fabric to crease or we can say it plays as crease-
resistant.

[40]
3. Phthalates - Phthalates are making plastic more durable but flexible at the same time.
This plasticizer commonly used in plastic-ware products, such as plastic clothes, vinyl
flooring, personal care product packaging, household items, children‟s toys etc.

3. Dichloromethane (DCM) - Dichloromethane (DCM) is least toxic beside the other

clorohydrocarbons. But there are no chemicals that will not give side effects, include
dichloromethane (DCM), it may less-harm but if it is heated, it still could absorbed
into our skin or inhaled and cause dizziness, headache, nausea, weakness,
and difficulty concentration. In textile industry, dichloromethane (DCM) used for
garment printing.

4. Pentachlorophenol (PCP) - Pentachlorophenol (PCP) usually found in pesticide,

fungicide, or insecticides. Although it is highly toxic, textiles or fabric industry still
using it to make clothing. In fabric industry, Pentachlorophenol (PCP) used for
finishing, to prevent fungal growth.

5. Perfluorinated chemicals (PFCs) - The industry has used perfluorinated chemicals

(PFCs) for their non-stick and water-resistant properties, in order to make textile
products breathable, water & stain proof. Yet unfortunately, PFCs result in many
health problems such as, affect the liver and growth and reproductive hormones,
higher cholesterol, reduced immune response, and kidney and testicular cancer. If it
contaminated the environment, like the water, it will cause exposure, then result in
health problems as mentioned above.

Hazardous Colorants
 As for colourants, there are two major chemistries, azo and anthraquinone. Colourants
based on azo chemistry “-N=N-” group. On specific conditions, azo colourants can
lead to a cleavage of the “-N=N-” azo bond to form “–NH2” group or an amine. Until
now, there are 24 carcinogenic amines which are banned in textile and leather, -

1. Benzidine:- This chemicals has a grayish-red, yellowish, or white color. It is very toxic
and has a crystalline aromatic amine. Benzidine has been used for manufacture of dyes.
But in 2010, the EPA‟s put it on the List of Chemicals of Concern, as well as in Group A
(human carcinogens). There‟s a strong relation between exposure to benzidine and risk of
bladder and pancreatic cancer in humans.
Not just for human, animals got various tumor types from exposure. Health hazards
from benzidine occurs by exposure, such as ingestion, inhalation, and skin absorption.
Ingestion of benzidine causes cyanosis, headache, confusion, and vomiting.
To aquatic life, it gives long lasting effect on the environment. Benzidine is also
combustible, when in a fire, it produce irritating, toxic fumes. When it is absorb to the
skin, it might results in dermatitis, irritation, or sensitization.

2. Alkylphenols- Alkylphenols common uses in textile for dyeing and cleaning

processes. Indeed, the use of Alkylphenolscan cause bad for health such as disrupt sexual
development. Indeed, that‟s one of many list of banned chemicals in textiles.

[41]
 3. Brominated and Chlorinated Flame Retardants- Brominated and chlorinated flame
retardants (BFRs) commonly uses in textiles that can cause bad for health such as
hormone systems and effect sexual development. This compound is banned in Europe.

4. Azo dyes- Azo dyes commonly uses for dyes color in textile. Meanwhile, the use of
this chemicals compounds can cause bad such cancer and bad when it contacts to skin

5. Organotin compounds- Organotin compounds is antifungal agents that use in many

industries. Indeed, they use Organotin compounds in socks, shoes, and sports products
such as sport shoes and t-shirts. Meanwhile, Organotin compounds is restricted in Europe.
As a result, Organotin compounds affects immune and reproductive systems.

6. Perfluorinated chemicals- Perfluorinated chemicals common uses for leather prosudts

and water proof textiles. The use of this compound can effect bad to human health and the
environment. That is why, Perfluorinated chemicals is banned in Europe.

