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Education and Human Development Master's
Education and Human Development
Theses

Spring 5-17-2014

Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom

Karen Marie Algarin-Ruiz
The College at Brockport, [email protected]

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Paper 393.

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Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 1

Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom

by

Karen M. Algarín-Ruiz

May 2014

A thesis project submitted to the

Department of Education and Human Development of the

State University of New York College at Brockport

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Science in Education

Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom

Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 2

by

Karen M. Algarín-Ruiz

APPROVED BY:

____________________________________ ______________
Advisor Date

____________________________________ ______________
Director, Graduate Program Date
Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 3

Table of Contents

Chapter 1 . . . . . . . . . .

Problem Statement . . . . . . . . 7

Significance of the Problem . . . . . . . 9

Purpose . . . . . . . . . 16

Rationale . . . . . . . . . 17

Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . 18

Summary . . . . . . . . . 21

Chapter 2 . . . . . . . . . .

Acquisition of L2 . . . . . . . . 23

What is Code Switching? . . . . . . . 26

Types of Code Switching . . . . . . . 29

Why are Some Researchers Against Code Switching? . . . 29

What does the Literature say about the Benefits of Code-Switching? . 32

When and Why do Students Code Switch? . . . . . 34

Why do Teachers Code Switch? . . . . . . 35

What Benefits does the Use of Code Switching have in the Classroom? . 37

What Should Teachers Know About CS? . . . . . 39

Chapter III . . . . . . . . . .

Description of the Product . . . . . . . 41

Chapter IV . . . . . . . . . .

Limitations . . . . . . . . . 46

Recommendations . . . . . . . . 46

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . 47
Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 4

References . . . . . . . . . . 49

Appendix . . . . . . . . . . 55
Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 5

Abstract

There has been a tremendous growth of the Hispanic population in the United States

leading to a large population of Spanish heritage speakers in our schools. Language diversity in

the United States has been maintained primarily because of continuing immigration from non-

English speaking countries (Gollnick & Chinn, 2009). Many school districts have adopted

several types of programs to educate this growing population. One of the major issues being

faced in the classroom concerns language development of learners using code switching. “Code

switching, or the alternation of two languages within a single clause, sentence or turn is a

complex, rule-governed use of language which offers a unique opportunity for studying some of

the more complicated aspects of bilingual speech” (Dearholt & Valdes-Fallis 1978). While

some teachers believe that students should only speak in the target language, others are

indifferent or flexible with regard to the language students’ use in the classroom. Many of these

teachers do not know to handle the situation or haven’t received adequate training to understand

this process. This research project investigated the teachers’ knowledge about code switching

and how they deal with it in the classroom with the purpose to identify the need of further

information about Code Switching and how to use it to their advantage in the classroom.

The method used to investigate this topic consisted of a questioned survey given to

teachers of Grades K-8 from Eugenio María de Hostos Charter School. The survey consisted of

the following questions: What is your definition of code switching? When do students code

switch? Why do you think students code switch? What are your beliefs about code switching in

the classroom? From 1 to 5 what are your feelings about students code-switching in the

classroom? In what subject areas do you find students code switching? In what subject areas do

you find yourself code switching? Do you perceive a higher success in students’ achievements
Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 6

when they code switch? What professional development would you like to see about code

switching?

The results of this research have two implications. The first implication from this thesis

project would be how educators can enhance instruction to use code switching as language

enhancement. The second implication would help educators identify the content areas where

students need language instruction to build the vocabulary in the target language.
Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 7

Chapter I

Problem Statement

There has been a tremendous amount of growth of the multilingual population in the

United States leading to a large population of multicultural heritage speakers in our schools. Due

to the number of English Language Learners, many school districts have adopted several types of

bilingual programs such the dual language program, the immersion program and the transitional

program with the purpose of educating the growing population with similar experiences, where

two or more languages influence their educational learning and social development process.

Even though code-switching is a natural part of being bilingual (Palmer D. , Code-

Switching and Symbolic Power in a Second-Grade Two-Way Classroom: A Teacher's

Motivation System Gone Awry, 2009), one of the major issues that is being faced in the

classroom concerns language development of learners using code switching. Code switching, or

the alternation of two languages within a single clause, sentence or turn is a complex, rule-

governed use of language which offers a unique opportunity for studying some of the more

complicated aspects of bilingual speech (Dearholt & Valdes-Fallis 1978).

As we may know, the change of language in the same clause is a controversial topic

between researchers and also between educators. Some teachers will not accept any other

language than the target language. Many multilingual speakers believe that code-switching is a

sign of linguistic weaknesses or inadequacy and many bilingual teachers work hard to fight code-

switching when it occurs in their classroom (Palmer D. , Code-Switching and Symbolic Power in

a Second-Grade Two-Way Classroom: A Teacher's Motivation System Gone Awry, 2009).

However, code switching, rather than reflecting the traditional view of a disadvantaged and

semiliterate background, actually reflects an intellectual advantage (Hughes, Shaunessy, Brice,

Ratliff, & McHatton, 2006).

Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 8

One of the major issues that is being faced in the classroom concerns the language

development of learners using code switching. While some teachers are flexible or even

indifferent, others believe that students should only speak in the target language in the classroom.

Many teachers do not know how to use students L1 as a tool to learn L2, how to handle the

situation, or simply have not received an adequate training to understand and to use this process

to their benefit.

Embracing students’ culture and heritage through language is very important. The way a

teacher responds to students using their home language in class could affect the way in which the

pupils function in the classroom. To banish students’ heritage language could bring students

displeasure toward school and toward learning a second language. Teachers’ lack of knowledge

about the acquisition of a language and their opposition to a natural process like code switching

can sometimes discourage students and lead them to lose interest in the class. An example of

students’ discouragement when there is opposition to the use of L1 was proved in the study:

“The Benefit of Code Switching within a Bilingual Education Program”:

In this study, it should be noted that children within the bilingual classroom and
the fifth grade bilingual tutoring sessions (where code switching was allowed) did
not hesitate in their conversations or become blocked due to language barriers. It
was in these bilingual settings that students’ codes switched freely and were best
able to convey information to their peers and teachers. Additionally, students’
insertion of a new language in their dialogue or writing does not necessarily mean
a weakness in one language or the other, but the enrichment and growth of the
students’ knowledge in two languages. The immersion setting, on the other hand,
created an atmosphere where the Spanish-speaking students seldom volunteered
to participate in classroom discussions. They often appeared disinterested and
detached from lessons and were not able to convey an accurate picture of their
subject matter knowledge to the class when called upon (Pollard, 2002).

In the United States, although English is not the official language, it is the language of

power. The fact that English is the language of power creates a dilemma in how many educators

and researchers think about what is best for emergent students. For many, the code change is a
Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 9

battle we must fight to support the trend as U.S. bilingual programs move students toward

English (Palmer, 2009). Other researchers express that “such thinking appears to derive from

political and cultural ideology rather than from linguistic evidence" and "it often develops into

full-fledged theories which have serious practical consequences (Shin and Milroy, 2000 as cited

in Spanish-English Code Switching in a Bilingual Academic Context, (Becker, 2001).

Significance of the Problem

Eugenio Maria de Hostos Charter School in Rochester, New York is a dual language

school in Grades K-8, and it is recognized for valuing both the Spanish and English languages.

The school offers a dual language curriculum featuring Spanish and English instruction in

Kindergarten. The enrichment model utilizes both languages for instruction in all areas. At the

primary level, students alternate days and classrooms following a 6-day cycle. From Grades K-3

most students are part of the Bilingual Dual Language program. Students not meeting the

standards receive their literacy block instruction in their dominant language until they reach their

proficiency level, rather than alternating between English and Spanish. Once their proficiency

level is achieved, the students return to the alternation between the two languages. For some

students English represents their L2 and for others Spanish is their L2. At the intermediate level,

the students receive their core instruction in English and continue to study the Spanish language

when attending Spanish class (Halsdorfer J.;Vázquez J.;Vázquez M., 2014).

