EXAM GUIDE

2022 EDITION COMPARATIVE GOVT

AND POLITICS
BA Hons Semester 3

• Past 4 year’s Question

papers

• Key points on all themes

• Model Answers to
important Questions

• 3 sets of Sample Question

Papers

• Answer Writing Tips

By the Author of
POL SC HELP
Dear students…Welcome Back to the new edition of the CP Exam
Guide !
This guide is intended to be best resource for your semester or term end exams!
What it contains?
• Past four year’s paper (taken from DU)
• Key points on all themes
• Answer templates to past year’s and other important questions
• 3 sets of sample question papers.
• Answer writing tips
How to use the Guide for the best results?
• First, watch the videos on the theme/topic from POL SC HELP- at least 4-5
times, first in normal speed, later on with faster speed and selectively. Final
watching shouldn’t take more than 5 min.
• Second, read the key points on the theme/topic very carefully. In fact, even if
you only remember the key points you can write answers in the exam.
• Third, read the answer templates at least 5 times. Again, the final reading may
not take more than 5-10 minutes.
o I have chosen the questions to cover the entire syllabus.
o Note the key phrases repeated in the answers. You should remember
and reproduce them in your answers.
o Also, note the standard words I have used in the answer. Their easier
meaning/synonyms are given in bracket.
• Fourth, read carefully the sample question papers (3 sets). I have given hints
to those questions, too. Read them carefully.
• Finally, read the answer writing tips; use them in the exam

GOOD WISHES!

1
 Table of contents

Theme/topic Page Number

Past Year Question Papers 3
Understanding Comparative Politics 9
Approaches to Study Comparative Politics 37
Capitalism 56
Socialism 76
Colonialism & Decolonisation 89
Comparative Study: UK 106
Comparative Study: Brazil 126
Comparative Study: Nigeria 138
Comparative Study: China 151

2
 SECTION 1

Past 4 Year’s
Question Papers
(Taken from DU)

3
 OBE PAPER- December, 2021
Introduction to Comparative Politics

There are 6 Questions, answer any 4

1. What is comparative politics? Discuss the growth and development of comparative politics from
a third world perspective.

2. What is Eurocentrism? In comparative politics how Asian and African perspectives challenge
the Eurocentric basis? Discuss.

3. Discuss the New Institutional approach to the study of comparative politics.

4. How has the process of decolonization changed the democratic landscape of the Asian and
African countries? Discuss

5. Examine the different stages of Capitalism and its effects on the developing countries.

6. How do neo liberal policies affect the political development of Brazil? Discuss.

4
 OBE PAPER-2020
Introduction to Comparative Politics

There are Six (6) questions. Attempt Any Four questions.

1. What is comparative politics? How relevant is it in understanding contemporary political

developments? Explain.

2. What were the detrimental effects eurocentrism had on comparative political analysis? How did
the non-European comparativists challenge the Eurocentric biases?

3. How does political culture determine the functioning of political institutions? Explain with
reference to the political culture approach to comparative politics.

4. Trace the expansion of capitalism in the world. How has globalization helped in its
consolidation?

5. Thatcherite economic policy helped rebuild Britain’s economy in the post-1979 era. Explain.
What, then, let to the rise of the ‘third way’ in British politics?

6. Evaluate the role of neo-liberal policies in the political economic development of Brazil’s New
Republic.

5
 2019 PAPER
Introduction to Comparative Politics

There are Eight (8) questions. Attempt Any Four questions.

1. What advancements have been made in the study of Comparative politics in recent time?
Critically examine.

2. What are the limitations of eurocentrism in the study of political science.

3. What have been the nature of changes in capitalism under the impact of the globalization
process? Discuss.

4. Discuss the role of Glasnost and Perestroika in the decline of socialism in former Soviet Union.

5. Discuss the various forms of colonization in the twentieth century.

6. Compare the federal forms of Govt in Nigeria and Brazil.

7. Parliamentary democracy has been sustained over the years by its emphasis on the principle of
collective responsibility of the cabinet system and political homogeneity in Britain. Do you agree?
Discuss.

8. How has the Chinese political economy transformed itself under the forces of Globalisation?

6
 2018 PAPER
Introduction to Comparative Politics

There are Eight (8) questions. Attempt Any Four questions.

1. What do you understand by Comparative Politics ? Critically examine its nature and scope.

2. What do you understand by eurocentrism? What challenges does it pose to the study of
Comparative Politics?

3. what are the various models of capitalist system? How has globalization impacted capitalism?

4. What do you understand by Socialism. Critically analyse the rise and fall of socialism in former
Soviet Union.

5. Differentiate between Colonialism and Imperialism. Discuss the impact of colonialism in any
one colony in Asia.

6. How have the neo-liberal forces impacted the political economy of Brazil?

7. Discuss the role of conventions in the political system of Britain.

8. Do you agree that globalisation has forced China to shift from socialism to capitalism?

7
 SECTION 2

Chapter Wise
Key Points
and
ANSWERS
Past Year’s & Important
Questions

8
 THEME 1: UNDERSTANDING COMPARATIVE POLITICS

1.A: CBCS SYLLABUS

• Nature and scope
• Why Compare?
• Methods of Comparison
• Going beyond Eurocentrism

1.B: KEY POINTS:

• Comparative politics, that is, understanding ‘the political’ by comparing, has been the
integral part of the discipline of political science. Since beginning, comparison has been
the essential tools and method of study, understanding, and theorizing of ‘the
political’(politics).
• Comparative politics evolved from philosophical normative comparative studies during
ancient Greek and Roman times to empirical scientific comparative politics post 1950s.
• Its nature and scope underwent significant changes during its evolution, in particular after
1950s, under the behavioural revolution ; from comparative govt., it became comparative
politics; from excessive focus on formal legal institutions it encompassed all aspects of
political behaviour, system and processes.
• Nature: from traditional- normative philosophical- to modern- empirical scientific
• Scope: from ‘foreign countries of western Europe’ to 3rd world nations, small and
diverse political communities; from study of govt. and formal state institutions to
non-state actors, civil society, non-formal institutions
• Approach to comparative politics changed from traditional- institutional,
historical, normative, philosophical- to modern- political system, political culture,
political economy, and behavioural approaches.
• Methods: Choosing and defining conceptual units, Data and information gathering,
Classification, categorization, and comparison, Hypothesis formulation and testing,
Generalisation, prediction.

9
• Presently, rigorous scientific methods using sophisticated statistical tools are deployed to
do the comparison to understand politics and political behaviour in the specific socio-
cultural context. This truly blend facts with values to make study of politics an integrative
approach.
• Comparative politics evolved from traditional, ‘unsophisticated’ phase to highly
sophisticated ‘modern’ phase post 1950s. In modern times, comparative politics has been
useful for formulation and testing hypothesis, providing scientific rigour, broadening the
scope, and lending credibility to theorizing ‘the political’.
• From mere comparison of ‘foreign governments’ it encompassed comparison of entire
political system. This way, from Comparative government it became Comparative Politics.
• Influenced by ‘Behavioural movement’ of 1950s, comparative politics adopted scientific
and empirical methods of data collection, analysis, and testing.
• 1970s saw rise of ‘developmentalism’ guided by US foreign policy. In reaction to this,
‘Dependency theories’ were put forward by various authors to highlight the adverse impact
of ‘developmentalism’ guided by western interests.
• Post 1990s, globalisation and ICT revolution further changed the scope, approach, and
methods of comparative politics.
• Challenges: Ethnocentrism, Eurocentrism, contested nature of political concepts,
difficulty in data collection, non-empirical nature of political behavior, and dilution of
subject matter have been the major challenges.
• In course of its evolution, it got rid of Ethnocentrism and Eurocentrism to some extent but
new challenges of understanding ‘the political’ in diverse socio-cultural settings continue
to emerge.

10
 1.C ANSWER TEMPLATES OF PAST YEAR’S AND OTHER
IMPORTANT QUESTION

Q.1: What do you understand by comparative politics? Critically examine its

nature & scope.
Similar questions:
1. Do you agree with the statement that comparative politics is the major sub-field of
political science? Critically examine its nature and scope.
2.Examine the changing nature and scope of Comparative Politics. What major challenges
it faced in recent times?
3. What do you understand by comparative politics? Discuss the major changes in the
nature of comparative politics in recent times.
4. Examine the changing nature and scope of comparative politics.

Answer Template:

INTRODUCTION:
Comparative Politics is understanding and theorizing about ‘the political’ or politics by
comparing political phenomena across space and time. Comparative Politics entails
(requires) conscious and systematic use of comparisons, classification, categorization, and
analysis to study political units or cases with the purpose of identifying, analyzing,
understanding, and explaining differences and similarities between them in respect of a
particular political phenomenon. Political Phenomena under study can be political activity,
political process, political power, and anything related to politics. Whereas units or cases
for comparison may be two or more countries, regions within one country, or same political
unit/system at different times in history.
Since beginning, hypothesizing and theorizing by way of comparison has been the integral
part of political philosophy. One of the earliest examples is Aristotle’s 6-fold classification
of constitution by comparing about 158 constitutions/Government. This trend continued.
Even in modern times, theorizing by way of comparison has been the mainstay of political

11
 science. Hence, Comparative Politics is the integral part and method of the political
science. It is a major sub-field of the political science.
However, nature and scope of Comparative Politics underwent significant changes during
its evolution, in particular after 1950s, under the behavioural revolution. From comparative
government it became comparative politics; from exclusive focus on formal legal
institutions, it encompassed (included) all aspects of political behaviour, system and
process. Its nature changed from normative, philosophical, speculative to analytical,
empirical, and scientific. It has also widened its scope. Units of analysis changed from
‘foreign countries of western Europe’ to 3rd world nations, small and diverse political
communities; from study of govt. and formal state institutions to non-state actors, civil
society, non-formal institutions.
In the next section of the answer, I will try to further elaborate upon the meaning, nature & scope
of Comparative Politics and how all of them underwent changes during evolution of Comparative
Politics as a major sub-field of Political science.

Meaning of Comparative Politics:

• Comparing political phenomena across space and time to understand, analyze and theorize
political phenomenon is Comparative Politics.
• In essence, Comparative Politics is a method to understand political phenomena. It uses
the universal methods of classification, categorisation, and comparison.
• It is the conscious and systematic use of comparisons to study political units or cases with
the purpose of identifying, analyzing, and explaining differences and similarities between
them in respect of a particular political phenomenon, which can be political activity,
political processes, distribution of political offices, power, rewards, honours, (authoritative
allocation of values) etc.
• Units or cases for comparison may be two or more countries, regions within one country,
or same political unit at different times in history. For example, French revolution can be
compared with Russian (Bolshevik) revolution or either of these events can be sliced in
time for comparison in time. Comparing nature of Indian polity during first 15 years of
independence and post 2014 is another example of comparison in time. Thus, comparison
can be either in space or time.
• Understanding phenomena by comparison is not unique to political science. All domains
of knowledge- economics, sociology, psychology, etc- adopt comparative methods. But

12
 comparative politics is distinguished from other disciplines, which also use the
comparative method, by its specific subject matter, language and perspective.
• Comparative Politics has been the integral part and method of the political science. It is the
major sub-field of the political science.

