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UNIT – 3
Concepts and basic relations in boundary layers:
Introduction:
Convection is the mode of heat transfer between a surface and a fluid moving over it. The energy transfer
in convection is predominately due to the bulk motion of the fluid particles; through the molecular conduction
within the fluid itself also contributes to some extent. If this motion is mainly due to the density variations
associated with temperature gradients within the fluid, the mode of heat transfer is said to be due to free or natural
convection. On the other hand if this fluid motion is principally produced by some superimposed velocity field
like fan or blower, the energy transport is said to be due to forced convection.
Convection Boundary Layers:

Velocity Boundary Layer: Consider the flow of fluid over a flat plate as shown in the figure. The fluid
approaches the plate in x direction with uniform velocity u∞. The fluid particles in the fluid layer adjacent to the
surface get zero velocity. This motionless layer acts to retract the motion of particles in the adjoining fluid layer
as a result of friction between the particles of these two adjoining fluid layers at two different velocities. This fluid
layer then acts to restart the motion of particles of next fluid layer and so on, until a distance y = from surface
reaches, where these effects become negligible and the fluid velocity u reaches the free stream velocity u∞. as a
result of frictional effects between the fluid layers, the local fluid velocity u will vary from x =0, y = 0 to y = .

The region of the flow over the surface bounded by in which the effects of viscous shearing forces caused by
fluid viscosity are observed, is called velocity boundary layer or hydro dynamic boundary layer. The thickness of
boundary layer is generally defined as a distance from the surface at which local velocity u = 0.99 of free stream
velocity u∞. The retardation of fluid motion in the boundary layer is due to the shear stresses acting in opposite
direction with increasing the distance y from the surface shear stress decreases, the local velocity u increases until

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approaches u∞. With increasing the distance from the leading edge, the effect of viscosity penetrates further into
the free stream and boundary layer thickness grows.
Thermal boundary Layer: If the fluid flowing on a surface has a different temperature than the surface,
the thermal boundary layer developed is similar to the velocity boundary layer. Consider a fluid at a temperature
T∞ flows over a surface at a constant temperature Ts. The fluid particles in adjacent layer to the plate get the same
temperature that of surface. The particles exchange heat energy with particles in adjoining fluid layers and so on.
As a result, the temperature gradients are developed in the fluid layers and a temperature profile is developed in
the fluid flow, which ranges from Ts at the surface to fluid temperature T∞ sufficiently far from the surface in y
direction.

The flow region over the surface in which the temperature variation in the direction, normal to surface is
at any location alongthe length of flow is defined as a distance y from the surface at which the temperature
difference (T-Ts) equal
0.99 of (T∞ - Ts). With increasing the distance from leading edge the effect of heat transfer penetrates further into
the free stream and the thermal boundary layer grows as shown in the figure. The convection heat transfer rate
anywhere along the surface is directly related to the temperature gradient at that location. Therefore, the shape of
the temperature profile in the thermal boundary layer leads to the local convection heat transfer between surface
and flowing fluid.
Development of velocity boundary layer on a flat plate:

It is most essential to distinguish between laminar and turbulent boundary layers. Initially, the boundary
layer development is laminar as shown in figure for the flow over a flat plate. Depending upon the flow field and
fluid properties, at some critical distance from the leading edge small disturbances in the flow begin to get

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amplified, a transition process takes place and the flow becomes turbulent. In laminar boundary layer, the fluid
motion is highly ordered whereas the motion in the turbulent boundary layer is highly irregular with the fluid
moving to and from in all directions. Due to fluid mixing resulting from these macroscopic motions, the turbulent
boundary layer is thicker and the velocity profile in turbulent boundary layer is flatter than that in laminar flow.

The critical distance xcbeyond which the flow cannot retain its laminar character is usually specified in
term of critical Reynolds number Re. Depending upon surface and turbulence level of free stream the critical
Reynolds number varies between 105 and 3 X 106. In the turbulent boundary layer, as seen three distinct regimes
exist. A laminar sub-layer, existing next to the wall, has a nearly linear velocity profile. The convective transport
in this layer is mainly molecular. In the buffer layer adjacent to the sub-layer, the turbulent mixing and diffusion
effects are comparable. Then there is the turbulent core with large scale turbulence.
Application of dimensional analysis for free convection:
Dimensional analysis is a mathematical method which makes use of the study of the dimensions for
solving several engineering problems. This method can be applied to all types of fluid resistances, heat flow
problems in fluid mechanics and thermodynamics.
Let us assume that heat transfer coefficient ‘h’ in fully developed forced convection in tube is function of
following variables;
h = f (D, V, k, ρ, μ, cp,)or --------------(1)
f1(h, D,V, ρ, k, μ, cp) ------------ (2)

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Nusselt Number (Nu).