It is a school with a high population of Hispanic students. The annual 2012-2013 report

from Eugenio Maria de Hostos Charter School showed the following student demographic:

American Indian, Alaskan, Asian or Pacific Islander 0.2%, Black 38%, Hispanic 61 % and White

0.7 % (Halsdorfer, 2013). The school has an emphasis on embracing students’ culture and

helping them to gain confidence acquiring L2. Teachers’ knowledge about acquisition of
Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 10

language and the code switching phenomenon is very important to help the students reach

literacy in both languages.

This being a school that supports bilingualism and bilateralism, it was important to

identify the ways in which students execute their work in the classroom towards language. The

researcher uses teachers’ experiences and observations and the way teachers respond to CS in the

classroom to identify areas of need in the school.

As part of the thesis project, teachers, administrators and teacher assistants were

surveyed. Although staff from every grade received the survey, only 13 of them answered. From

these 13, five are teachers, five are teacher assistants and three are in an administrative position

(See Figure 1). The following questions were asked in order to identify the area of need related

to this topic:

1. What is your definition of code switching?

2. When do students code switch?

3. Why do you think students use code switching?

4. What are your beliefs about code switching in the classroom?

5. From 1 to 5, what are your feelings about students code-switching in the classroom?

Please circle your answer:

Strongly dislike Dislike Indifferent Like it Love it

1 2 3 4 5

6. In what subject areas do you find that students code switch?

7. In what subject areas do you find yourself code switching?

8. Do you perceive a higher success in students achievements when they code-switch?

Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 11

9. What PD (professional development) would you like to see about code-switching?

When these questions were presented to administrators, teachers, and teachers assistants,

the researcher found that there was a good knowledge about CS among those with administrative

assignments, and a general knowledge among teachers from Grades K-3 who are part of the

Bilingual Dual Language program with some or no knowledge of higher grades, mostly Grades

5-8. Teachers from Grades 1, 3 and 4 were assertive in their answer to question #1. Of their

answers about what CS is, the teacher from Grade 1 responded: “Changing between two

languages or dialects depending on the context, environment, and audience” and a Spanish

Language Arts teacher from Grades 3 and 4 said: “It is when a speaker alternates between two

languages in the context of the conversation”. Teachers assistants from Grades K-2 also seemed

to have really good knowledge about CS based on their answers. For example: the teacher

assistant from Kindergarten said: “When you switch from one language to another to

accommodate you at that moment”. These responses did not surprise the researcher because

teachers and teachers assistants from Grades K-3 are part of the Bilingual Dual Language

Program in the school. Additionally, the English Coach, the Spanish coach and an Administrator

from Grades K-3 demonstrated extended knowledge about the topic. On the other hand,

educators from Grades 5-8 were less knowledgeable about this phenomenon. Only the Spanish

teachers demonstrated some knowledge about CS. For example, the teacher from Grade 5

answered: “I am not sure”; another teacher from Grade 6, left the question blank. Also a teacher

assistant from Grade 5 responded to the first question: “Not sure/speaking in another language”,

while the Spanish teacher from Grades 7-8 said: “I would define CS as speaking in both Spanish

and English”. Although her answer was related, it was less detailed or specific than the teachers

from Grades K-3. The researcher will include the definition of CS from different researchers, so

those teachers that do not know this term have a better knowledge about it.
Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 12

In the answers to the second question of the survey, which was when do the students code

switch, the researcher found that the teachers’ answers were varied. The teacher from Grade 1

said that students CS when they are at school or at home and between teachers and peers. On the

other hand, the SLA teacher from Grades 3-4 said: “When they don’t remember something in the

second language; when they are in an informal conversation and change to a formal one” and the

SLA teacher from Grades 7-8 said: “I think students do it when they start to feel uncomfortable

in one language”. The SLA teacher from Grade 7 showed some knowledge about the topic but

demonstrated certain insecurities when she used the phrase “I think…” in her answers.

Meanwhile, the SLA coach mentioned not to have too much experience observing students CS:

“I have more experiences hearing more adults code switch than children. Students sometimes

code switch when they are frustrated or trying to give an answer in the classroom”. The answers

from the kindergarten teachers assistant, Grade 2 teachers assistant and the K-3 administrator

were very similar because they all mentioned that CS takes place when students are feeling

uncomfortable or having trouble with one language and they recur to the other. On the other

hand, the teachers assistant from Grade 2 was the only participant of the survey who said that

students CS “to show their peers that they know another language”. The researcher found that

due to the variety of answers, it was important to bring information about when students code

switch. The educators’ answers were not necessarily incorrect, but this question does not have

just one answer and it would be good if teachers could see other factors for which this

phenomenon is used among bilingual students.

Why do students code switch? This was the third question on the survey. The answers to

this question were very varied among educators in EMHCS. Three educators out of 13 said that

it is due to the lack of vocabulary or words to convey their thoughts, five out of 13 participants

mentioned something similar about fitting into a group of peers or to imitate others, while two
Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 13

other participants mentioned that it was due to the excitement of learning a new language and

trying to put in practice the new vocabulary learned. The questionnaire showed that teachers at

EMHCS have a need for a deeper understanding of this phenomenon because there is much more

that they could be aware of with regard to their students and CS in the classroom.

The fourth question on the survey was: What are your beliefs about code switching in the

classroom? Many teachers who answered this question agreed that the use of CS is beneficial in

the classroom, although some educators did not know or were not sure about what their beliefs

was about CS. The beliefs varied among the teachers. The message among four out of 13 survey

participants was that using CS in the classroom was a method to accommodate the students with

language barriers and with different reading levels. One educator mentioned that “it is a life skill

that everyone uses; especially helpful with vocab for our bilingual students”. Another one said

that CS was a way to value students’ identities and promote a positive environment and help the

students to understand better. On the other hand, the Spanish teacher from Grades 7-8 said: “I

think it depends on the classroom. In a bilingual setting it is acceptable. In a foreign language

classroom, it is better to speak the target language”. The ELA coach wrote that: “There is a time

and place and students need to use it when appropriate (formal vs informal language)” and two

other teachers from Grades 5-6 did not know what to think about CS due to their lack of

knowledge. It will be important to bring more information to the professional development about

why and when students CS because there is more than one answer and educators can see this

phenomenon in depth and see different circumstances in which students may change from one

language to another. They could be surprised by how much grammatical and syntax

understanding students have to use when CS.

When participants were asked: From 1 to 5, 1 being strongly dislikes and 5 Love it, what

are your feelings about students code-switching in the classroom?, seven out of 13 educators
Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 14

agreed by giving a score of 4 = Like it; four out of 13 ranked CS as 3 = indifferent. Among the

educators, the teachers from Grades 5-6 showed not having an opinion about CS due the lack of

knowledge. Only one teacher ranked it as a 5= love it, and one other teacher just wrote N/A.

It was surprising for the researcher to see that some of the educators who ranked CS with

a 3 or 4 showed to have a lack of knowledge in other areas of the questionnaire. On the other

hand, the fact that no one was completely opposed to CS displayed some instructional flexibility

among the teachers at EMHCS.