Nature of Comparative Politics:

Following are some of the natures (characteristics) and features of Comparative Politics:
• Comparative Politics essentially denotes study of politics by comparison. Hence, it is
nothing but a method. Comparative Politics is perhaps the first and foremost method of
analyzing and understanding political phenomenon.
• In the beginning it was merely study of ‘foreign countries/state’ and their governments.
Hence, it was called comparative government.
• Traditional Approach to Comparative Politics was normative, philosophical, and
speculative. Its scope was legal, constitutional, limited to study of govt and formal
institutions. It was based on limited set of data and was not analytical and scientific.
• But after 1950s approach to Comparative Politics became analytical and empirical, fact
based, scientific, and quantitative.
• Its scope also broadened. From study of govt and formal institutions to study of non-formal,
non-governmental structures and institutions, political behaviours, informal process of
politics - political parties, interest groups, elections, voting behaviour, power structure, etc
• One of the major issues with Comparative Politics had been Eurocentrism. Political
thinkers of western world were excessively focussed on western nations and cultures. Even
if they considered 3rd world nations for comparison, it was mainly to prove superiority of
western culture, traditions, and practices. This is what Edward Said called ‘Orientalism’.
• But in recent times Comparative Politics overcame the challenge of Eurocentrism to some
extent by including in its scope study of third world developing nations, small political
communities, and diverse political phenomenon. But still the challenge of Eurocentrism
remains.

13
Scope shift of Comparative Politics:

• Traditionally, the domain of Comparative Politics was confined to study of State,

Government, and formal institutions attached to them.
• Till 19th century, units of analysis were countries of western Europe. Subject matter was
confined to study of Government, constitution, and other formal institutions of State/Govt.
• But post 1950, units of analysis and comparisons shifted towards 3rd world countries, small
societies/communities, indigenous people, even stateless societies, etc.
• Its domain also expanded beyond Govt and its formal institutions. All ranges of political
activities, processes, distribution of political offices, rewards, honours, etc. became the
subject matter of comparative politics. Political behaviour, political culture, voting
behaviour, political parties, power structure, socio-economic relations, etc. were included
into the domain of Comparative Politics.
• Diverse political communities, non-state actors, civil society, non-formal institutions,
political system, etc are becoming increasingly important units of analysis using the
method of comparison.
• Thus, there is a noticeable shift in the focus of Comparative Politics. From western
European nations to 3rd world countries and diverse political communities, from study of
Govt, constitution, and formal institutions to non-state actors, civil society, non-formal
institutions, political system, political culture, etc.

Critical analysis of changes in nature & scope of Comparative Politics:

No matter how much we may emphasize that now the focus of comparative politics has
shifted from Western world to third world countries and also that it has overcome the
challenge of ethnocentrism and eurocentrism, the fact remains that comparative politics is
still very much centred on the Western world. Most of the researches in comparative
politics are being carried out in the higher educational Institutes of the USA and western
Europe. Most of the third world scholars of comparative politics have studied in the
universities of Western Europe and USA. The paradigm of Comparative Politics is in
accordance with the western culture, worldview, and ideologies. Still the political culture,
traditions, and practices of oriental world are taken for comparison by the western scholars
to prove the superiority of western culture and civilization. Still the study of Comparative

14
 Politics is done through the perspective of western world and by wearing the lens of
western cultures.
It is true that the scope of comparative politics has increased. It has moved beyond the
study of government, constitution, and formal institutions. Now, more and more diverse
political processes, structures, and phenomena are studied under comparative politics. But
claiming that it has overcome the challenge of ethnocentrism and eurocentrism would be
an over statement. For that to happen, practitioners of Comparative Politics will have to
study and analyse the political phenomenon of third world countries in their own context
and settings. A new paradigm suited to the diverse cultures, traditions, and ideologies need
to be developed for the study of Comparative Politics.

Conclusion:

Comparative politics essentially means understanding, analysing, and theorizing the

political phenomena by the methods of comparison. The comparison of political
phenomena can be between nations/states/regions, that is, comparison in space, or
comparison of the same political phenomena in a particular country/region at different
points of time, that is, the comparison in time. Comparative politics has been the first and
foremost method to understand ‘the political’ or the politics since the beginning. It is still
the most popular method to study political phenomena.
Nature and scope of comparative politics have undergone significant changes since 1950.
Under the behavioural movement, which also affected political science, comparative
politics adopted more empirical, analytical, and scientific approaches to compare and
understand political phenomena. From excessive focus on nations and regions of Western
world it took up more and more cases/phenomena from the third world and hitherto( till
now) marginalised societies/communities. It included diverse communities, indigenous
people, stateless people, small communities, etc as the unit of analysis for comparison.
Comparative politics also endeavoured (tried) to tackle the challenge of ethnocentrism and
eurocentrism. The practitioners of comparative politics attempted to study political
phenomena of 3rd world countries in their own context or settings. But it would be an over-
statement to claim that comparative politics has actually overcome its excessive focus on
western world. Still the political phenomenon anywhere in world are viewed from the lens
of western culture, traditions and practices. Most of the approaches and methods are
evolved in the universities and institutions of higher education based in western world.
Even if the unit of analysis or political phenomena of third world countries are taken for

15
comparison by the western political thinker it is more to prove the superiority of the western
culture and political practices. Hence, comparative politics has a long way to go before it
can claim to have overcome the challenges of ethnocentrism and eurocentrism.

16
Q.2: What do you understand by Eurocentrism? Highlight its impact on study
of comparative politics.
Similar Questions:
1. Analyse the limitations of Eurocentrism in the study of comparative politics.
2.What do you understand by Eurocentrism? What challenge does it pose to study of
comparative politics?

Answer Template:

Introduction:
Eurocentrism denotes visualizing and judging the nations and people of world from the
perspective and worldview of ‘Europe’. Here ‘Europe’ means the Western world which
includes USA, Western Europe, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. In Political Science
Eurocentrism means when a political thinker attempt to analyze and understand the
political phenomena occurring in other regions from the perspective of ‘Europe’. It is
similar to seeing the political phenomena from a ‘European’ frame of reference or wearing
‘European’ Lens.
Eurocentrism also denotes the ideologies which assume superiority of cultural norms and
normative values of ‘Europe’. It considers them as mainstream or normal and those of Asia,
Africa, Latin America as ‘other’, peripheral, deviant, or minor. In Eurocentric view,
European culture is considered as rational, scientific, progressive, and modern whereas the
Oriental ( Eastern) culture is considered as irrational, backward, and traditional.
Eurocentrism also acts like a Paradigm conforming to western worldview, values, and
practices, which provides overall framework for intellectual pursuit in the domain of
political science. How researches are to be conducted? How the enterprise of theorizing
‘the political’ is to be undertaken? What is considered as valid knowledge? Definitive
framework or accepted answers to these basic questions are the paradigm which is
determined from European perspective. Thus, Paradigm of research in Comparative
Politics is overtly western or ‘European’. It compels the researchers/academician from 3rd
world to purse research in a way conforming to western worldview, values, and practices.
Eurocentrism also denotes hegemony of Europe in socio cultural, scientific, technological
and almost all fields of knowledge. It denotes the soft power of ‘Europe’. It is also related

17
 to colonialism and imperialism. The current streams of globalization led by capitalist free
market economy and liberal democracy are other manifestations of Eurocentrism in present
Times. Thus, eurocentrism has multiple connotations(meanings) and dimensions.
Eurocentrism presents significant challenges to comparative politics. Analyzing political
phenomena world over from European perspective has distorted our understanding of the
multifaceted dimensions of ‘the political’. It has also hampered our capacity to solve
political problems of the contemporary world. Eurocentrism has obstructed and hindered
the understanding of the social world as it exists in its diverse forms. It has made the
meaning of the political phenomena obscure( hidden, under-studied) alien to Western
culture. Those political phenomena are either not visible or not meaningful to the
researchers and political scientists suffering from Eurocentrism.
It has also resulted into to cultural, historical, and developmental determinism. It has
distorted the frame of reference of comparison resulting into misleading causal
relationships. By setting a paradigm from European perspective it has limited the research
capability of political thinkers of the 3rd world. It has actually taken away from the
comparative politics its very essence, that is, the comparison of diverse units/regions/items
to discover pattern of socio-political relationships and behaviours. It has also undermined
multicultural and context oriented comparative study.

In the next section of the answer, I will try to further elaborate upon the meaning of Eurocentrism
in comparative politics and how it has posed significant challenges to studying politics by method
of comparison.

Meaning of Eurocentrism:
• It denotes judging the nations and people of world from the perspective and worldview of
‘Europe’. Here ‘Europe’ include USA, Canada, Western Europe, Australia, and New
Zeeland, that is the ‘White’ developed world.
• Eurocentrism denotes worldview and ideologies which assume culture, norms, and values
of ‘Europe’ as mainstream, centre, and prime and those of Asia/Africa/Latin America as
‘other’, peripheral, and inferior.
• Projecting ‘European’ culture as rational, scientific, progressive, and modern and
‘Oriental’ culture as irrational, superstitious, backward, and traditional.

18
 • It is more like Paradigm conforming to European values, which provides overall
framework and academic/intellectual consensus within which academic research and
theorization are done and valid knowledge are produced.
• It also symbolizes hegemony of ‘Europe’ in socio-cultural, scientific, technological, and
almost in all fields of knowledge.
• Eurocentrism is closely related to ‘Ethnocentrism’ which is visualizing and judging other
culture/traditions from lens (perspective) of one’s own culture.
• It is also related to colonialism and Imperialism. Eurocentrism represents colonial power
over underdeveloped and backward regions of world. Current phenomenon of neo-liberal
Globalization is manifestation of Eurocentrism in present times.

Eurocentrism in Political Science:

• Modern political Science developed in ‘Europe’, in response to political problems of
‘Europe’. Its language, meaning, concepts, terminologies are rooted in European Culture,
traditions, and practices.
• Normative political values- core of political theory- Liberty, Rights, Justice, Equality,
Democracy, etc. are defined in the socio-cultural context of ‘Europe’.
• Almost all note-worthy political thinkers- Plato, Aristotle, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Kant,
Marx, Weber, Rawls, Simon- are from ‘Europe’ and almost all of them were Eurocentric
in their approach.
• Almost all political theories were propounded, tested and validated in the socio-cultural
settings of ‘Europe’.
• Majority of the greatest political thinkers suffered from Eurocentrism; for Examples:
• Karl Marx: Gave theories of Asiatic mode of production, despotic orientalism,
excluded Asia/Africa from his historical materialism.
• Max Weber: Believed in rationality of European race, and irrationality and
traditionalism of non-European.
• John Rawl: His theory of Justice is by and for the liberal people/culture of West.
• Hegel asserted that Europe has a special, privileged, central place in world history;
European civilisation led by Christianity has advanced the spirit of freedom; Non-
European do not have proper History.