BANNED CHEMICALS
Banned Substance in Products
S. No. Substance CAS No.
1. 4-aminodiphenyl 92-67-1
2. Benzidine 92-87-5
3. 4-chloro-o-toluidine 95-69-2
4. 2-naphthylamine 91-59-8
5. o-Aminoazotoluene 97-56-3
6. 2-amino-4-nitrotoluene 99-55-8
7. 4-chloroaniline 106-47-8
8. 2,4-diaminoanisole 615-05-4
9. 4,4′-diaminodiphenylmethane 101-77-9
10. 3,3′-dichlorobenzidine 91-94-1
11. 3,3′-dimethoxybenzidine 119-90-4
12. 3,3′-dimethylbenzidine 119-93-7
13. 3,3′-dimethyl-4,4‟diaminodiphenylmethane 838-88-0
14. 4-cresidine 120-71-8
15. 4,4′-methylene-bis-(2-chloroaniline) 101-14-4
16. 4,4′-oxydianiline 101-80-4
17. 4,4′-thiodianiline 139-65-1
18. 2-aminotoluene 95-53-4
19. 2,4-diaminotoluene 95-80-7
20. 2,4,5-trimethylaniline 137-17-7

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21. 2-methoxyaniline 90-04-0
22. 4-aminoazobenzene 60-09-3
23. 2,4-Xylidine 60-09-3
24. 2,6-Xylidine 87-62-7
25. 5-Chloro-2-methylaniline 95-79-4
26. p-Phenylenediamine 106-50-3
27. N,N-Dimethylaniline 121-69-7
28. Aniline 62-53-3

ECOFRIENDLY TEXTILE
Now a days various processes, techniques and practices related to textile
production have been developed to cure the world from being affected by the hazardeous
effects of chemicals etc. which are either used in textile industry or released as a by-
product by the textile industries. These all sustainable methods and techniques need to be
adopted by the textile industries in order to save environment and to foster sustainability
in the field of textiles.

What are Sustainable Textiles

Sustainable textiles are textiles (or fabrics) that are grown and created in an
environmentally friendly way, using minimal chemicals. Because chemicals are not used
in sustainable textiles, there are less health problems that are associated with chemicals
such as headaches, allergies, skin irritation, and respiratory problems.
For a textile to be sustainable, it has to be made from a renewable resource, it has
to have a good ecological footprint (how much land it takes to bring it to full growth and
support it), and it should not use any (or use little) chemicals in the growing and
processing of it.
Sustainable fibers provide solution for the companies facing issues regarding
environmental problems; these fibers are also favorable to meet the market demands of
quality products these days.

[43]
 CHAPTER - 9
RECENT DEVELOPMENT IN TEXTILES AND APPAREL

Nanotextiles :
A fiber that has a width of less than 1000 nanometers (1000 nm or 1 μm) is generally
defined as a nanofiber. Nanofabrics are textiles engineered with small particles that give
ordinary materials advantageous properties such as superhydrophobicity (extreme water
resistance, "Lotus effect"), odor and moisture elimination, increased elasticity and strength,
and bacterial resistance. Depending on the desired property, a nanofabric is either constructed
from nanoscopic fibers called nanofibers, or is formed by applying a solution containing
nanoparticles to a regular fabric. Nanofabrics research is an interdisciplinary effort involving
bioengineering, molecular chemistry, physics, electrical engineering, computer science, and
systems engineering.
The unique properties of nanoparticles and nanofibres mean that they can be used to
design fabrics with excellent mechanical strength, chemical resistance, water repellence,
antibacterial properties, and a wealth of other properties which are unattainable by any other
means.
Nano-textiles is an emerging and interesting application of nanotechnology. It
involves dealing with nano fibers at the atomic and molecular levels in order to tweak their
properties. This novel technology can give rise to incredible clothing such as water-resistant,
stain-resistance, UV-protection, wrinkle resistance, color durability, flame retardancy, and
better thermal performance, dirt-free clothes, odor-less socks, and intelligent clothes that can
perfom climate control

Antimicrobial nanosilver -
Silver nanoparticles are antimicrobial in nature, and are now widely used in sports
clothing to eliminate unpleasant odors from sweat. Silver nanoparticles in clothes can cause
an increase in the concentration of silver ions in waste water, the sludge from which can end
up in agricultural lands as fertilizer. These toxic silver ions can cause damage to the soil
ecosystems in the long term. They are also harmful to microbes and aquatic organisms even
at low concentrations and can lead to the evolution of antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

Personal climate control –

The principle behind this technology is the Peltier Effect. When electricity is passed
through two connected metals, one will cool and the other gets heated up. The jackets have
puck-like inserts designed to touch spots that are dense in blood vessels and where little
sweating occurs. These spots are best for the control of body temperature.
Waterproofing with Nano technology -

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Researchers made this fabric from polyester fibres that are coated with minute silicone
filaments. They also claimed that this fabric is the most water-repellent clothing material
available till date.
The principle behind the fabric‟s water resistance is that the 40-nm wide silicone
nanofilaments are extremely hydrophobic in nature. Moreover, their spiky structure enhances
this surface chemistry and forms a protective coating on the fabric to prevent water droplets
from entering or soaking the cloth. The coating‟s nanostructure and the hydrophobic property
together produce this super-hydrophobic effect in the fabric.