When the educators were asked about the subject areas in which they find students code

switching, three educators from Grades K-3 mentioned seeing this phenomenon in all subjects

areas, five out of 13 educators did not answer or wrote “I am not sure”, meanwhile others

mentioned that they see this phenomenon between students’ transitions, in second language

instruction (SLA or ELA), and content areas (e.g. Math). Some of these participants only have

the opportunity to see the subject area in which they are teaching, so it would be good to give the

teachers the opportunity to talk with educators of different content areas about when their

students resort to the use of another language, either L1 or L2. With CS such a common

phenomenon among students in contact with more than one language, it is important that

teachers talk about it and exchange thoughts about the topic.

The next question is very similar to the previous one, but this time teachers reflected

about themselves CS in the classroom. This question was mostly answered by bilingual teachers

in all areas; those who only spoke one language did not answer the questions. Among the

answers, all the Spanish teachers mentioned using CS in their classroom. Some of them

mentioned that they CS after supporting the English class and transitioning to Spanish, but based

on their answers, it seemed to be used by accident and not with an instructional purpose in the

classroom. For example, an educator said: “I work in the morning for an hour in Intervention
Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 15

which is English, and then switch with that group to Spanish. It’s hard… I find myself going

back and forth a lot without realizing it!” Spanish teachers also said that due to the different

level of students reading in Spanish, sometimes it was necessary to CS and help the students with

understanding, while other bilingual teachers teaching in content areas said that they use CS at

home, at school and when talking to family members. Although educators who know only one

language did not answer the questions, having students who are in constant contact with two

languages will have some influence on the way teachers teach and approach a multicultural

classroom. This phenomenon might have been a part of their instruction or it might be occurring

in their classroom without them recognizing it. Consequently, it is important to include those

teachers in the professional development about code-switching.

When educators at EMHCS were asked: Do you perceive a higher success in students’

achievements when they code switch? Four out of 13 said yes, they see a higher success in

students’ achievements. Seven of the other participants talked about not being sure and one

teacher said “most likely”. The data showed that most educators do not know if students really

can make progress by using CS and it would be a good experience for them if they learned some

strategies in how to use it and then utilize those strategies in the classroom and see the positives

results for themselves.

Finally, school staff was asked about what PD would they like to see about code-switching?

Most of them responded that they would be interested in receiving further information about CS.

There were some common questions or concerns between staff surveyed that they would like to

receive more information about:

1. What is code switching?

2. What are the reasons for CS?

3. How it is positive?
Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 16

4. How is it negative?

5. How can CS be beneficial in the classroom?

6. How can it be integrated into the instruction to maximize the students’ learning?

7. Almost all the teachers would like to see a PD of CS covering how to implement it in the

classroom.

These questions gave the researcher a guide to know how to help teachers become

knowledgeable about the topic and know how to use it in the classroom to help maximize the

students’ learning.

Based on the survey, the researcher perceived that although the school promotes

bilingualism and bilateralism, once students are out of the Bilingual Dual Language Program, the

staff is less knowledgeable about some important aspects of being bilingual. Code switching is a

very common occurrence between students who possess more than one language, and it is

important as a Eugenio Maria de Hostos Charter School staff member to become knowledgeable

about CS. Additionally, those educators that already know or have heard about this phenomenon

mentioned the need for further understanding about how it could benefit the students.

Purpose

The alternation of two languages in a single clause is a significant phenomenon that

happens frequently when students are learning or mastering a second language. The

phenomenon can happen either when the student is speaking or writing. More than identifying

the point in which students code switch, the intentions and focus of the project are to inform

teachers about what CS is about, help teachers be aware of the process students go through when

learning a second language, and to give some suggestions about how to work in the classroom

when two languages are influencing the students’ learning.

Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 17

As a result of the findings of the survey administered to staff members at Eugenio María

de Hostos Charter School and the need and the desire for a professional development about the

topic from all staff surveyed, the researcher created a professional development presentation

using Powerpoint to answer the teachers’ questions and concerns such as: What is code

switching?, What are some positives and negatives?, When is it most likely to occur?, and How

can it be integrated into the instruction to maximize student learning?

Also, for the educators who mentioned that there is a time and a place for the use of CS,

and that students should speak the target language in certain classrooms, the researcher would

like to bring an opportunity for them to see why flexibility in the classroom in terms of language

is so important and how the use of CS in the classroom could bring more opportunities for

students to learn the target language and be successful.

In addition, the fact that no one was completely opposed to the use of CS displayed some

instructional flexibility among the teachers at EMHCS, which gave the researcher the

opportunity to bring new ideas, strategies and techniques to the classroom. As well, through a

professional development about CS, there is a way to give those educators who did not know

about CS the opportunity to learn more about the concept and bring more opportunities into the

classroom for students to succeed.

Rationale

Although teachers and administrators at Eugenio Maria de Hostos Charter School

(EMCHS) have been trained and they receive a large group of heritage learners every year, the

researcher found that many had never heard about the term code-switching and have little or no

information about the best ways to address students when the phenomenon occurs in the

classroom.
Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 18

In the survey given to teachers and school staff from Grades K-8, many of EMHCS staff

expressed their interest to know more about the subject. Although some of them were familiar

with the topic, mostly teachers from Grades K-3, there was a higher need for understanding of

teachers from Grades 5-8. For example, teachers and staff from Grades 5-8 were uninformed or

had a limited knowledge about the topic, and consequently, the need for further information

about the benefits that code switching can bring to their classroom is important. Code switching,

more than being seen as a natural phenomenon among people in contact with more than one

language, needs to be utilized as a tool in the classroom to help students developing language.

Teachers at Eugenio Maria de Hostos Charter School need to know about the advances and

achievements students can make in order to gain a better understanding of the target language.

Definition of Terms

Bilingual Program: Is the universal name for all the bilingual programs. The

general significance of bilingual education is to teach

English and the native language; to help the students that

do not speak English to increase their competence in

English, develop their abilities of their native language, and

involve students who are English dominant to be competent

in L2 (Crawford, 2004).

Biliterate/Biliteracy: At its most basic level, it refers to a person’s ability to read

and write in two languages. The concept, however, has

taken on a sociopolitical dimension, especially as reflected

in the work of the Brazilian educator Paulo Freire, who

Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 19

links literacy with issues of social justice and

empowerment (Ovando & Carols, Students, 2012).

Code Switching (CS): Bilingual speakers often code-switch from one language to

another, especially when both languages are used in the

environment, it follows functional and grammatical

principles, and is a complex, rule-governed phenomenon

(Heredia & Altarriba, 2001).

Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH): The hypothesis that there is a limited period during which

language acquisition can occur. The strong version of the

CPH is that there are biological mechanisms specifically

designed for language acquisition and that these cease to be

available at or even before puberty. Thus, an older learner

has to use general learning mechanisms that are not

designed for –and thus not as effective for-language

acquisition (Lightbown & Spada, 2011).

Dual Language Program: A program in which the students are educated in two

languages. This kind of program utilizes and values both

languages in the same way. For example, students whose

native language (L1) is Spanish, and are learning English

(L2) at the same time, will also enrich their L1. This

program seeks for literacy in both languages. The student

will become proficient in L1 and L2. The goals of this

program are that students become bilingual and biliterate,

and to succeed academically in both languages (Crawford,

Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 20

2004). An additive or enrichment model that is designed to

achieve bilingualism in both the minority and majority

language, In general, it serves two linguistically diverse

population groups: speakers of the minority language and

speakers of the majority language. It is designed to

cultivate the native language skills of both groups. These

programs provide content-area instruction and language

development in both languages. To achieve the full benefits

of two-way bilingual education, students from the two

language backgrounds are in each class, and they are

integrated for most or all of their content instruction

(Ovando & Carols, Students, 2012).

Heritage Learners: Students, whose dominant language is English, but can

speak or are culturally exposed to another language at

home.