19
Eurocentrism in Comparative Politics:
• From Aristotle to Montesquieu and Tocqueville, units/country taken for comparison
were mostly European.
• Paradigm, be it normativism in traditional approach or behaviourlism/empiricism in
modern approach, all of them were Eurocentric.
• During Colonial era, countries/people of Asia/Africa were taken for comparison, but it
was to prove superiority of European culture/race and justify colonization. This
justified colonialism as ‘civilization mission’.
• Comparative politics departments of all major universities focus more on
Issues/phenomenon of European nations/people.
• Almost all the theories developed by thinkers from Plato to Marx have Eurocentric
overtones. For example, system approach of Easton, Modernization theory of Lucian
Pye, Apter, Shils, etc., Rigg’s ecological approach, Human relation theory of Mayo,
weber’s theory of authority, Simon’s rational choice theory, etc. are overtly
Eurocentric.

How Eurocentrism is posing challenges for Comparative politics?

Following are some the challenges posed by eurocentrism in Comparative Politics:

• It has distorted understanding and analyses of political phenomena in diverse settings and
undermined our capacity to deal with the political problems of the contemporary world.
• Whatever Europe achieved in political domain have been analyzed incorrectly and
extrapolated inappropriately which have dangerous consequences for the enterprise of
political theories/comparative politics.
• It has obstructed, hindered our understanding of many political phenomenon which are
alien (not known) to western cultures. Those political phenomena are either not visible or
meaningful to the researcher/political scientists.
• Eurocentrism has also resulted into cultural, historical, and developmental determinism,
which is harming comparative research in ‘Europe’ as well as ‘Peripheral’ nations. Cultural
determinism claims cultural superiority of Europe. Declaring that oriental world will have
to traverse the same historical path travelled by ‘Europe’ is historical determinism.
Assertion of western world that modernity is a European phenomenon and that the decisive
events in modernization have occurred purely on European soil is developmental or

20
 modernization determinism. It also entails that oriental world will have to traverse the same
path of development, in same way, as travelled by Europe in past.
• It distorts the frame of reference of comparison, leading to misleading causal relationship
in hypothesizing political phenomena.
• Another challenge in is the academic domain. Only ‘European’ academic ecosystem is
truly international, but Eurocentrism produces research scholars of 3rd world having
distorted understanding of political phenomenon. The scholars of 3rd world are trained to
see their own culture from European perspective. It helps maintain soft power of Europe,
reproduce knowledge suited to ‘Europe, and perpetuate (continue) the hegemony of
‘Europe’.
• Eurocentrism has robbed comparative politics of its very essence, that is, Comparison of
diverse units/items to discover patterns of socio-political arrangements. It has Forced
closed or circular comparison.
• Finally, it has undermined multicultural, context oriented comparative study, that is,
studying, understanding, and analyzing political phenomena in their own cultural context
and settings.

How did the non-European comparativists challenge the Eurocentric biases?

By late 1970s and 1980s there was growing realization among political scientists- both
European and Non-European- that Eurocentrism did exist in the discipline of political
science, especially comparative politics. Samir Amin, an Egyptian-French political
scientist having Marxist orientation, first raised the issue of Eurocentrism in comparative
politics. He coined ‘Eurocentrism’ in 1980s and wrote extensively on this topic. He may
be called father of the concept of ‘Eurocentrism’. Amin wrote 'Eurocentrism’ in 1989; He
also highlighted the issue and challenges of Eurocentrism through his books ‘Global
History - a View from the South’ and ‘Capitalism in the age of Globalization’.

Edward Said, a Palestinian born US citizen, was Professor of Literature in Columbia

University. Said, in 1978, explained another dimension of Eurocentrism through his
book Orientalism. To Said, Orientalism denotes comparative study of Oriental culture by
Western Thinkers not for understanding them but mainly for showing them in poor light in
comparison to the western culture. Orientalism created hierarchy of human
culture/civilization and placed ‘Eastern Culture’ below ‘Western Culture’. Said, therefore,
created an awareness of such distorted representations of ‘Eastern’ Culture by ‘Europe’.

21
 Dependency Theorists, especially Andre Gunder Frank and Immanuel Wallerstein,
highlighted the myth of ‘European way of modernization & development’. Wallerstein,
through his World System Theory, explained how the developing nations were made
‘Periphery’ of the economic ‘core’ in the capitalist world economic order. Andre Gunder
Frank did extensive study of Latin American economy and concluded that the so called
developed regions of the 3rd world are nothing more than the ‘Satellites’ of the developed
capitalist regions of ‘Europe’. To Frank, European model development in 3rd world was
actually ‘development of underdevelopment’.

Besides these legendary political thinkers, many other non-European political thinkers of
Asia, Africa, and Latin America raised the issue of Eurocentrism in the academic discipline
of political science. Many post-colonial thinkers, such as Frantz Fanon, Chinua Achebe,
Joseph Conrad, etc. highlighted the adverse effect of Eurocentrism in erstwhile colonized
nations of 3rd world. They also advocated getting rid of Eurocentrism both in academic
pursuit of political science and day to day lives of the people of the 3rd World.

Discussion and Conclusion:

Eurocentrism essentially means studying, analysing and understanding political

phenomena in different regions and cultures from the perspective of western culture,
traditions and practices. It is like wearing western cultural lens while visualising the world.
In comparative politics Eurocentrism denotes excessive focus on choosing unit of analysis
or cases exclusively from western world, selecting political phenomena relevant or known
to Western world, analysing them from the frame of reference of western culture, traditions
and practices.
Eurocentrism poses biggest challenge to Comparative Politics. Greatest of political
philosophers, which were all entirely from western world, suffered from Eurocentrism in
their approach. Be it Marx, Hegel, Weber or even John Rawl, they all saw the world from
the lens of western culture.
Eurocentrism also denotes cultural and civilisational superiority of Europe. It symbolises
modernity, development, and progressiveness of the western world in comparison to the
Oriental world. It is also linked to colonialism and imperialism. The colonial and imperial
power believed in superiority of European culture.
If such is the nature of eurocentrism definitely it will present significant challenge to
comparative politics. It actually robes the very essence of the comparative politics, that is,

22
comparing political phenomena across diverse regions/cultures to understand politics. It
has distorted our understanding of political phenomena. It hindered (obstructed) studying
political phenomena in their own cultural settings. It has undermined those political issues
and phenomena which are not known or visible in the western culture. Hence, they have
hampered (disturbed) our ability to solve political problems in different parts of the world.
Eurocentrism is still existing in comparative politics. The world system theory of
Wallerstein, the dependency theory of Andre Gunder Frank, and Orientalism of Edward
Said, all have indicated how Eurocentrism is operating even in modern times. Some may
claim that comparative politics has overcome the challenge of eurocentrism by broadening
its scope to diverse political phenomena of third world countries, indigenous people, small
communities, stateless people, and many other regions of the world beyond western world;
many other may also claim that the approach of comparative politics has moved beyond
the traditional approaches adopted by the European political thinkers. But the fact remains
that still eurocentrism is operating in the domain of Political Science and comparative
politics. Most of the third world scholars get education in universities of Europe and USA,
they learn the political science and methods of comparative politics from the perspective
of western culture, tradition, and practices. They reproduce the knowledge of comparative
politics within the paradigm set up by the western world. Hence, comparative politics has
a long way to go before it can claim to have overcome the challenge of eurocentrism.

23
Q.3: Through comparison, we discover our own ethnocentrism and the means
of overcoming it. In the light of this statement explain why compare.

Hint to the Answer:

(Note: You should Answer this question on the same template as in Q.1 and Q2. Focus of the
answer should be on 1. Advantages of comparison as method to understand politics 2. How
comparison help us overcome our own ethnocentrism? First give the meaning of Comparative
Politics and Ethnocentrism. Thereafter add the following paragraphs.)

Ethnocentrism is viewing and judging other cultures, traditions, and practices from the
perspective of our own culture. It is like viewing other culture by wearing lens of our own
culture. It also symbolises assuming our own culture as superior to other cultures.
Ethnocentrism is closely linked to Eurocentrism, for European scholars, for centuries,
viewed cultures of 3rd world nations from the lens of western culture. They also believed
that western culture, values, and ethics are superior to those of the Oriental.
Politics denote social arrangements to solve common societal problem and ensure good
and virtuous life of individual by way of dialogue, discussion and negotiation. Political
arrangements in turn are intimately linked to how individuals behave and act in a group on
the issue of common interest. Politics is the interplay of interest and power in social arena.
Politics entails distribution and allocation of values, resources, offices, awards, and
honours in a society. However, the social arrangements, societal structure, and the
functions those structure carry out are different in different cultures. Also, the human
behaviour in group varies from culture to culture. Despite this, since human attributes are
universal, they all are guided by same basic instincts such as self-preservation, desire for
material possession and power, competition and cooperation, etc.
Hence, it is important to compare political arrangements and structures in one culture to
another. Comparison across culture/region may reveal many political phenomena which an
observer may never find in his own culture. The observer may find many useful socio-
political arrangements not found in his own culture which then may be borrowed from
other cultures. Thus, comparing political phenomena across the culture may help us
overcome our own ethnocentrism.

24
Comparison is most natural method of understanding any natural or social phenomenon.
By comparing, contrasting, and categorisation we may find a pattern or causal relationship
to better understand any phenomenon. Hence, since beginning human used the method of
comparing to understand the social world of which politics is integral part.
Comparison has another advantage in the study of political science. Hypothesis developed
in one cultural setting when tested in another cultural setting may validate the applicability
of the hypothesis in multiple cultural setting. By comparison we may find out beneficial
socio-political arrangements in other cultures which can be borrowed into our own culture.
This is another way of learning from second hand experience. In social science this is also
called reverse engineering. For example, take Electoral system; we can borrow the
successful electoral system from other cultures/regions. In India, we have borrowed many
good points from constitutions of different nations to frame our own constitution.
Comparison gives a scientific rigour to the study of political science. Comparing
hypothesis in different context and cultural setting is like testing a hypothesis in different
laboratory conditions in natural science.
But we should be cautious while comparing political phenomena and Socio-Political
arrangements in cultures other than our own. We should remember that the Socio-political
arrangements, and political phenomena are manifested differently in different cultural
settings. Also, as an observer we wear the lens of our own culture, and therefore
unconsciously we view and judge the political phenomena of other cultures from the lens
of our own culture. We should consciously try to avoid such ethnocentrism. We should
remember that politics is a part of the overall culture and societal tradition which develop
in thousands of years at a particular place where people have been living together for
centuries. They develop the social arrangement and societal structure to manage their own
common problem to live a good life. Hence, if we take care of the issue of ethnocentrism
and cultural relativism.
In sum, comparison is a wonderful way to understand, analyse and test political phenomena
in different cultural settings. As said above it also help overcome our own ethnocentrism
because by comparison, we come to know many useful socio-political arrangements and
structures which are not found in our own culture and which maybe tried into our own
cultural settings. This has happened since time immemorial. The political ideas and socio-
political arrangements and structures have been copied from one culture to another. This
way a composite political culture developed across the world which is shared by the entire
humanity. And here lies the importance of the method of comparison which comes
naturally to human and is one of the most natural and useful method to understand the
political phenomena.