It is defined as the ratio of the heat flow by convection process under a unit temperature gradient to the heat
flow rate by conduction under a unit temperature gradient through a stationary thickness (L).
𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛
𝑁𝑢𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑡 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟(𝑁𝑢) =
𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑

Grashof number (Gr).

It is defined as the ratio of product of inertia force and buoyancy force to the square of viscous force.

𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝐵𝑢𝑜𝑦𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 (𝐺𝑟) =
𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 2

Prandtl number (Pr).

It is the ratio of the momentum diffusivity to the thermal diffusivity.

𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑡𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 (𝑃𝑟) =
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡

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FORCED CONVECTION:

Applications of dimensional analysis for forced convection:

Dimensional analysis is a mathematical method which makes use of the study of the dimensions for solving
several engineering problems. This method can be applied to all types of fluid resistances, heat flow problems in
fluid mechanics and thermodynamics.
Let us assume that heat transfer coefficient ‘h’ in fully developed forced convection in tube is function of
following variables;
h = f (D, V, k, ρ, μ, cp) or
f1 (h, D, V, ρ, k, μ, cp)

Total no. of variables = n=7

Fundamental dimensions in problem = m =4 (M, L, T, θ)

No. of dimensionless π-Term= n-m = 3

Equation (2) can be written as;

f1(π1,π2,π3)=0

Choosing h, D, V, ρ as group of repeating variables with unknown exponents.

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Therefore,

𝜋1 = ℎ𝑎1. 𝜌𝑏1. 𝐷𝑐1. 𝑉𝑑1. 𝜇

𝜋2 = ℎ𝑎2. 𝜌𝑏2. 𝐷𝑐2. 𝑉𝑑2. 𝐶𝑃

𝜋3 = ℎ𝑎3. 𝜌𝑏3. 𝐷𝑐3. 𝑉𝑑3. 𝐾

π1-Term:

𝑴𝑳−𝟏𝑻−𝟏 = (𝑴𝑳−𝟑𝜽−𝟏)𝒂𝟏. (𝑴𝑳−𝟑)𝒃𝟏. (𝑳)𝒄𝟏. (𝑳𝑻−𝟏)𝒅𝟏. (𝑴𝑳−𝟏𝑻−𝟏)

Equating exponents of M, L, T,θ respectively, we get;

a1= 0, b1= -1, c1= -1, d1= -1

𝜋1 = ℎ𝑎1. 𝜌𝑏1. 𝐷𝑐1. 𝑉𝑑1. 𝜇

𝜇
𝜋1 =
𝐷. 𝑉. 𝜌

Similarly for π2 and π3 Term

π2-Term:

𝝅𝟐 = 𝒉−𝟏. 𝝆. 𝑽. 𝑪𝑷

𝝆. 𝑽. 𝑪𝑷
𝝅𝟐 =
𝒉

Since dimensions of h and k/D are same;

𝝅𝟐 = 𝝆. 𝑽. 𝑪𝑷. 𝑫⁄𝑲

π3-Term:

𝝅𝟑 = 𝒉−𝟏. 𝑫−𝟏. 𝑲

𝑲
𝝅𝟑 =
𝒉. 𝑫

According to π theorem:𝝅𝟑 = ∅(𝜋1, 𝝅𝟐)

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𝑲 𝜇
= 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕( )𝒎′(𝝆. 𝑽. 𝑪 . 𝑫⁄ )𝒏′
𝑷 𝑲
𝒉. 𝑫 𝐷. 𝑉. 𝜌

where m’ and n’ are constants.

If m’ > n’, then

𝑲 𝜇 𝑫 𝜇
= 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕( )𝒏′(𝝆. 𝑽. 𝑪 . ⁄ )𝒏′( ′
)𝒎 −𝒏′

𝒉. 𝑫 𝐷. 𝑉. 𝜌 𝑷 𝑲 𝐷. 𝑉. 𝜌

𝑲 𝜇 𝒎′−𝒏′
= 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕( ) (𝜇. 𝐶𝑃)𝒏′

𝒉. 𝑫 𝐷. 𝑉. 𝜌 𝑲

OR

𝒉. 𝑫 𝐷. 𝑉. 𝜌 𝒎 𝜇. 𝐶𝑃 𝒏
= 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕( ) ( )
𝑲 𝜇 𝐾

OR

𝑵𝒖 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕(𝑹𝒆)𝒎(𝑷𝒓)𝒏

Nusselt Number (Nu).

It is defined as the ratio of the heat flow by convection process under a unit temperature gradient to the heat
flow rate by conduction under a unit temperature gradient through a stationary thickness (L).
𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛
𝑁𝑢𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑡 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟(𝑁𝑢) =
𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑

Reynolds number (Re).

It is defined as the ratio of inertia force to viscous force.

𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟(𝑅𝑒) =
𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑢𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Prandtl number (Pr).

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It is the ratio of the momentum diffusivity to the thermal diffusivity.

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𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑡𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 (𝑃𝑟) = 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡

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