English Language Learner (ELL)/

Emergent student: A term favored over Limited English Proficient, for it

conveys that the student is in the process of learning

English without having the connotation that the student is

in some way defective until full English proficiency is

attained (Ovando & Carols, Students, 2012).

English as a second language

(ESL): A system of instruction that enables students who are not

proficient in English (English Language Learners) to

Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 21

acquire both interpersonal communication skills and

academic proficiency in spoken and written English. ESL is

an essential component in all bilingual education programs

in the United States (Ovando & Carols, Students, 2012)

Mother tongue, First language (L1): First language learned.

Multilingual Competence: Also called “multicompetence” refers to the compound

state of a mind with two or more grammars which is

distinguished from monolingual competence which refers

to knowledge of only one language (Saville-Troike, 2006).

Second Language (L2): The second language is whichever other language that is

not the first language learned (Lightbown & Spada, 2006).

Target Language: The language that is being taught as a second language

(Davis, 2012).

Transitional program: Students receive instruction in L1 with the goal of learning

L2. English as a Second Language (ESL) is taught daily

and literacy starts initially in L1 and then gradually moves

to L2. A compensatory or remedial model designed to

prepare linguistic minority students to enter mainstream (all

English) classes (Ovando & Carols, Students, 2012).

Summary

Thinking about the increasing population coming from a broad and multi-cultural

background is important for teachers to understand the process of acquiring a second language,
Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 22

the importance of being culturally aware and sensitive about the learning process of the students,

and learning how to address the behavior in a way that enriches the students’ cultural and

educational process.

This thesis project intends to inform teachers about what the researchers and literature

say about Code-switching, both the negative and positive aspects. Also, it will propose to offer a

variety of tools to help teachers to be culturally aware by allowing the use of L1 when it is

necessary and promote students’ participation in class while allowing code switching and

teachers’ best practices.

Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 23

Chapter II

Acquisition of a L2

In order to understand the code switching phenomenon it is important to know how L2 is

acquired. We all experienced the acquisition of language. As babies, we mumble or babble the

first word and it is a big celebration for the whole family. It seems that babies come with a chip

that at some point place codes together and surprisingly one day they start talking. Noam

Chomsky supports this idea by challenging the behaviorist explanation for language acquisition.

In B. F. Skinner’s book “Verbal Behavior”, he argued that children are biologically programmed

for language and that language develops in the child in just the same way that other biological

functions develop (as cited in Lightbown & Spada, 2011).

Second language acquisition does not occur the same way. Becoming bilingual and

biliterate is influenced by several factors, but a major difference is the brain of a second language

learner has already created preconceptions of the first language. The acquisition of L2 is

influenced by the following factors:

a. Age: Young language learners begin the task of first language acquisition without the

cognitive maturity or metalinguistic awareness that older second language learners

have. For example: Cognitive maturity and metalinguistic awareness allow older

learners to solve problems and engage in discussions about language. Many

researchers argue that this awareness can actually interfere with language acquisition

because younger children are more frequently exposed to the second language in

informal settings for many hours every day. This view is related to the idea that there

is a critical period for language acquisition. (Lightbown & Spada, 2011). (See Figure

2)
Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 24

b. Culture and attitudes toward maintenance or revitalization of the home language and

culture

c. Socioeconomic status: Those who are wealthier have access to better education and

more opportunities to learn outside of the classroom.

d. Social interactions

e. Prejudice and discrimination: How others perceive you can have an effect on the way

people learn and the aptitude towards learning L2

f. Previous schooling experience

g. Personality: hypotheses about extroverted or introverted people claim that these

behavior characteristics can influence the way language is learned. While extraverted

learners could acquire better basic intrapersonal communication skills due to having

more opportunities to practice, introverted students will do better at developing

cognitive academic language ability.

“Extraverts are sociable, like parties, have many friends and need excitement;
they are sensation-seekers and risk-takers, like practical jokes and are lively
and active. Conversely introverts are quiet, prefer reading to meeting people,
have few but close friends and usually avoid excitement” (Eysenck and Chan
1982:I54 as cited in Ellis, 2012).

h. Motivation: Motivation in a Second language is complex. It has been defined in terms

of two factors:

1. Learner’s communicative needs

2. Their attitude towards the second language community

(Lightbown & Spada, 2011).

i. Intelligence: It is usually associated with the performance of certain kind of tests.

These tests are often associated with success in school, and link between intelligence
Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 25

and second language learning has sometimes been reported (Lightbown & Spada,

2011).

Although learning occurs differently in adults and children, all second language learners,

regardless of age, have already acquired at least one language (See Figure 2 for more details).

The prior knowledge may be an advantage for them in the sense that they have an idea of how

languages work (Lightbown & Spada, 2011). The ability to know more than one language is

known as multilingual competence or “multi-competence”, which refers to the compound state

of a mind with two or more grammars which is distinguished from monolingual competence

which refers to knowledge of only one language (Saville-Troike, 2006).

Language Acquisition Analysis

The theoretical framework of Becker describes CS as a phenomenon that includes

linguistic also identified as “out of the mouth”, psycholinguistic known as “in the head”, and

social-situational dimensions recognized as “on the spot” (Becker, 2001). These perspectives

give readers a better understanding of how language is developed in emergent students. Also,

these categories or factors may be a factor in why some emergent learners could be more

successful than others and guide educators and assessors to determine the learner’s language

acquisition stage (See Figure 3 for more details).

a. Linguistics’ perspective emphasizes the characteristics of the differences and similarities

in the languages that are being learned, and the competence and linguistic performance of

learners at various stages of acquisition.

b. Psychologists and psycholinguistics emphasize the mental or cognitive processes

involved in acquisition, and the representation of language(s) in the brain.

Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 26

c. Social psychologists emphasize group-related phenomena, such as identity and social

motivation, and the international and larger social context of learning (Saville-Troike,

2006).

There are two types of linguistic tradition in Second Language Acquisition (SLA):

Typological Universals (TU) and Universal Grammar (UG). Typological Universal, from the

behaviorist perspective, claims that language is learned by the actual study of the language

grammar. It is the study of the structure of the language in a formal approach. On the other hand,

Universal Grammar, from the innatist perspective, consists of highly abstract linguistic

principles, which claim that there is not one set of rules found in one specific language but

consists of ethical principles. In other words, it is the idea that UG exists in the unconscious

learner’s mind and it is reflected in the rules of specific languages. Two assumptions of UG are:

a. human beings possess a highly special specific capacity for language learning,

b. the capacity is innate and biologically determined (Ellis, Linguistic Universals and

Second Language Acquisition, 2012).

What is Code Switching?

Code Switching (CS) is a common phenomenon not only around the United States but

around the world. The aforementioned is a natural part of being bilingual (Palmer D. , Code-

Switching and Symbolic Power in a Second-Grade Two-Way Classroom: A Teacher's

Motivation System Gone Awry, 2009), so it is very normal for people who have developed two

or more languages to use it frequently.

Heredia & Altarriba (2001) stated: “Bilingual speakers often code-switch from one

language to another, especially when both languages are used in the environment and it follows

functional and grammatical principles and is a complex, rule-governed phenomenon” (p. 164). It
Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 27

is a verbal strategy available only to fairly proficient bilinguals (Becker, 2001). Code switching,

or alternation of two languages in a single clause or sentence is a complex process, governed by

rules of the use of the language that offers a unique opportunity to study some of the most

challenging aspects of bilingual speech. The code change includes the use of complete sentences,

phrases and borrowed words from another language (Brice & Brice, 2000 as cited in Hughes,

Shaunessy, Brice, Ratliff, & McHatton, 2006). This phenomenon is also known as code

alternation or code-mixing (Fakeye, 2012).