25
Q.4: . Do you agree with the statement that comparative politics is major sub-
field of political science? Critically examine its nature and scope.

Hint to the Answer:

(Note: Answers this question on the same template as in Q.1. First give the meaning of
Comparative Politics. Thereafter the following additional paragraphs. Then give the nature and
scope as given in Q.1.)

The nature of politics is such that comparison is the natural way or method to understand
the Socio-political arrangements, societal structures and functions they carry out in
different cultural settings. By classification, categorisation and comparison, we can not
only understand and analyse political phenomena across different cultural settings but also,
we can test hypothesis or theory developed in one cultural setting to the another. Hence,
comparison across cultures and regions give scientific rigour to the study of political
science.
In the natural science the hypothesis is tested in different laboratory conditions, similarly
in theorization of political science, hypothesis developed in one cultural setting can be
tested in different cultural settings to test the universality of the hypothesis. In this sense
different cultural setting and Socio-political arrangements embedded in them becomes a
laboratory for testing hypothesis. Because of these advantages of comparison in
understanding ‘the political’, comparative politics has developed as a major sub field of
the political science. In fact, it is the primary subfield of the subject domain of political
science. Other sub- fields such as Public Policy, Public Administration, Public
Management, International Relations, etc. are somewhat not so intimately linked to the
core domain of Political Science as comparative politics is. It would not be wrong to say
that comparative politics is the prime method to understand ‘the political’. It is also the
prime method for theorizing ‘the political’. Hence, in understanding, analysing and
conducting research in Political Science the method of comparison gets the primacy and
therefore comparative politics is the major sub field of the political science.

26
Q.5 : Discuss how nature & scope of Comparative Politics have undergone
changes in recent times. What are the major challenges it faced in recent times?
Hint for the answer: For first part of the question, refer to answer to Q.1. Then add the following:

Major challenges faced by Comparative Politics in recent times:

Following are the major challenges and road blocks being faced in studying Comparative
Politics:
• Ethnocentrism and Eurocentrism: These are the first and foremost challenge in
studying Comparative Politics. They actually rob the very essence of the comparative
politics, that is comparing political phenomena across diverse regions/cultures to
understand politics. It has distorted our understanding of political phenomena. It hindered
studying political phenomena in their own cultural settings. It has undermined those
political issues and phenomena which are not known or visible to the western culture.
Hence, they have obstructed our ability to solve political problems in different parts of the
world.
• No standard and precise definition of important terms & concepts: unlike natural
sciences, concepts in political science are not fixed. They have contested meanings.
Meaning of political terminologies and concepts vary across different culture. For example,
normative concepts such as ‘Rights’, ‘Equality’, ‘Liberty’, ‘Justice’, etc. have different
meanings and are realized differently in different cultures. Hence, these words or concepts
cannot be used universally or objectively for explaining and theorizing political
phenomena. This present significant challenge in theorization in Comparative Politics.
• Difficulties in obtaining data/information about foreign political system: Comparative
Politics depends upon factual and authentic data/information about political phenomena
from units of analysis under study. But obtaining data from foreign or alien political system
has been challenging.
• Political behavior cannot be entirely value free- neither for the actor nor for the
observer- rendering scientific study difficult. This is due to the fact that data and
observations forming bases for theorizing carry the value, belief, and biases of the observer
as well as the political actors under observation. Hence, finding objective and factual
data/information is almost impossible in Comparative Politics.
27
• Expansion of inter-disciplinary approach has diluted its substance, that is, study of
political phenomenon. Comparative Politics has been interdisciplinary. But that has the
flip side, too. For example, political culture approach comes so close to sociology that
maintaining autonomy of the domain of political science becomes difficult. Similarly, the
approach of political economy, historical, and new institutionalism blur the distinction
between political science and economics, history, and sociology respectively.

28
Q.6: Do you agree with Roy Macridis’ critique of comparative politics
analysis? Justify your answer.
(Note: Instead of full answer, only the hint to the answer is provided. Students may further
expand them to make a full answer.)

Roy Macridis, in 1955, pointed out several deficiency and limitations of comparative
politics as major sub-field of political science. He argued that comparative politics was
parochial and Eurocentric as it focused solely on the experiences of Western Europe. He
also criticized comparative politics of being descriptive rather than analytical, for being
formalistic and legalistic, and configurative (highlighting single case studies) rather than
truly comparative (taking up two or more nations/societies for comparison).

His first critique, that is, comparative politics being Eurocentric, is very valid and justified.
Despite increasing its scope to include study of political phenomena in 3rd world countries,
still comparative politics suffers from both Eurocentrism and Ethnocentrism. ( for detail
on this point refer to answer at page 17)

Roy Macridis’ other critiques of comparative politics analysis may not be completely valid
in contemporary times. Today comparative politics has become more analytical and
scientific. It has adopted many modern approaches, such as, new institutionalism, political
system, Structural- functional, political culture, and political economy. It has included
study of political behaviours, non-formal, non-governmental structures and institutions,
informal process of politics - political parties, interest groups, elections, voting behaviour,
attitudes etc. in different socio-cultural contexts. It has also become more comparative by
taking up multiple political units for comparison. For example, Almond and Verba, in
1963, compared political system of 5 nations by using the political culture approach. Theda
Skocpol, in 1979, compared social revolutions by taking up revolutions in France, Russia
and China. Fred Riggs took many developing nations for comparison to explain his
ecological concept in public administration. In recent times, comparative politics went
much beyond study of govt/state and formal institutions to take up study of informal
political processes, structures, and behaviours. Hence, except Eurocentrism, other critiques
of Roy Macridis may not be fully justified in recent times. However, Macridis did a great
service to comparative politics by pointing out its deficiencies and limitations. This helped
in enhancing scope and adopting modern approaches in comparative politics.

29
Q.7: What is comparative politics? Discuss the growth and development of
comparative politics from a third world perspective.

Similar Question:

Q: Give a brief account of evolution of Comparative Politics as an important

sub-field of political science.

For the first part of the question, refer to answer to Q.1; here answer to second part is
attempted.
Comparative politics developed from traditional, ‘unsophisticated’ phase to highly
sophisticated ‘modern’ phase post 1950s. From mere comparison of ‘foreign
governments’ it encompassed comparison of entire political system. Influenced by
‘Behavioural movement’ of 1950s, it adopted scientific and empirical methods of data
collection, analysis, theorization, and testing. However, Comparative Politics continued
to suffer from Eurocentrism. It largely excluded the perspectives and concerns of the 3rd
World.
Rise of ‘developmentalism’ during 1960s was guided by US foreign policy and aimed
towards serving the interests of the developed western nations. But soon, beginning
1970s, dependency theory, propounded mostly by thinkers of the 3rd world, put forward
3rd world’s perspective in the study of Comparative Politics. Beginning 1980s, 80s
comparative studies based on regions or smaller numbers of units became prevalent.
More and more units and political phenomenon from the 3rd World were taken up for
comparative study.
Post 1980s, Comparative Politics witnessed a move away from general grand theory to
emphasis on the relevance of context. There was new emphasis on more culturally
specific studies. Comparative Politics adopted new approaches and methodologies: study
of political culture, political socialization, developmentalism, dependency and
interdependency, corporatism, bureaucratic-authoritarianism and transitions to
democracy. All of these political phenomenon were related to the issues in the 3rd world.
Anti-colonial struggles, growing national consciousness in the colonial nations,
decolonization, democratization, and post-colonial states, etc. became important themes
of the Comparative Politics in the cold war era.
Beginning 1990s, neo-liberal globalisation engulfed the globe. Comparative Politics also
changed to remain relevant in the globalized world. 3rd world concerns & perspectives

30
 got prominent place in the study of Comparative Politics. The imperatives for large level
comparisons increased and the field of comparisons diversified with the proliferation of
non-state, 'non-governmental actors’ and the increased interconnections between nations
with economic linkages and information technology revolution.
In the next section of the answer, a brief sketch of evolution of Comparative Politics is presented.
Increasing importance given to concerns and perspectives of 3rd world is evident from the
description.

Traditional Phase: Since Beginning Till 1950s

• Aristotle studied the constitutions of 158 ancient Greek city-states and classified them
into a typology of 6 pure types- monarchy, tyranny, aristocracy, Oligarchy, Polity and
Democracy.
• Aristotelian categories were acknowledged and taken up by Romans such as Polybius
(201 - 120 B.C.) and Cicero (106-43 B.C.) who considered them in formal and legalistic
terms
• comparative study reappeared in the 15th century with Machiavelli’s ‘Prince’.
• But during all these periods Comparative Politics suffered from Eurocentrism;
Comparative Politics was confined to the study of state and its institutions, governments
and regime types in European countries like Greece, Italy, Britain, France and Germany.
• These studies were in fact not genuinely comparative in the sense that they excluded from
their analysis a large number of countries of the 3rd world.
• Approach: normative values of western liberal democracies which carried with it the
baggage of racial and civilizational superiority, and assumed a prescriptive character for
the 3rd world.
• Comparative Politics during this phase excluded the 3rd world (colonised or liberated
from colonisation). It was labeled as 'people without histories' or whose histories were
bound with and destined to follow the trajectories already followed by the advanced
countries of the West.

Modern Phase: 1950s : Post 2nd World War Era

• Comparative study till the 1940s was predominantly the study of state and its institutions,
the legal-constitutional principles regulating them, and the manner in which they
functioned in western (European) liberal-democracies
• Behaviouralism, which emerged in the middle of 1950s, denoted a a change from
traditional to modern approach in Comparative Politics.

31
 • Behaviouralism denoted developing an enquiry which was quantitative, based on survey
techniques involving the examination of empirical facts separated from values, to provide
value-neutral, non-prescriptive, objective observations and scientific explanation of
political phenomenon based on observation of human behaviour
• Notion of politics was broadened: emphasis on 'realism' or politics 'in practice' as
distinguished from mere ‘formalism’/'legalism’ or theoretical ; Comparative Politics now
included : less formally structured agencies, behaviours and processes e.g. political
parties, interest groups, elections, voting behaviour, attitudes etc.
• Decline in the centrality of the notion of the state itself
• Development of frameworks which would facilitate comparisons on a large scale:
primitive or advanced, democratic or non-democratic, western or non western. This was
made possible by modern approaches, such as, political system, structural functional,
political culture, political economy approaches.

Emergence of the 3rd world: Moving Away From Eurocentrism Post

Decolonialization
• Formulation of abstract universal models, largely based on system approach, which could
explain political phenomena and processes in all the newly de-colonized nations of the 3rd
world.
• Enhanced Scope: examination of politics as a total system, including not merely the state
and its institutions but also individuals, social groupings, political parties, interest groups,
social movements, etc.
• Single universalistic framework which were applicable across cultural and ideological
boundaries and for explaining political process everywhere, especially in the 3rd world.
• Political phenomenon studied under Comparative Politics : political socialization,
patterns of political culture, techniques of interest articulation and interest aggregation,
styles of political recruitment, extent of political efficacy and political apathy, ruling
elites etc.