TECHNICAL TEXTILES:
A technical textile is a textile product manufactured for non-aesthetic purposes,
where function is the primary criterion. Technical textiles include textiles for automotive
applications, medical textiles (e.g., implants), geotextiles (reinforcement of embankments),
agrotextiles (textiles for crop protection), and protective clothing (e.g., heat and radiation
protection for fire fighter clothing, molten metal protection for welders, stab protection and
bulletproof vests, and spacesuits)

Zero-waste fashion refers to items of clothing that generate little or no textile waste in their
production. It can be considered to be a part of the broader Sustainable fashion movement. It
can be divided into two general approaches. Pre-consumer zero-waste fashion eliminates
waste during manufacture. Post-consumer zero-waste fashion generates clothing from post-
consumer garments such as second-hand clothing, eliminating waste at what would normally
be the end of the product use life of a garment. Zero-waste fashion is not a new concept[5] -

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early examples of zero-waste or near zero-waste garments include Kimono, Sari, Chiton and
many other traditional folk costumes

Pre-consumer zero-waste design - Two general approaches fall under this category, both of
which occur during a garment's initial production. In zero-waste fashion design the designer
creates a garment through the pattern cutting process, working within the space of the fabric
width.[2] This approach directly influences the design of the final garment as the pattern
cutting process is a primary design step. It is difficult to design a zero-waste garment solely
through sketching, although sketching can be a useful speculative tool. Zero-waste
manufacture, of which zero-waste design is a component, is a holistic approach that can
eliminate textile waste without modifying the garment patterns.

Zero Waste Pattern Designers – Designers like Julian Roberts, Shreya Upadhaya,
Siddhartha Upadhyaya, Daniel Silverstein and many more have used this approach.

Zero Waste Manufacture - Approaches can include the use of technology such as whole
garment knitting and the relatively new DPOL a patent by designer Siddhartha Upadhyaya,
but often waste is eliminated by reusing the off-cuts in other products. Designers and
companies that have used these approaches include Alabama Chanin, August (Direct Panel
on Loom / DPOL) by Siddhartha Upadhyaya, Pretcastle by Shreya Upadhyaya & Siddhartha
Upadhyaya Issey Miyake, Sans Soucie, worn again etc

Difference from standard fashion production :

A standard garment production process may begin with a drawing of the desired garment, a
pattern is then generated to achieve this design, a marker is made to most efficiently use the
fabric (without modifying the pattern shapes), the pattern pieces are then cut from the cloth,
sewn, packed and distributed to retailers. Standard garment production generates and average
of 15% textile waste due to the stratification or hierarchy of the garment production process.

POST CONSUMER ZERO WASTE

This design approach utilises the remnants of the fashion cycle to produce new
garments from second hand or surplus goods.
Recycling is the reuse, remanufacturing, or reprocessing of a material or product with
the aim of reducing waste. In terms of textiles, recycling can cover many different areas.
Firstly, there is the recycling of clothing as whole garments. This could be through charity
shops or via the vintage clothes market or through the reuse of clothing items which have
been reworked, printed over or re-cut, to be resold. Secondly, there is the recycling of
materials in a more industrial context. This could include the production of recycled yarn
where textiles are unravelled and re-spun into new fibres. Or it could include the reuse of
waste textiles as fillings for upholstery or as cleaning wipes for industrial purposes.

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Alongside this, is the sort of reuse that mainly occurs in a domestic setting. The „make do and
mend‟ approach is either extending the useful life of an item or product.
Upcycling refers to reuse of a garment where its quality remains the same or is
increased by the process, attempting to counter the common problem of recycling practices
reducing the quality of the original materials, as occurs when glass is recycled. Upcycling
also means to take a lower quality or waste product and use its materials to make a product of
higher value. It may involve the use of pre-consumer waste such as fabric offcuts, or post-
consumer waste such as used garments.
Downcycling refers to recycling a material into a lower value product. Examples
include recycling used garments into non-woven textiles, building insulation, rags, or carpet
underlay.