Recently, new researchers from CUNY College in New York City had used the term

“translanguaging” to describe this phenomenon in a different context: daily life. The meaning of

this term is very similar to code-switching, with a few variations. Translanguaging indicates the

action in which people coexist while utilizing more than one language in their daily life.

Although the researchers have made it clear that this is not the same as code-switching, the

definition still gives us an extended vision of what this phenomenon (CS) is in the life of a

bilingual person.

Translanguaging refers to the language practices of bilingual people.

If you’ve ever been present in the home of a bilingual family, you will notice that many
language practices are used. Sometimes the children are speaking one language and the
parents another, even to each other! Often both languages are used to include friends and
family members who may not speak one language or the other, to engage all. In an
English-Spanish bilingual home the television might be tuned into an English-language
channel, while the radio may be blasting a Spanish-language show. But if you listen
closely to the radio program, you will notice that the call-ins are not always in Spanish.
Sometimes they’re in English only, with the radio announcer negotiating the English for
the Spanish-speaking audience. But many times, the radio announcer also reflects the
language practices of a bilingual speaker, with features of Spanish and English fluidly
used to narrate an event, explain a process, inform listeners, or sell a product. Indeed,
what is taking place in this bilingual family, their flexible use of their linguistic resources
to make meaning of their lives and their complex worlds. Translanguaging takes the
position that language is action and practice, and not a simple system of structures and
discreet sets of skills. That’s why translanguaging uses an –ing form, emphasizing the
action and practice of languaging bilingually (Celic & Seltzer, 2011, p. 1).
Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 28

From the international perspective, Muysken (1995) used the term “mixed code” to refer

to the outcome of language alternation in a sentence or clause, meanwhile, the utilization of the

term “code-switching” is used to denote the alternate use of two or more languages in an

extended stretch of discourse, where the switch takes place at sentence or clause. (Li, 2008).

Here, the terms can connote a positive or negative intonation. Moreover, it is generally defined

as a nonstandard use of L2 within an L1 situation by bilinguals or even those who speak two or

more languages in the same conversation (as cited in Moghadam, Samad, & Shahraki, 2012).

Code Switching is shifting from one language to another in a conversation. It is normal

everyday practice among people in the world for various reasons and usually an unconscious

activity (Moghadam, Samad, & Shahraki, 2012). In order to code switch effectively, students

must possess a high level of understanding of the two cultures, as well as a deep understanding

of the underlying structures and purposes of two language systems. Code switching is prevalent

throughout our society, delineating differences between cultural, generational, and technological

users (Hughes, Shaunessy, Brice, Ratliff, & McHatton, 2006).

Even though CS has been defined as a natural process of possessing and understanding

two or more languages, the perspectives towards bilingualism and the CS phenomenon are

diverse. There are two inclinations in which researchers have perceived the knowledge of two

languages. Bilingualism can be perceived as a subtractive or an additive language process.

a. The subtractive aspect denotes that as fluency and vocabulary grow in one

language, fluency and vocabulary decrease in the other, replacing the original

language as the “primary language”.

b. In contrast, additive bilingualism is the process of acquiring the terms and fluency

in a second language acquisition without losing the skills with the first (Lamberts,

1975 as cited in Hughes, Shaunessy, Brice, Ratliff, & McHatton, 2006).

Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 29

Types of Code Switching

CS can occur in different ways and with different purposes. Borrowing, calque and

intersentential are the three major types of code mixing. The table below explains each one of

these concepts.

Types of Code Switching

1. Borrowing It refers to the use of a single word from a language different than the
primary language, which is similar in grammatical usage, but is a term
that is not available in the target language.
2. Calque Translating an expression from another language without the use of
appropriate syntax.
Example:
• “el lote de parquear” instead of el “area de estacionamiento”
Translation: the parking lot
3. Intersentential Interjecting and entire sentence or phrase from one language into the
target language. This may serve to emphasize a point made in the other
language; to a signal a switch in the conversation participants; to
indicate to whom the statement is addressed. Also, is usually used to
dictate or command something:
• “Siéntate” – sit down
• “Ya, se acabó” – it is over
(Hughes, Shaunessy, Brice, Ratliff, & McHatton, 2006)

Why are Some Researchers Against Code Switching?

Historically, code switching has been discouraged in the educational system and society

at large because of concerns that CS will influence one or both of the languages and lead to
Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 30

language decay (Aitchison, 1991 as cited in Hughes, Shaunessy, Brice, Ratliff, & McHatton,

2006).

In the United States and around the world, English has been the language symbol of

power. Although the United States does not have a national official language due the

multicultural background that created the nation, English has been the formal language used in

governmental agencies and when used to communicate across the country. For many people in

the United States, speaking a language other than English creates a sense of separation. As a new

nation in comparison with others in the world, for many Americans it is important to create a

sense of identity, and English gave them that comfort. As a result, even some bilingual programs

in the United States pushed for moving students towards English and the traditional policy that

most school districts have employed has been the eradication of the original language or culture

and assimilation into the majority language and culture (Salluzzo, 1994 as cited in Hughes,

Shaunessy, Brice, Ratliff, & McHatton, 2006).

Palmer (2009) claimed that given that students in two way classrooms are all expected to

develop bilingualism and biliteracy, and given the extent to which English serves as the language

of power in the United States, it does seem that options are limited in terms of encouraging

students to maintain and deepen their hold on the minority language.

Due to the influence in business that the English language has across the world, many

multilingual speakers believe that CS is a sign of linguistic weakness or inadequacy and many

bilingual teachers work hard to fight code-switching when it occurs in their classrooms (Palmer,

2009). This perspective is in many ways due to the opposition from the purists of the language,

who have opposed the interfusion of two languages. Fundamentally, traditions of language

alternation became known with the ban on the use of the learners’ first language (L1) in foreign

language teaching (L2) and it was introduced with the Direct Method at the end of the nineteenth
Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 31

century. For example, some linguists argue that an open view towards CS may lead to an

overuse/injudicious use of CS by teachers (Cook, 2001 as cited in Gulzar, 2010).

Also, some researchers attribute that the code change is negative for the emergent

student. They argue that the purpose for which people use code change is to compensate for the

lack of knowledge and that they do not fully know either language L1 or L2 (Grosjean, 1982 as

cited in Heredia & Altarriba, 2001).

Most of the problems attributed from CS in the literature are related to language

proficiency:

a. Weakness in the memory of language by the low frequency of use of a word

or phrase:

Example: The student uses the English word “background” in a Spanish

conversation because he/she does not have experience using the word in

Spanish: “trasfondo”.

b. Not understanding of the change in grammatical structure of a language to

another:

Example: In English the adjective comes before the noun.

(e.g., “I want a green tomato”)

Adj. N

In Spanish the noun comes before the adjective.

(e.g., “Quiero un tomate verde”)

N Adj.

c. Language proficiency is not well defined:

Example: A student may dominate Spanish conversation because the

language is mostly used to interact but may have difficulty in reading and
Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 32

writing in Spanish if their formal education has been in English (Heredia

& Altarriba, 2001).

In the past, many researchers advocated and favored the exclusiveness of the use of the

target language. Now, those perceptions are losing popularity. There is an increase in people

who support the use of the mixture of language in the classroom. Allowing CS or

translanguaging in the classroom is important. Teachers often are lacking an awareness of the

process of code switching and increased training should be sought to increase linguistic

awareness of the possibility of giftedness among new English speakers. If teachers were aware of

the challenges and requirements of CS as evidence of intellectual behavior, then this perspective

could change (Harris, 1993).