The Late twentieth century: Globalization and Emerging Trends/

Possibilities
• Comparative Politics, in the globalized era, move away from general grand theory to
emphasis on the relevance of context and regional studies.
• Renewed influence of historical inquiry in the social sciences

32
• 'historical sociology' which tries to understand phenomena in the very broad or 'holistic'
context within which they occur started to dominate the method of Comparative Politics.
• New emphasis on more culturally specific studies
• 'grand systems' and model building diminished, focus shifted to study of localized, region
specific political phenomenon. Comparisons at the level of 'smaller systems' or regions
gained prominence.
• Civil Society and other non-state actors included in the study of Comparative Politics.
Post-colonial states, structural adjustment, Democratization etc. were taken up for
comparative study.

Conclusion:
In the beginning Comparative Politics was highly Eurocentric. Units and phenomenon
taken up for cooperative studies were from only few nations/regions of the western
world. But by the 2nd half of the 20th century, thinkers of the 3rd world came up with
alternative perspectives on politics reflecting the perspective of the 3rd world.
Dependency theories, post-colonial studies, sub-altern politics, Orientalism, etc. are some
the landmark alternative theories reflecting the perspective of the 3rd world. Most of these
theories were postulated by the thinkers of the 3rd world.
Behavioural movement in 1950s and globalisation in 1990s further included the concerns
and perspectives of the 3rd world. More and more units and phenomenon were taken from
the 3rd world for study with the Comparative Politics. Politics of indigenous people, sub-
alterns, and post-colonial states became important themes in Comparative Politics. Thus,
modern approach in Comparative Politics not only saw changes in method and approach
but also widening of the scope of Comparative Politics.

33
Q.8: How new institutionalism is different from the old institutionalism as an
approach to study Comparative Politics?

Answer:
Introduction:
Before listing out the differences between old and new institutionalism, let us see what is
meant by institution in the context of political science.
Meaning of Institution:
• Govt., and other organizations of the State through which socio-political arrangements
are carried out.
• Sets of formal or informal rules, codes, conventions, norms, established practices that
shape individual behavior and structure the relationship between individuals in various
units in the polity and economy.
• ‘Established law, custom or practice’. A rule that has been institutionalized (Lane &
Ersson)
• humanly devised constraints( checks & balances) that structure political, economic and
social interactions (Douglass North)

In the above definitions we can notice two types of institutions, one tangible, visible, hard
institutions and other intangible, invisible soft institutions. Following are the differences between
soft and hard institutions:
• ‘Hard’ Institutions: formal rules backed by formal law of the political system,
Example: FPTP electoral process, parliamentary form of Govt., federalism, party
system, parliaments, constitutions, the judicial system, state, etc
• ‘Soft’ Institutions: Informal rules, norms, practices, conventions backed informal
social sanctions; Examples: dress code, family, marriage, accepted norms of
political behaviours.
• ‘The most effective institutional arrangements incorporate a normative system of
informal and internalized rules’(Levi ) ; most significant institutional factors are
often informal (North).

New vs old institutionalism: The new institutionalism focuses more on soft institutions. For
this, it borrows concepts from sociology, psychology, and social anthropology.

Following are the major differences between the two types of institutionalism:

34
OLD INSTITUTIONALISM NEW INSTITUTIONALISM

Studying Institutions as distinct autonomous study Institutions in relation to individual

political entities behavior and (micro) societal
structures(macro), and other institutions

Formal, legal, descriptive, Normative, Analytical, explanatory & Empirical

philosophical, historical

Less focus on explanatory theory/hypothesis focus more oriented towards explanation and
explicit theory building

Focus was more on ‘hard’ rules and formal Much wider definition of institution, include
organizations ‘soft’ rules and informal organizations

Confined mostly to studying liberal Much wider geographical spread, attempt to

democratic institutions of ‘West’- study institutions in its own socio-cultural
Ethnocentric contexts.

Considered as traditional approach to Much more inter-disciplinary- economics,

comparative politics psychology, cultural anthropology, sociology,
and history. Considered as one of modern
approaches.

Drew concepts from Philosophy, law, history Much more comparative focus- comparing
institutional settings in different countries and
cultures and how they shape political
behavior, process, and outcomes. Much more
inter-disciplinary. Drew concepts from
Sociology, Economics, Social-anthropology,
History,etc.

No systematic cross-country or cross-culture More cross-country or cross-culture

comparison comparison

35
Conclusion:
Thus, in sum, we can see that new institutionalism focuses more on soft institutions, is
more analytical, empirical, and explanatory. In comparison to old institutionalism its
scope is broader, it is more inter-disciplinary, and has much more comparative focus.
Hence, new institutionalism. help more in theory building and testing hypothesis in
Comparative Politics. Because of its attributes, new institutionalism is categorized as
modern approaches to study Comparative Politics. In fact, new institutionalism has
revitalized (given a new life with different features) to the traditional institutional
approach.

36
 THEME 2: APPROACHES TO STUDYING COMPARATIVE
POLITICS

2.A: CBCS SYLLABUS

• Institutional Approach
• System Approach
• Structural Functional Approach
• Political Culture Approach
• New Institutionalism

2. B: KEY POINTS:

• Comparative politics, that is, understanding ‘the political’ by comparing, has been the
integral part of study of political science.
• Comparative politics evolved from philosophical normative comparative studies during
ancient Greek and Roman times to empirical scientific comparative politics post 1950s.
• Its nature and scope underwent significant changes during its evolution; from comparative
govt. it became comparative politics; from primarily focused on formal legal institutions it
encompassed(included) all aspects of political behaviour and processes.
• Approach to comparative politics changed from traditional- institutional, historical,
normative, philosophical- to modern- political system, political culture, political economy,
behavioural, etc.
• ‘Modern’ here does not indicate better or more sophisticated, it is only to denote timeline
of their evolution and uses. Traditional approaches have been around since beginning of
study of political science, whereas modern approaches evolved as late as during second
half of 20th century during and after the behavioural revolution.
• Traditional approaches may use very modern and sophisticated techniques. Also,
approaches termed as modern may be used in conventional or traditional way. Hence, the

37
 words ‘traditional’ and ‘modern’ should be understood as simply as label headings of two
categories of approaches.
• Presently, rigorous scientific methods using sophisticated statistical tools are deployed to
do the comparison to understand ‘the political’ in the specific socio-cultural context. This
approach truly blends facts with values to make enterprise of studying politics an
integrative and inter-disciplinary approach.

38
 2.C ANSWER TEMPLATES OF PAST YEAR’S AND OTHER
IMPORTANT QUESTION

Q.1: Discuss the major approaches to study Comparative Politics.

Answer:
Introduction:
Understanding and theorizing about ‘the political’ by comparing political phenomena
across space and time is defined as Comparative Politics. Understanding by classification,
categorization and comparison comes naturally to humans. Therefore, Comparative
Politics is the oldest and major sub-field of political science. Comparison is the method
adopted in Comparative Politics. But what to compare and how to compare is left at the
choice of scholars using Comparative methods. Approaches here denote ways to tackle an
issue, strategies and methods adopted to deal with a particular situation. Thus, there are
multiple approaches or ways to studying Comparative Politics. Institutional, historical,
philosophical, normative, political system, political economy, political culture, etc. are
some of popular approaches to study Comparative Politics.
On the basis of timelines of evolution of these approaches, they are divided into traditional
and modern approaches. Institutional, historical, philosophical, normative approaches,
which have been around since the beginning are called traditional approaches. Approaches
which have evolved in modern times, especially during second half of 20th century during
and after the behavioural revolution, are called modern approaches. Some of the popular
modern approaches are: political system, structural functional, political economy, political
culture, new institutionalism, etc.
‘Modern’ here does not indicate better or more sophisticated, it is only to denote timeline
of their evolution and uses. Traditional approaches may use very modern and sophisticated
techniques. Also, approaches termed as modern may be used in conventional or traditional
way. Hence, the words ‘traditional’ and ‘modern’ should be understood simply as label
headings of two categories of approaches based on timeline of evolution of these
approaches.

39
In the next section of the answer, I will try to explain in brief some of the major approaches of
both the categories- traditional and modern.

TRADITIONAL APPROACHES:
These approaches were adopted by political thinkers, scholars for studying political science
by comparison since time immemorial. Plato, Aristotle, Kautilya, Veda Vyas, etc used
philosophical and normative approach. With this began the study of political science. Later
on, Aristotle, Polybius, Bryce, Finer, Duverger, Sartori, etc. used institutional approach to
study State, Govt., and constitutions in different cultures. Historical approach, which is one
of the traditional approaches, was adopted by Machiavelli, Oakeshott, Hobbes, Locke,
Rousseau, Marx, Laski, and many others in modern times.
Following are the brief description on some of the important Traditional Approaches:
1. Institutional Approach:
In this approach institutions and structures of political arrangements are the focus of study.
Institution/structure denote State, Govt., and other formal organizations through which
socio-political arrangements are authoritatively carried out. Institutions are also defined as
consistent and organized pattern of behaviour or activities established by law or custom.
The latter indicate soft institutions, without any hard structure of brick and mortar. Family,
marriages, caste system, etc. are examples of soft institutions.
• Features of Institutional Approach:
• Largely legalistic, speculative and prescriptive/ normative.
• Philosophical, historical or legalistic perspective
• Focussed more on hard or formal institutions.
• Suffers from Eurocentrism and Ethnocentrism
• Evolved as comparative government
• Scope:
• formal institutions of State – legislature, executive, judiciary- constitution, party
system, interest/pressure groups, etc.
• Pluses:
• Helped compare state, constitution, and other formal legal institutions;
• helped institution building in newly de-colonized nations, included non-formal
institutions- party system, movements, pressure groups, etc;

40
 • New Institutionalism, which also included soft institutions, gave sociological
perspective to study of political behaviour
• Minuses:
• Speculative, narrow, normative, configurative. Mostly descriptive, not analytical;
• Suffers from Ethnocentrism and Eurocentrism;
• Not contextual- lost sight of cultural setting and ideological framework;
• Undermine role of individual agency as it gives primacy to social
structures(institutions);
• and finally, it ignored international politics as there are no world Govt and formal
institutions at global level.
Historical Approach:
Comparing two or more historical trajectories of major political phenomenon or events, or
selected slices in time of historical trajectories of political phenomenon or events as the
units of comparison to develop causal relationship about specific phenomenon, draw
generalizations- develop and test hypothesis.
For example:
• Comparative analysis of the French, Russian and Chinese Revolutions, by
Skocpol
• Comparison of Indian national movement before and after Gandhiji arrived
on the scene.
• Features:
• Genealogical – treating history as a genetic process – how a political phenomenon
evolved or how a political event was caused from historical events.
• History is used as record of political experiences, case studies, lessons learnt.
• Believe in cycle of similar events in historical times, that is, history repeating itself.
• Learning from the past: studying past to understand the causes of political
phenomenon in present, and prepare for the future.

• Scope: major political events, socio-political crisis – revolution, nation-state, wars, etc.