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 CHAPTER – 10

TYPE OF RESEARCH

TYPES OF RESEARCH
1. Descriptive Research – It includes surveys & fact finding enquiries of different kinds. It
deals with description of the state of affairs as it exist. In social science & business
research, this research is often termed as Ex-post facts research. In this method the
researcher has no control over the variable and can only report what happened or
happening. It is often used to measure the frequency or preferences of people. Researches
can even discover the causes. The methods utilized in this research are survey methods
(comparative or correlational).
The proper choice of method for a research study could be evaluated in the case of
descriptive method, by considering whether the study-
 Aims at securing evidence concerning the existing situation or condition. (it may include
present facts or current condition related to the nature of group of persons, number of
objects, or a class of event and may also involve the procedure of induction, analysis,
classification, enumeration, of measurement.
 Identified standards or norms for compassion of present condition, in order to plan next
step. (it is to determine the normal or typical condition or practice in comparing local
study with some conditional norms.
 Determine how to take next step.
 Portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situations or group. (with
or without specific initial hypothesis about the nature of the individual situation).
 Determine the frequency with which something accuse, or with which it is associated
(usually but not allows with a specific, initial hypothesis).
2. Analytical Research – In this research has to use facts or information's already available,
& analyse these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
3. Applied Research Vs Fundamental Research – Applied research aims at finding
solution for an immediate problem facing by society or organisation. Fundamental
research mainly work for generalisation & with the formulation of theory. Research
studies concerning human behaviour carried on to make a generalized view are example
of fundamental research, but research aimed at certain conclusion facing a concrete social
problem is an example of applied research.
4. Qualitative Vs Quantitative Research – Quantitative research is based on the
measurement of quantity or amount. Qualitative on the other hand is concerned with the
qualitative phenomenon that expressed in terms of quality. Motivation Research is an
important type of qualitative Research. This type of research aims at discovering the
underlying motives & desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose, other techniques
includes word association test, sentence competition tests, story completion test etc.
Attitude or opinion research – designed to find out how people feel or think.
5. Conceptual Vs Empirical Research – Conceptual research is related to some abstract,
idea or theory. It is generally used by philosophers or thinkers to develop new concepts or
reinterpret the existing one. Empirical research relies on experience or observation alone,

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 without any system & theory. It is based on date which are capable of being verified by
observation or experiment. It can also be termed as Experimental Research. In such
research facts should be first looked as their sources and activity go doing certain things
to stimulate the production of desired information. In this hypothesis should be made first
and then sets up design which will manipulate the person or material concerned to bring
desired information. This research is undo control of the experiments.
The design of the experiment could be evaluated by considering whether the design will.
- Ensure that the observed treatment effects are unbiased.
- Permit a quantitative description of the precision of the observed treatment effects.
- Ensure that observed treatment effect will have whatever degree of precision is required
by the experiment.
- Make possible objective test concerning the true effects i.e. it will permit the computation
of the relative frequency with which the observed discrepancy between observation &
hypothesis would be exceeded if the hypothesis were true.
- In the rating scale, the problem of validity & measures used in checking the validity have
been reported.
- Attributes being measured with relatively 'objective' so that their meaning would be
uniformly understood by the rates using the scales.
Some Other Type of Research
All other types of research are variation of one or more of the above stated
approaches, based on either the purpose of research, or the time required to accomplish
research, or the environment in which research is done, or on the basis of some other similar
factors.
One Time Research - The researcher is confined to a single time period.
Longitudinal Research – The research is carried on over several time periods.
Laboratory Research–The research is done in laboratory and test are carried out related to it.
Stimulation Research – Any stimulatory responses are tested and studied in this research.
Clinical or Diagnostic Research – Case study or in depth approaches are studied to reach
the basic casual relations.
Exploratory Research – In this hypothesis is developed rather than their testing.
Formalized Research – In this substantial structure and with specific hypothesis is to be
tested.
Historical Research – It utilizes historical sources like documents, remains etc. to study
about the past event or person.
Conclusion Oriented Research – Researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the
enquiry & prepared to conceptualize.
Decision Oriented Research – It is needed for the decision making & the research is not free
to embark upon the research.
Operation Research – Operation research is decision oriented research since it is scientific
method of providing quantitative basis of decisions regarding operations under their control.

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Expert Facto Studies – In this investigators attempt to trace an effect which has already
occurred to its probable causes. The effect becomes dependent variable & probable causes
become independent variables. Thus, in this research, manifestation of independent variables
occurs first & then its effects become visible. Since independent variable occurs first so
researcher has no direct control over variables.

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