What the Literature says about the Benefits of Code-Switching?

Switching rather than reflecting the traditional view of a disadvantaged and semiliterate

background actually reflects an intellectual advantage (Hughes, Shaunessy, Brice, Ratliff, &

McHatton, 2006). An example of L1 being an advantage to learn L2 is when students are able to

identify the changes in grammar from one language to another. Those children who can operate

smoothly between two languages seem to be especially good on subtests that require mental

manipulation and reorganization of visual patterns (Patillo, 1999 as cited in Hughes, Shaunessy,

Brice, Ratliff, & McHatton, 2006). In a conversation, students may insert a word from L1 in their

L2 conversation or vice versa without affecting the syntax patterns of the sentence. The students

are definitely applying the syntax rules of the language but using another language in parts of the

conversation without altering the meaning. A good example is this stanza from a conversation in

a video among students from Sacramento:

• What are you focusing “para este examen”?

Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 33

• Debes conocer un poco de ambos textos “because you never know”…

(Roseberry, 2012)

When CS it is used due the lack of linguistic expression, tranlanguaging provides continuity in

speech rather than presenting interference in language.

Bilingualism is present in practically every country of the world, in all classes of society,

and in all groups of people. Not only is bilingualism worldwide, it is a phenomenon that has

existed since the beginning of language in human history (Saville-Troike, 2006).

Research on code-switching demonstrates that fluent bilinguals use code-switching as

they may use many other linguistic resources, drawing on both (or all) of the codes available to

them in patterned and structured ways in order to express their meanings (Chung, 2006; Clyne,

2000; Myers-Scotton,1995; Poplack, 2000 as cited in Palmer, 2009). Additionally, CS serves

users to claim membership and affiliation in multilingual communities. In an examination of

young Spanish/ English bilingual students’ patterns of code switching, (Reyes, 2004) found that

for children just as for adults code-switching was to communicate competence and about

maintaining a sense of control in a conversation, not about lack of language proficiency (Palmer,

2009).

The translanguage phenomenon has become very handy for teachers with students from

diverse cultures. In a study published in “Science and Education Center Canadian” Fakeye

(2012) stated that it is recommended that parents and teachers should have a positive attitude

towards code switching and it should not be seen as a sign of linguistic incompetence but

valuable in the classroom with the intention of:

a. providing essential meaning to create lessons across the curriculum and work with

texts that are mostly written in English

b. learning new vocabulary in the classroom

Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 34

c. establishing a relationship with students or asserting the authority of the teacher.

Additionally, an article from the United Kingdom mentioned that there is a pedagogic

potential behind CS. These include increasing the inclusion, participation, understanding of

pupils in the learning process, developing less formal relationships between participants,

conveying ideas more easily, accomplishing lessons and, contributing to a “teachable” pedagogic

resource (Creese & Blackledge, 2010).

Garcia (2008) demonstrated how being flexible in the classroom and allowing

translanguage can help the students to make progress in L2.

In a fourth grade bilingual class, a recently arrived Spanish speaking girl writes a
sophisticated Spanish essay in September. But during English as a Second
Language (ESL) class, she can only copy simple English language sentences that
she illustrates in child-like ways – “I see a teacher”, “I see a student”, “I see a
clock”. But when the teacher gives her the option to write in any language she
wants, the student immediately tries to incorporate new English words and
phrases into her Spanish essays (p. 154).

When and Why do Students Code Switch?

Acquisition of the mother tongue starts at home. Once the emergent learner enters into

contact with L2 and people from different culture backgrounds, code change starts occurring.

“Research on code switching shows that people fluent in two languages use the same code

change used by many other linguistic resources, using both (or all) of the codes available to them

in many ways modeled and structured, to express their meanings and also as a way to claim

membership and affiliation in multilingual communities” (Chung, 2006; Clyne, 2000; Myers-

Scotton, 1995; Poplack, 2000, as cited in Palmer, 2009, p.42). Perez and Torres-Guzman (2002)

stated that the reasons children most often switch to a given language are the following:
Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 35

a. The child uses the language most frequently used by the adult in interactions between

them. For example, a child might speak Spanish to an aunt who constantly addresses

and responds to the child in Spanish.

b. The child associates the use of a language with a particular person because this person

is perceived to be more fluent in that language

Also, Hammink (2000) included that the emergent student is most likely to change from a

language to another:

c. Before and after tags. For example, “You are almost done with school, verdad?”

instead of “You are almost done with school, right?”

d. Before predicate adjectives. For instance, “Es muy cute” rather than “It’s really cute”.

e. And, between clauses. Perhaps, “That is the lady que tiene cuatro hijos” in place of

“That is the lady who has four children” (as cited in Hughes, Shaunessy, Brice,

Ratliff, & McHatton, 2006, p. 13).

Students code switch in two different environments. It occurs during socialization

between two bilinguals (Gulzar, 2010). Sometimes, changing codes works as a way for an

emergent student to establish himself/herself as a member of a particular group or as a way of

identifying his/her own peer group. Students use CS as a manifestation of a strong integration of

two or more cultures (Hughes, Shaunessy, Brice, Ratliff, & McHatton, 2006).

Why do teachers Code-Switch?

Teachers are generally the principal speaker who guides the lessons and bilingual

teachers in multicultural classroom have more tendencies to switch their speech from one

language to another when the situation requires it. “The motivation for using the L1 in language

instruction ranges from the perceived need to accommodate students in their native tongue”
Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 36

(Chavez, 2006 as cited in Jones, 2010, p. 11) “to offering explanations of L2 concepts that do not

exist in the L1”. The speaker shifts to the second language in order to capture students thinking

processes or to reflect the inadequate understanding of the other person. This type of CS is most

likely considered strength when it is used as a sociolinguistic tool to aid the understanding of

another person who is not facile in both languages. In the classroom, CS may have very specific

functions:

a. for translations,

b. as a “we code” which is used for establishing and maintaining solidarity and

group membership,

c. for giving procedures and directions,

d. for clarifications especially when introducing new vocabulary words,

e. and as a check for understanding (Hughes, Shaunessy, Brice, Ratliff, &

McHatton, 2006)

Fennema-Bloom (2009) concurred that investigations of the CS phenomenon in the classroom

suggest that teachers’ code-switching, whether in teacher-led classroom discourse or in teacher-

student interaction, serves many pedagogical purposes:

a. Code-switching is employed in more subtle and diverse ways in bilingual

classroom communication. Teachers and learners exploit code contrast to

demarcate different types of discourse, to negotiate and renegotiate joint frames of

reference and to exchange meaning in the spur of the moment.

b. At the informal level, code-switching performed a role of administration or

management.
Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 37

c. In the formal level, it was formally used in order to do functions like introducing,

explaining, commenting, practicing, the target language, and so forth (Gulzar,

2010).

We can summarize that for teachers in general, CS can be helpful to reach students’

background knowledge and help them acquire L2 in a less stressful and a biliteracy valuable

way: translating, using we code form, understanding procedures and directions, clarifying, and

checking for understanding.

What Benefits Does the Use of Code Switching Have in the Classroom?

English language learners learn best when their needs are meet (Ovando & Carols,

Students, 2012). The flexibility of the teacher in the classroom in terms of code-switching can

support that the language literacy occurs. Also, it is important to be culturally sensitive and

aware. Supporting code-switching as a tool to acquire a second language enables teachers to

increase those “aha moments” in the students. Additionally, it can promote a positive

environment in the classroom. By allowing students to learn new words, phrases or terms while

feeling that their previous knowledge in their mother tongue is valuable and is a part of them can

help them to succeed in a the new environment.