41
• Minuses: few cases, superficial comparison, prejudiced analysis, non-scientific-
speculative- comparing with historical perspective may lose sight of socio-cultural
contexts, more importance to role of individual agency over social structure.

Normative- Philosophical Approach:

Using the normative and philosophical methods of abstract reasoning, moral arguments,
formal logic and analytical philosophy to compare political phenomena, hypothesize, and
determine causal relationship. It is the oldest approach. It was first adopted in pre- political
science era in which philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle analysed and
prescribed ideal state/society using normative and philosophical approach.
Features:
• Normative- ethical, value loaded, prescriptive, deductive (first build hypothesis then test
it- top-down approach), speculative.
• Aim was to have ideal state and society – ideal political community.
• Method: Abstract reasoning, moral arguments, formal logic and analytic philosophy
• Scope: state, constitutions, and government.
• Minuses: speculative, abstract, less factual-hypothetical, state was taken to mystical
heights, made politics as mere helping hand of ethics or metaphysics (essence of being).

MODERN APPROACHES:
As stated above, these approaches evolved in modern time, especially after 1950s, under
the behavioural revolution. They are more analytical, empirical, and claim to be fact based,
quantitative, value free, and scientific. Some of the most popular modern approaches are
explained in brief in the following paragraphs:

Political System Approach:

Instead of studying State and its institutions, under this approach entire political system is
studied as an integrated whole. Here Political system means inter-related institutions,
political activities, political actors and processes (arena for ‘the political’) which
continuously interact with each other and to its environment to protect and sustain it. Thus,
political system is similar to other systems such as eco system. It has life and dynamics of
its own. System approach, in political science, was developed by David Easton. He
developed it from the general system theory, which was developed first in Biology.
42
Features:
• Political system is dynamic, self-regulating, and self-sustaining.
• System denote ‘whole’ consisting of interacting ‘parts. Whole is more than sum of
its parts.
• Patterned interactive relationship among the ‘parts’ of the system.
• Input to the political system are the support (political obligation), and demands for
fair distribution of resources, offices, honours, and awards (in form of Public Policies).
• Laws and public policies (authoritative allocation of values) are the outputs of the
political system
• The larger socio-political culture acts like the environment to the political system.
• Units or parts of the system are continuously interacting with each other; also, the
system as a whole continuously interact with its environment. By this, the system maintain
its equilibrium.
Pluses :
Easy to understand, present macro picture of interaction between the socio-economic
environment and political system, can be applied to different countries, societies, and
cultural contexts, provided a set of concepts and categories which have made comparative
analysis more interesting and instructive.
Minuses:
Highly general and abstract, does not reveal policy process, focus on maintenance/status –
quo, leaves out decline, disruption, change, deal only with the present and has, therefore,
no perspective of future and has less study of the past, not much information inside the
political system, which is treated as black box.

Structural - Functional approach:

Here the focus is on identifying and studying political structures and functions they perform
in any political system. It was formulated by Gabriel Almond who claimed that all political
systems have structures, that is,. legitimate patterns of human interactions by which order
is maintained; all political structures perform their respective functions, with different
degrees in different political systems.

43
Features:
•Central question under this approach is 'what structures fulfil what basic functions and
under what conditions in any given society’?
•Elements or parts of the political system and patterns of behaviours and interactions among
them forms structures which perform specific political functions.
•Dominant tendency is to maintain status quo: stability through in-built feedback
mechanism.
•Changes in the political system are gradual, incremental, and adaptive.
•Involves identification of a set of required or recurring functions and structures performing
those functions.
•Political structures may perform the same functions in all system; political structures may
be multi-functional. Same structure may perform many functions. Also, many structures
may do the same functions.

Pluses:
Micro analysis of political system possible, looked inside the political system. Hence, it is
like unpacking the black box of the political system, help compare political systems with
other systems – economic, social, etc.
Minuses:
Focus on maintenance/status –quo, separation of structures and function are not clear and
logical, talks about the functions of the structures and ignores the interactions among
structures which blur the neat separation of structures and their functions, undue
importance given on the input (to political system) aspect, and much less on the output
aspect.

Political Culture Approach:

General attitude and orientation of people towards politics and political system may be
called political culture. In this approach, political phenomena are understood by comparing
political culture across space and time.
Features:
• Political culture is component of overarching culture of the nation/community.

44
 • Gained momentum as an approach to comparative politics on the wake of Behavioural
movement in political science during 1950s.
• Since political culture is specific to a nation/community, it opposes universalization of
political theories based on perspectives of western culture. Hence, it helps overcome
ethnocentrism.
• Idea of cultural pluralism, cultural relativism, and multiculturism are integral to this
approach.
• Political culture is categorized as matured, developed, low, minimal, homogeneous,
fragmented, secular, mass, elite, rural, urban, etc.
Pluses:
Takes care of the context, help faster comparison of large political system by comparing their
political culture, help understand political behaviour, useful devise for broad configurational
(single case study) comparison.
Minuses:
Political culture is vaguely developed concept, undermine sub-culture, overlapping
conceptual boundaries, empirical research difficult.

Some other modern approaches are Behavioural Approach, Political Economy approach,
Sociological approach, Psychological Approach, Marxian approach. etc. which are not explained
here due to time limit.

Conclusion:
Approaches may be defined as a way of dealing with a situation or problem. It consists of
criteria for selecting problems and relevant data. It denotes a mode of analysis which
provides a set of tools and develops concepts for the study and comprehension of any
political phenomena. In comparative politics approaches denote what are the focus of
comparison, how comparison is carried out and for what purposes?
On the basis of timeline of their evolution and uses, approaches in studying comparative
politics have been divided into two categories- Traditional and Modern. The former
approaches have been used since time immemorial and are being still used in present times,
whereas the modern approaches evolved during 20th century, especially after the
behavioural revolution in Political Science during 1950s. Both categories of approaches
complement each other and make the study of comparative politics comprehensive.

45
 I have attempted to explain some of the most popular traditional approaches such as the
institutional approach, the historical approach, and the philosophical normative approach.
In modern approach the political system approach, the structural functional approach, and
political culture approach were explained in brief with their features, pluses & minuses.

46
Q.2: Explain in brief some of the important traditional approaches for studying
Comparative Politics. How are they different from the modern approaches?

Similar Question:
Q: Explain in brief some of the important modern approaches for studying Comparative
Politics. How are they different from the traditional approaches?

Hint for answer: For first part of the question, refer to answer to Q.1. Following are the
differences between two types of approaches:

Basis Traditional Approach Modern Approach

Method & Normative- philosophical, Analytical, empirical, fact based, scientific,

technique prescriptive, descriptive, quantitative
formal-legal, historical
speculative

Scope Legal-constitutional- State Includes study of non-formal, non-

and its formal institutions governmental structures and institutions,
political behaviours, informal process of politics
- political parties, interest groups, elections,
voting behaviour, political culture, etc.

Extent of Configurative (single case More comparative in nature

comparison study) rather than truly
comparative

Eurocentrism Suffers from Eurocentrism Somewhat successful in overcoming

Eurocentrism

Observation & Less emphasis on Focus on quantitative observations and

data observations and data empirical data

47
Testability of Generally, propositions Generally, hypothesis are tested scientifically
hypothesis (hypothesis) not and are empirically verifiable and liable to be
empirically verifiable falsified

Timeline of Have been around since Have evolved during modern times, especially
evolution beginning of the study of after the behavioural revolution in 1950s
political phenomena

48
Q.3: How new institutionalism is different from the old institutionalism as an
approach to study Comparative Politics?

Answer Template:
Introduction:
Before listing out the differences between old and new institutionalism, let us see what is
meant by institution in the context of political science.
Meaning of Institution:
• Govt., and other organizations of the State through which socio-political arrangements are
authoritatively carried out.
• Sets of formal or informal rules, codes, conventions, norms, established practices that
shape individual behavior and structure the relationship between individuals in various
units in the socio-political arrangements.
• ‘Established law, custom or practice’. A rule that has been institutionalized (Lane &
Ersson)
• Humanly devised constraints (checks & balances) that structure political, economic and
social interactions (Douglass North)

In the above definitions we can notice two types of institutions, one tangible, visible, hard
institutions and other intangible, invisible soft institutions. Following are the differences between
soft and hard institutions:
• ‘Hard’ Institutions: formal rules backed by formal law of the political system,
Example: FPTP electoral process, parliamentary form of Govt., federalism, party
system, parliaments, constitutions, the judicial system, state, etc.
• ‘Soft’ Institutions: Informal rules, norms, practices, conventions backed by
informal social sanctions; Examples: dress code, family, marriage, accepted norms
of political behaviours.
• ‘The most effective institutional arrangements incorporate a normative system of
informal and internalized rules’ (Levi ) ; most significant institutional factors are
often informal (North).

49
New vs old institutionalism:
The new institutionalism focuses more on soft institutions. For this, it borrows concepts from
sociology, psychology, and social anthropology.

Following are the major differences between the two types of institutionalism:

OLD INSTITUTIONALISM NEW INSTITUTIONALISM

Studying Institutions as distinct autonomous study Institutions in relation to individual

political entities behavior and societal structures, and other
institutions

Formal, legal, descriptive, normative, Analytical, explanatory & empirical approach

philosophical, historical approach

Less focus on explanatory theory/hypothesis Focus more oriented towards explanation and
explicit theory building

Focus more on ‘hard’ rules and formal Much wider definition of institution, include
organizations ‘soft’ rules and informal organizations

Confined mostly to studying liberal Much wider geographical spread, attempt to

democratic institutions of ‘West’- Eurocentric study institutions in diverse socio-cultural
contexts.

Considered as traditional approach to Considered as one of modern approaches.

comparative politics

Drew concepts from philosophy, law, history Much more comparative focus- comparing
institutional settings in different countries and

50
 cultures and how they shape political behavior,
process, and outcomes.
Much more inter-disciplinary. Drew concepts
from Sociology, Economics, Social-
anthropology, History, etc.

No systematic cross-country or cross-culture More cross-country or cross-culture

comparison comparison

Conclusion:
In sum, new institutionalism focuses more on soft institutions, is more analytical,
empirical (fact based), and explanatory. In comparison to old institutionalism its scope is
broader, it is more inter-disciplinary, and has much more comparative focus. Hence, new
institutionalism helps more in theory building and testing hypothesis in Comparative
Politics. Because of its attributes, new institutionalism is categorized as modern approaches
to study Comparative Politics. In fact, new institutionalism has revitalized (given a new
life with different features) to the traditional institutional approach.