There is a large increase in people who support the use of combination of language (CS)

in the classroom. For teachers, it is important to ensure that when they are using quotes students

understand the message and, therefore, in many cases in order to help students understand

quotations, the insertion of words or direct translations is required. Fakeye (2012) recommended

that parents and teachers have a positive attitude towards the code switching and it should not be

seen as a sign of linguistic incompetence. The code change should be utilized and is beneficial in

bilingual classrooms:
Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 38

a. to provide essential means to create successful lessons across the curriculum and work

with texts that are mostly written in English,

b. to learn new vocabulary in the classroom, and

c. to establish a relationship with students or assert the authority of the teacher

Becker (2001) indicated that CS storytelling provides students the opportunity to gain

experience with the linguistic, psycholinguistic, and social-communicative aspects of two

languages and to signal meaning by shifts. Teachers should consider CS as a viable academic

phenomenon and explore ways for bilingual students to use this activity to enhance verbal skills

and reading development

De Mejía (1998) investigated two Colombian preschool teachers use of code switching in

storytelling sessions. Her research suggested that preschool teachers’ code-switch story telling

with students’ interaction can facilitate comprehension and narrative skill development that are

critical to school related activities with literacy development (as cited in Becker, 2001). Shin

and Milroy (2000) investigated CS as a contextual cue in the sequential development of

conversational interaction among elementary Korean-English children in classroom activities

including story telling. In this research, CS appears to be an additional resource to achieve

particular linguistic goals. For example, it helped to accommodate other participants’ language

competencies and preferences such as organizing conversational tasks such as turn-taking,

emphasis marking, and clarification (as cited in Becker, 2001).

CS can be a useful technique in classroom interaction, especially if the goal is to clarify

and convey the information to students in an efficient way. Better understanding of CS and

bilingualism has had positive impacts on the planning for bilingual education. Program

developers and policy makers should bear in mind that in the case of language, first we develop

understanding and then we develop language (Moghadam, Samad, & Shahraki, 2012).
Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 39

What Should Teachers Know About CS?

Due to the increasing multicultural population in schools, teachers should be prepared to

attend to the needs of the emergent students. That implies certain flexibility in language use in

the classroom. Recent literature about language development in emergent students suggests “that

public school classroom teachers need to be much more knowledgeable about the learning needs

of emergent bilingual children and English learners” (Gándara, Maxwell-Jolly, & Driscoll, 2005;

Wright & Sung, 2012 as cited in Faltis, 2013, p. 18)

Teaching a second language, whether in a monolingual or bilingual setting, necessarily

raises questions of methodology; among these questions is one concerning language distribution

issues and the role of L1 in second-language acquisition. Moore (2002) said that teachers should

know how to approach the use of a second language in the classroom, because it is definitely a

tool that a bilingual student has to communicate and put in practice all their knowledge.

Language forms a large part of students’ culture. Teachers should know that students

respond better if they can identify their culture in the literature. “The findings show that

culturally relevant books facilitate culturally responsive teaching in bilingual classrooms.

Participants responded positively to children’s literature that was representative of their culture.

Children identified themselves with cultural traditions portrayed in the books and with the

characters’ identities and personalities” (Rodríguez, 2014, p. 2).

Teachers should know that “CS is for the development of the students in the learning

process and should not be taken for granted. Overall, it does not show their competence or lack

of competence in L2. CS should rather be seen and used as a tool that serves to several functions

that facilitate both learning and teaching.” (Horasan, 2014, p. 42).

Based on the survey conducted at EMHCS and what the literature said about CS, it is

important that educators receive a professional development presenting information concerning

Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 40

why CS is an important phenomenon in the classroom, and how it can be beneficial for students

to use it.
Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 41

Chapter III

As a result of the survey, it was found that the EMHCS personnel needed further

information about CS. In order to reach the staff at EMHCS and bring more information about

CS in the classroom to them, the researcher decided to prepare a professional development to

serve those needs found: lack of familiarity about CS in Grades 5-8, lack of understanding about

the reason a child code switches, lack of knowledge about the benefits of using or allowing the

use of CS in the classroom, and the desire to know how can it be integrated into the instruction to

maximize learning. In order to understand the phenomenon of code alternation, first it is

necessary to identify how L2 is acquired. This phenomenon occurs mostly among those that are

able to speak two or more languages, so, it is necessary to explain it first and then define code-

switching as a phenomenon; a result of acquisition of L2. Below, you will find in detail how the

product of this thesis project was presented.

Powerpoint Presentation: The presentation provides information about code switching. It will

be divided into several parts and activities that will help educators to create their own feelings

and comfort about CS. Also, it provides answers to the questions realized in the survey. These

answers are supported by quotes and references from other researchers who also study the

phenomenon of CS. The outline below describes the product:

I. Introduction to CS

II. Main questions and concerns from the staff as result of the survey in EMHCS

III. Some factors of Second Language Acquisition

IV. What is code switching?

V. Code Switching is everywhere!

Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 42

In this section of the training, the researcher will present some examples of how CS is

present in our daily lives through television, radio, music, literature, school, etc. The

use of the Internet is required to access the links available in the presentation.

VI. Types of code switching

VII. Two Big Perspectives:

This section is an introduction of the two big perspectives of researchers towards

knowing two or more languages: Additive or Subtractive.

VIII. What do researchers say about this phenomenon? Positives and negatives

In this part of the PD, the staff will be exposed to different opinions from part of

researchers about CS. The staff will be able to understand the pros and cons, and form

their own opinions about the topic.

IX. Think – Pair – Share - Write Activity: Why do you think students CS?

This activity enables colleagues to exchange their ideas about the topic. Also, it gives

them some time to think about their group of students and how they interact in the

classroom. The instructions for this activity are the following:

1. Think about the question,

2. Talk with your group,

3. Once you receive a sticky note, write your group answer to the following

question: Why do you think students code switch?

4. Then, stick your note on the board.

X. Why do students code switch?

XI. When do students CS?

XII. Why, when and how do students code switch? (Video)

Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 43

Within the presentation of a video called: Code switching Celeste Roseberry, teachers

have the opportunity to see how students CS in a conversation. The video gives the

staff a better idea of why, when and how this phenomenon occurs. This video was

published on April 16, 2012. In the same video, students from California State

University, Sacramento demonstrate typical code switching between English and

Spanish.

XIII. Walk – Turn - Talk Activity: Why do teachers CS?

This fun and interactive activity will give the staff the opportunity to move around,

talk with colleagues about the question posted on the board and analyze their

dialogues in the classroom. The instructions will be the following:

1. There will be a question on the board: “Why do teachers CS?”

2. Staff will stand up

3. Staff will wait for trainer to play music.

4. Once the music starts, the staff will move around the classroom in different

directions.

5. When the music stops, the staff will freeze and turn to the closest colleague

and talk about the question on the board.

6. The process will be repeated two more times so the staff has the opportunity

to exchange ideas with different colleagues in the training.

XIV. Why do teachers CS in the classroom?

There are three slides of information about why teachers CS and the functions of it in

the classroom.

XV. What are the benefits of CS in the classroom?

XVI. How can we integrate CS into the instruction to maximize students learning?
Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 44

As part of the survey, teachers and staff wanted to see how CS could be part of the

lessons, and what it looks like. There are several ways in which CS could be

integrated in the instruction to fulfill our learning targets and goals in the classroom.

In this PD, the staff has the opportunity to practice one activity that could be used in

the classroom with different subjects and different learning targets. This activity is

modeled and practiced for the staff with the purpose of promoting flexibility towards

language in the classroom and a safe and fun environment for students to learn. The

grammar mistakes of the students are not corrected at the moment. Also, there should

not be any translation of the student’s contributions to the story while the story is still

in its developing process. After each student in the classroom contributes his/her part

of the story, the teacher can go back and read the story with the students and ask them

if something in the story should be changed or modified in order to accomplish the

learning targets. The sample can be used over and over in order to create teachable

moments for the students. The instructions for the activity are the following:

1. Teacher introduces the character or object

2. The teacher starts the story and passes the object to a student who is going to

add to the story

3. Each time a student adds to the story, the teacher will write it down on a big

sheet of lined paper

4. The teacher should not change students’ word selection, even if the word is in

a different language

5. Once everyone finishes, the teacher goes back and reads the story, focusing on

the learning targets

Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 45

In addition to the story telling activity, the teachers and staff have the

opportunity to see how to integrate CS in their class. They see how even not

knowing a second language, it is possible to integrate CS into their lesson

plans when working in a multicultural classroom. This year the students in

Grade 5 at EMHCS had the opportunity to read the book, “Esperanza Rising”

by Pam Muñoz. The author of the book includes words and phrases in Spanish

to the literary book, which is written mostly in English.

At the end of the training, the staff at EMHCS has a section for their questions and can

complete a feedback form with the following questions/prompts:

I especially liked…

It might be better if…

How can you integrate this in your instruction and classroom environment?

Other suggestions and comments

A question/concern I still have is…

As educators of students that are learning a second language we have the responsibility to

model and offer as much exposure as possible to the target language. But sometimes L1 is

required to gain a better understanding of L2. For that reason, it is important that when teachers

use code witching, it has a purpose in class.

Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 46

Chapter IV

Limitations

In the process of working with the thesis project the researcher faced some limitations.

The most challenging part was to be able to survey the staff at the school, which is divided

between two buildings. During in this process, the school’s administration and the use of the

Internet were very helpful to make sure everyone received the survey, although receiving it did

not guarantee that it would get completed and returned.

In addition, during the administration of the survey, part of the staff did not know or had

never heard about the topic. This was a limitation because the researcher could not acquire

information from the teachers’ experiences and observations.

Another limitation was that the sample size of responses was too small. Had a larger

number of surveys been returned, the researcher could have seen a wider vision of the school’s

needs about this phenomenon.

Because the purpose of this thesis project was to use the educators’ perspective, a

limitation for this purpose was to not have evidence directly from students that shows or proves

the students’ progress at EMHCS by using CS.

Recommendations

As the main resource for this thesis project, the researcher used educators’ points of view

and observations; an additional research needs to be done focusing on the students’ use of this

phenomenon in the classroom.

In order to continue helping educators develop better practices in the classroom, a pre-

service training program should be given to help educators to prepare lesson plans that promote

flexibility and also focus on the development of the target language by using CS.
Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 47

Moreover, after receiving the professional development about CS, it would be good to

obtain and record information from teachers’ code switching practices, and the students’ success

in the acquisition of the L2.

Since teachers do not have the opportunity to see how CS functions in different content

areas, teachers should have the opportunity to meet and talk with educators of different content

areas about when their students resort to the use of another language, either L1 or L2.

Conclusions

English language learners learn best when their needs are met (Ovando & Carols, 2012).

The flexibility of the teacher in the classroom in terms of code-switching can ensure that

language literacy occurs. Also, it is important to be culturally aware and sensitive. Supporting

code-switching in the classroom as a tool to acquire a second language enables teachers to

increase those “teachable moments” in students. Additionally, it can promote a positive

environment in the classroom by allowing students learn new words, phrases or terms while

feeling that their previous knowledge in their mother tongue is valuable and that it is a part of

them that can help them succeed in a different environment.

As part of the practices in education programs today, teachers try to incorporate other

materials into their lessons so students make connections. Similarly, the code-switch serves as a

tool that educators can use to make connections with the cultural background of the student

where the pupil uses prior knowledge to learn new information.

Although there are investigations against the use of code switching, there are others that

support this phenomenon and through this thesis project, the researcher sees the great purpose

that CS has in multicultural classes and bilingual programs. Even those teachers who do not
Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 48

speak a second language but who work with multicultural and multi-competence classrooms can

benefit from the use of this tool in the classroom.

As a result of the questionnaire realized among educators at EMHCS about CS, the

researcher found that educators need to become well-informed and knowledgeable about CS;

mostly among those whom teach Grades 5-8. Also, the educators need to see and understand

that CS is a great resource to maximize the second language acquisition. Therefore, in order to

resolve the lack of knowledge found among educators of EMHCS, the researcher will offer a

professional development using a Powerpoint presentation and different interactive activities to

inform educators and offer ideas about how to use or allow the use of CS in the classroom.
Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 49

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Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 55

Appendix A

Teachers Questionnaire

Code Switching: How Teachers, Teachers Assistants or Classroom Helpers Use

Code Switching in the Classroom as a Resource.
Master’s Thesis Project
SUNY College at Brockport
Grade _____________

1. Mark with an (X) one of the following to identify your position in school:
_______Teacher ________Teacher Assistant ________Classroom Helper

2. What is your definition of code switching?

3. When do students code switch?

4. Why do you think students use code switching?

5. What are your beliefs about code switching in the classroom?

6. From 1 to 5, what are your feelings about students code-switching in the classroom?
Please circle your answer:
Strongly dislike Dislike Indifferent Like it Love it

1 2 3 4 5

7. In what subject areas do you find that students code switch?

8. In what subject areas do you find yourself code switching?

9. Do you perceive a higher success in students achievements when they code-switch?

10. What PD (professional development) would you like to see about code-switching?
Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom 56

Appendix B

Professional Development Feedback Form

Professional Development
Code Switching: A Tool for Educators
Eugenio María de Hostos Charter School

Trainer: Karen Algarín

I especially liked…
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

It might be better if…

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

How can you integrate this in your instruction and classroom environment?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Other suggestions and comments

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

A question/concern I still have

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Code Switching: A Tool in the Classroom

Figure 1
Figure 2

Differences between child and adult’s acquisition of L2

Younger learners Older Learners

 Is not cognitive mature or  Has Cognitive maturity and

metalinguistic awareness metalinguistic awareness
 Culturally, children are willing to try to  Culturally, many adults and adolescents
use the language even were their find it stressful when they are unable to
proficiency is quite limited. express themselves clearly and
correctly.
 In informal second language  In informal settings, they are forced to
environment, they are allowed to be speak to carry out everyday tasks such
silent until they are ready to speak. shopping, medical visits, or job
interviews.
 In school, this group has opportunities  In school, older learners are often
to practice their second language forced to speak in order to meet the
“voice” in songs and games that allow classroom requirements.
them to blend their voices with other
children.
 They are exposed to the second  Usually, fewer hours of second
language for more hours, either in a language exposure. For example,
formal or informal environment. classroom learners in foreign classes
spent a few hours exposure in formal
L2 classes while less time of exposure
in informal L2 environments.

(Lightbown & Spada, 2011)

Figure 3

Becker’s Theorical Framework of CS Factors that contribute to CD

1. Linguistic a. Number of switches

b. Total number of words in both languages

c. Student’s grade level

d. English Language Proficiency (ELP)

e. Second Language Proficiency (SLP)

f. Student’s fluency

g. Students language dominance

2. Psycholinguistic a. Frequency of exposure

b. Cultural untranslatability – some terms are

familiar in a particular language

c. Emphasis

d. Mode / topic shift

e. Personalization/ objectification of the message

– “we code”

3. Social factors a. The physical characteristics of the addressee

b. The language proficiency and preference of the

addressee

c. The speaker’s role relative to the addressee

d. A sequential response to prior CS

e. The atmosphere in which CS is occurred

(Becker, 2001)