51
Q.4: How does political culture determine the functioning of political
institutions? Explain with reference to the political culture approach to
comparative politics

Introduction:

General attitude and orientation of people towards politics and political system may be
called political culture. As per Almond and Verba, pattern of orientations to political
objects (both tangible aspects of the political system- Institutions, political parties and
intangible aspects- authority, legitimacy, conventions, etc.) among the members of the
nation determine their political culture. As per Kavanagh, political culture denotes set of
values, beliefs, and attitudes within which a political system operates. As per Lucian
Pye, political culture involves attributes including attitudes, feelings, sentiments, beliefs,
and values which concern the nature of politics that give form and substance to political
processes.
From the above meaning and definitions of political culture its prime role in affecting the
functioning of political institutions is evident. First and foremost, institutions in any
political system adapt to the overarching culture, especially political culture of the
society/community. Rules, norms, customs, and worldview of the political institutions are
manifestation of the political culture in which these institutes operate. Institutions often
adopt a new practice because it enhances the social legitimacy of the organization or its
participants. Political Culture provides behavioural template & cognitive scripts or frame
of reference which shape identity, self-image, preference, behavior, and actions of
individual actors and institutions.
As per Paul DiMaggio and Walter W. Powell, institutions working in a particular
political culture became similar in their approach and function. This is because belief
systems and cultural frames are imposed on and adapted by individual actors and
institutions. They called this phenomenon ‘Institutional isomorphism’.
We can visualize many instances of deep impact of political culture on the functioning of
political institutions. Conventionalism and gradualism are the chief features of British
political culture. This is reflected in its political institutions which are extra cautious in
going against well-established conventions and radical changes. Recent example of UK
PM resigning because of unconventional beaviour in public and private life clearly
establishes the link between political culture and functioning of political institution.
Political culture of India has traces of parochialism and subject types, as categorised by
Almond & Verba. People are still attached more to their primordial (birth based)
identities (religion, caste, language, etc.). They give more importance to age old customs,

52
 social practices, roles & responsibilities over the formal rules & regulations. These
features of the Indian political culture are reflected in formalism (actual behaviour
different from as expected from rules/regulations) in functioning of public administration.
This was explained by Fred Riggs as the ecological impacts on the prismatic society of
developing countries. Overdose of caste and religion in electoral and party politics in
India polity is another instance of impact of political culture on the functioning of
political institutions.

Political Culture Approach:

• In this approach, political phenomena are understood by comparing political culture across
space and time. It is obvious from the meanings of political culture stated above that
political institutions, such as representative democracy, parliament, executive, judiciary,
electoral system, political party, etc., reflect and represent the political culture of a
particular political system. Soft political institutions, pattern of political relation and
interaction, also reflect political culture of that nation. For example, ‘Civic culture’ support
& represent stable democratic Institutions; Indian political Institutions reflect political
culture evolved during the national independence movement
• Political culture provides the overarching framework within which political institutions
function. For example, formalization of political Institutions in Prismatic society, as
explained by Fred Riggs. Political culture provides stability and legitimacy to political
institutions. For example, difference in political culture of India and Pakistan and resulting
into instability in latter. Political culture provides resources for political organizations and
social mobilizations, both affect political institutions.
• In turn, political institution and their functioning affect political culture. For example,
disillusionment of people from Bureaucracy and Politicians because of imperfect
functioning of Institutions.
• Such close association of political culture and political institutions make political culture
an important approach to compare political institutions of different nations.
• Almond and Verba used this approach to compare political institutions among 5 nations-
USA, UK, Germany, Italy, and Mexico. Based on comparison, they defined 3 ideal types
of political culture- Parochial, Subject, and Participative. Suitable combination of subject
& participative political culture, in which aware people have trust in elite leadership to
govern and make policies for good of the nation was called ‘Civic Culture’ by Almond and
Verba.
• Paul DiMaggio and Walter Powell gave the concept of ‘Institutional isomorphism’, which
denotes similarity of political institutions under similar political culture. Fred Riggs’

53
 comparative study of public administration in ‘Prismatic Society’ is another example of
using political culture for comparing political institutions.
Features:
• Political culture is component of overarching culture of the nation/community.

• Gained momentum as an approach to comparative politics on the wake of Behavioural

movement in political science during 1950s.

• Since political culture is specific to a nation/community, it opposes universalization of

political theories based on perspectives of western culture. Hence, it helps overcome
ethnocentrism and Eurocentrism.

• Idea of cultural pluralism, cultural relativism, and multiculturism are integral to this
approach.

• Political culture is categorized as matured, developed, low, minimal, homogeneous,

fragmented, secular, mass, elite, rural, urban, etc. Almond & verba, in their empirical
study of political culture of 5 nations, categorised it into Parochial, Subject, and
Participative. Balanced mixture of all three types results into civic culture.

• Pluses: Takes care of the context, help faster comparison of large political system by
comparing their political culture, help understand political behaviour, useful devise for
broad configurational ( single case study) comparison.

Conclusion
Political Culture denotes norm, value, belief, attitude, and orientation of people towards
politics and political system. How people make meaning of ‘the political’, identify
themselves and others politically, etc. are reflected in the political culture of any political
community. So in a Nutshell Political Culture is How much people are aware about
Political system, processes- Motives, interests & power, Identities, and Institutions
(Cognitive aspect). What are their feelings and attachments towards politics and Political
Processes (Affective Aspect). And How they evaluate or assess the outcomes(
policies/decisions) of political system (Evaluative Aspect).
Political Culture provides the Context, define political identities, provide framework and
stability to political system/institutions, help making meaning of motives and behaviours
Political culture deeply impacts the functioning of political institutions which adapt to the
overarching political culture. Institutional norms, beliefs, values, and practices reflect the
prevailing political culture. All institutions functioning in a particular culture looks same
after some time.

54
Political Culture approach to comparative politics help study politics in different
settings/context, make comparison more meaningful, help explain political phenomenon,
help generalization and prediction- hypothesis.
However, there are limitation of using political culture for comparing political institutions.
First & foremost is vagueness of the concept of political culture. Secondly, cultural units
have not clear and distinct border. Many nations may have similar political culture, whereas
within a nation multiple political culture may be identified. Cultural explanations require
supporting social mechanisms (social phenomenon) to have any explanatory value.
Evolution of political institutions in any nation may be guided by external factors (
exogenic), for example in post-colonial states. In those nations political culture may not
reflect their political institutions.)

55
 THEME 3: HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF MODERN
GOVERNMENT: CAPITALISM

3.A: CBCS SYLLABUS

• Capitalism: Meaning and Development
• Globalisation of Capitalism

3.B: KEY POINTS

• Definition of Capitalism: mode of production and consequent socio-economic order in
which means of production are owned by very small section of propertied class who
purchase wage labour from vast majority of property less class.
• Thus, in essence Capitalism is a specific kind of mode of production. The socio-economic
relation created by such mode of production along with associated political-legal structure
are all part of the capitalism.
• Capitalism entails class based social relation- dominant but minority capitalist and
dominated but majority labour class. The capitalist class function as ruling elites whereas
the labour class represent the masses.
• Despite being exploitative system, the exploitation is not by coercion ( force) or political
in nature, but primarily by economic means- extraction of surplus value of labour.
• Surplus value of labour is the price at which the product is sold minus labour charges paid
to the producer (labourer) at the market rate.
• Bedrock of capitalism is the ‘Market’, where exchange take place. Labours as well as
goods and services are sold and purchased in the market. Invisible hand of market not only
maintain economic order but also dictate social relationship.
• Capitalist class (those who own mode/forces of production) earn profit by selling the
product at higher price than the costs for inputs, that is, factors of production. Labour
charges, at market rates, is part of the input cost.
• Profit is basically surplus value of labour. Finished product becomes more valuable only
by labourer’s effort. All other factors of production- land, capital, machinery- are passive
factors. Of course, this is Marxist view and open to contestation.

56
• Capitalist increases profit by increasing labour productivity.
• Profit is retained/re-invested by capitalist.
• Thus, capitalism can be represented by this flow chart
• Capital (Money) — buys–> Means of Production & Labour — to Produce –>
Product/Service — to sell for–>Money+1 (Profit).
• Capitalism denotes market mediated impersonal and class based social relation.
• Capitalism is inherently expansionist, closely linked to colonialism, imperialism, and neo-
liberal globalization.
• Liberalism is the ideological vehicle of capitalism and liberal democracy its face or mask.
• Evolution:
• Decline of Feudal system in Europe, especially in England, gave rise to Capitalism.
• It evolved first in 16th-17th Century England where landlords started leasing land
on market determined rent, improving labour productivity and generating profit in
agriculture sector.
• Subsequent reformation movement, Industrial Revolution, Rise of Bourgeois,
liberalism, evolution of nation-state, etc. helped in its evolution.
• Four phases of Capitalism:
• Classic-19th century.
• Monopolistic- inter war, post WWII till 1973;
• Neo-Liberal- 1973 till 1991;
• Contemporary or globalized: post-cold war era
• Globalisation of Capitalism:
• Capitalism is, by its very nature, expansionist. It produces more product/services
than required. It also re-invests the profit for more production. Hence capitalism,
for its sustenance, require new markets, new product/services, new consumers.
• Current phase of Globalisation, called neo-liberal globalisation, is propelled
(pushed or powered) by the engine of free-market capitalist economy of which
global free trade and investment are integral components.
• In fact, Globalization is manifestation of world-wide expansion of capitalism in
post-cold war era.
• Globalization is the evolved form of modern capitalism.

57
• Phases of Globalization of capital:
• Classic Phase: Colonial era: 18th Century;
• Old phase: 1945 to 1973;
• New phase: 1973 to till 20th century;
• Contemporary phase: 21st Century

58
 3. C: ANSWER TEMPLATES TO PAST YEAR’S AND OTHER
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Q.1 Define Capitalism. Do you agree that globalisation is the face of modern
capitalism? Elucidate.

Answer Template:

Introduction:
Capitalism can be defined as mode of production and consequent socio-economic relation
and structure in which means of production are owned by very small section of class who
owns property and modes of production and purchase wage labour from vast majority of
property less class. Thus, in essence, capitalism is production for profit in a specific mode
of production by a private entity, who owns the means or factors of production, and in
which the profit comes from the surplus value of labour and enhanced labour productivity.
Capitalism also denote class based social structure. One class is the capitalist class which
owns the mode and factors of production and other class is the labour class which sells its
labour at market determined rate. The relationship between the capitalist and labour class
is hierarchical and unequal. The capitalist class is dominant whereas the labour class is the
subordinate class.
Capitalism is an exploitative system but the exploitation is not by force or coercion but it
is primarily by economic means, which is extraction of surplus value of labour by the
capitalist class. Capitalism caused market mediated impersonal social relation. Invisible
hand of market determined both economic and social interactions. Hence, capitalism is a
very different production and resulting social order in comparison to those of pre capitalist
era.
Globalisation can be defined as world-wide interconnectedness and interdependence of
people, places, ideas, information, objects, activities, and exchanges. Capitalism, by its
very nature, is expansionist. It requires new and bigger markets and more and more
consumers to sustain itself. The current phase of globalisation is propelled (pushed or
forced) by the engines of free market capitalism. In fact, globalisation is manifestation of

59
 world-wide expansion of capitalism in post-cold war era. Hence, globalisation can be
understood as the face of modern capitalism. In a way globalisation is nothing but
globalised capitalist system.
In the next section of the answer, I will elaborate upon the meaning of Capitalism and how
it is closely linked to current phase of globalization.

Definition, meaning and features of Capitalism:

• Capitalism can be defined as a mode of production and resulting socio-economic order in

which means of production (land, equipment, technology, capital, entrepreneurship) are
owned by very small section of propertied class (capitalist class) who purchase wage labour
from vast majority of property less class (labour class).
• Capitalist class by his Capital (Money) buys means of production & labour to produce
product/service to sell them for profit. All these transactions happen in the market which
determine the rate of the exchanges.
• The profit comes from selling at higher price than the costs of production. The finished
product becomes more valuable than the raw material. The labour by its effort enhances
the value of the product. Hence, profit is value of labour which the capitalist class does not
pass on to the labour. Profit is the surplus value of labour.
• The above statement can be represented by this flow chart: Money –>Product –>Money+
profit ( Money/capital produces product which in turn generate more money)
• Capitalism denotes economic system dominated by free markets and private ownership of
wealth, assets and business. It also denotes hegemony of the capitalist class in socio-
political domain. Thus, the capitalist class represent the ruling elites whereas the labour
class represent the masses.

Features of capitalism:
• Producers loses ownership on his produce - Labourer sells not fruit of his labour but the
labour itself.
• Capitalist class take away surplus value of labour in form of profit.
• Thus, extraction and exploitation are not by coercion (by extra-economic political means)
but by economic means.

60
 • Capitalist class also gained political supremacy and intellectual leadership: became the
ruling elites; labour class became the masses.
• Dependent and subordinate class relationship between the capitalist and the labour class.
Socio-economic order is determined by class structure.
• Capitalist social order denotes impersonal social relation mediated by market, that is, the
market relationship. Invisible hand of market determines both economic and social
relations.
• Expansionist nature of capitalism: due to its capacity to produce more than required, it
requires new markets, new set of consumers, which in turn brings more profit, more capital
and even more production. This cycle continues.
• Because of its inherently expansionist nature, capitalism is closely linked to Colonialism,
Imperialism, and Globalization.

How capitalism is linked to current phase of Globalization:

• Liberal democracy and free-market capitalist economy are twin engines of globalization.
• Current phase of globalization is propelled by neo-liberal free-market capitalist economy.
• Economic liberalization, privatization, free-trade, free exchange rates, free investment,
capital convertibility, etc. are propelling globalization.
• Capital as finance, circulation of hot money, interconnectedness of global financial market,
etc. are further fueling globalization.
• MNC (Multi-national corporation) and TNC (trans-national corporation)- representing
capitalism are bearer of globalizations.
• Global commodity supply and demand chain, which are part of global capitalist system,
are distinctive features of globalization.
• Current phase of globalization denotes ideological victory of capitalism and free market
economy (neo-liberalism) in the post-cold war era. What we call globalization is global
expansion of liberal democracy and free market economy.
• During the Cold War era the communist world presented an ideological fight with the
capitalism of western developed nations. After the fall of USSR and the communist world
the ideological fight was over and capitalism expanded to wrest while communist world.
Through the structural adjustment program led by IMF and World Bank, the capitalism
engulfed the entire globe. This is what we call neoliberal phase of globalization starting
with 1990s.

61
 • Neo-liberal capitalism and its prescriptions for developing nations- Liberalisation and
Privatisation- made ground for faster Globalisation.
• Thus, Liberalisation, Privatisation, Globalisation (L.P.G.) became the face of neo-liberal
capitalism during current phase of globalisation.
• ‘Structural adjustment program’ for developing countries under the guidance of IMF and
World Bank denotes integration of 3rd world countries into the global capitalist system led
by western capitalist powers.
Thus, we can very well say that current phase of Globalisation is the face of modern, neo-liberal
capitalism.

Conclusion:
Capitalism is essentially a mode of production in which a very small propertied class owns
the mode and factors of production and purchase wage labour from the property less class
to produce product which is sold at higher prices (than the cost price) to gain profit. This
system is essentially exploitative, for the labour do not get the entire value in form of wages
it creates by enhancing the value of the product. But such exploitation is not by force or
coercion as happened in pre capitalist era. This is a kind of economic exploitation, which
is inherent (inbuilt) into the capitalist mode of production.
Capitalism also entails class based social order in which the dominant class is the capitalist
class and the subordinate or exploited class is the property less labour class. Hence, the
capitalist social order is always antagonistic and in tension.
I have also tried to explain how current phase of globalization is intimately linked to the
global expansion of neoliberal phase of capitalism. Capitalism is inherently expansionist
in nature. For its sustainability it perpetually (always) requires new market, new
consumers, and new products to sell. Globalization is the medium by which neoliberal
capitalism has expanded world over to find new markets and new consumers. This became
very fast after the fall of USSR in the post-cold war era. Globalization of capitalism also
symbolizes ideological victory of capitalism over socialism. After the fall of USSR and
demise of the communist ideology, there is no opposing ideological force to stop the
juggernaut (stream roller) of capitalism. Thus, the current phase of globalization maybe
equated with global expansion of neoliberal phase of capitalism. In a way we can say that
the current phase of globalization is the face of modern neoliberal capitalism.

62
Q.2: What are various models of capitalist system? How has Globalization
impacted capitalism? Discuss.

Hint: the answer should begin with meaning of capitalism. For that refer to Q.1 . Please note that
there is no universal agreement of types of capitalist system. You may write any one classification.
In this answer I have taken different models of capitalist system as it evolved since 16th century in
England. But I have also mentioned some other classifications.

Introduction:
Capitalism essentially denotes a universal model of production system and socio-economic
relation in which a propertied class own the modes and factors of production, purchase
labour of the property less class from market and sell the product at profit. The capitalist
class is the dominant class whereas the labour class is the subordinated class. Thus, the
capitalist social order denotes a hierarchical social relationship of dominance and
subordination between the two classes which represent ‘have’ and ‘have nots’.
But within this overarching universal model of capitalist system, we can find many
different ways in which capitalism is implemented and manifested in different
countries/regions, different cultures, different contexts, and in different periods. Therefore,
we can find different models of capitalist system in different regions/countries/cultures.
We can also classify capitalist model based on its attributes and features as it evolved since
16th and 17th century Europe. On this basis we can demarcate Agricultural capitalism in
16th century England, Mercantile capitalism during 17th-18th century Europe, classical
competitive capitalism of 19th century Europe and USA, Monopolist capitalism during the
interwar period and post-World War II till 1973, Neoliberal capitalism since 1973 till1991,
and finally the globalised model of capitalism post 1991.
On the basis of how capitalism has developed and manifested in different capitalist
countries, we can identify the US model which is free market or neo-liberal capitalism, the
German model which is coordinated and regulated capitalism which is softened by social
welfare, the social democratic model of capitalism in Scandinavian countries in which
strong measures of social welfare mixes with free market economic model. We can also
identify the developmental capitalism in India and South Asia, which is kind of mix of
socialism and capitalism with focus on quick infrastructure development, export led
dependent capitalism model of Latin America, corporatist and collective capitalism in
Japan and state late capitalism in China.

63
 In this answer, I am explaining in brief different models of capitalist system based on how
capitalism has evolved since 16-17th century from England and spread to all parts of the
world in the globalized era.

Models of capitalist system based on how it evolved:

• Classic capitalism in agriculture during 16th-17th Century England

• This was the beginning of capitalism. From the feudal system, mode of agriculture
production shifted to capitalist mode of production. The capitalist class purchased
land on rent, hired labour from market, and sold the produce at profit. This was
beginning of capitalism.
• Mercantile Capitalist system: 17th- 18th Century Europe
• This was trading oriented capitalism. Technically, it cannot be called capitalist
system as no product was created. But products were purchased from one place and
sold at another place at profit.
• This model of capitalism is linked to colonialism and imperialism.. Trading
companies of Europe were the first to colonise 3rd world regions.
• Classical Competitive capitalism of 19th century
• Entrepreneurs started producing in small workshops/factories.
• Perfect competition among the producers, who produced in small quantities, and
were in plenty.
• Monopolist Capitalism: 20th Century- Inter-war period, Post WWII to 1973
• Giant monopolistic companies like Ford, AT&T, BP, etc
• Mass production in assembly line.
• Keynesian or ‘Demand led’ Capitalism.
• Evolution of Multi-national Corporations (MNCs)
• Also called Fordist Model- assembly line, affordable mass production by scientific
management, monopolist firms, economies of scale.

64
 • This model manifested in different way in Germany and Scandinavian countries.
There it was moderated by social Welfare and Regulatory state. This gave rise to
Social Democratic capitalist system.
• Neo-liberal Capitalism: 1973 till 1991
• De-Regulation, Privatization became the main theme.
• Neo-liberalism denoted revival of classical competitive capitalism- free market,
free trade, less regulation, low taxation, limited role of State in economy.
• Regan (USA)- Thatcher (UK) era
• Also called Post Fordist model.
• From mass production by assembly lines to differentiated products, decentralized
production, from ‘economies of scale’ to ‘economies of scope’.
• Globalized capitalism: post 1991; post-cold war era
• Faster spread of Neo-liberalism across the globe after the fall of USSR and the
communist bloc.
• Liberalisation, Privatisation, Globalization (L.P.G.) as a result of the structural
adjustment program led by IMF and World Bank.
• Economic and financial globalisation. Global supply chain.

Conclusion:

Within the overarching universal model of capitalism as a specific mode of production and
resulting socio economic order, we can identify different types or models of capitalism on
the basis of how it is manifested in different socio-cultural settings in different parts of the
world. In this answer I have tried to present classification of capitalist system based on how
capitalism evolved in different parts of the world since 16th and 17th from Agricultural
capitalism in the 16th century England. On this basis we have seen that capitalism can have
different models such as mercantile capitalism, classical competitive capitalism,
Monopolist or Fordist model, differentiated, diversified or post-Fordist model, Neoliberal
capitalism and Globalised capitalism.
Second basis of classification can be the type of capitalism developed and manifested in
major regions of the world. On this basis we can delineate Anglo-US model of free market
capitalism, German model of regulated capitalism, Social democratic model of capitalism

65
in Scandinavian countries, state-led capitalism in many erstwhile socialist countries ,
corporatist and collective capitalism, Asian development model of capitalism, and export-
led dependent capitalism model of Latin America.
Classification of different models of capitalist system indicate the fundamental nature of
socio-political arrangements which are specific and unique to the socio-cultural context
and settings of a particular society/community. Capitalism can have universal features and
attributes but its implementation and manifestation in different cultures would be different
and that gives different models of the capitalist system.

66
Q.3 : Write an essay on history of capitalist expansion in the world.

Introduction:
Capitalism originated in 16th century England in the agriculture sector. It was different
from the agricultural system during the feudal era in which the agriculture produce,
produced by individual farmers, was appropriated or taken away through taxation or by
force or coercion by the feudal class. In the new way of agricultural production system, the
capitalist class took the land on rent, purchased the labour from market, and sold the
agricultural produce at a profit. This way the extraction of surplus labour in form of profit
was not by force or coercion rather it was by economic means. This was the beginning of
classical capitalism.
Thereafter, capitalism evolved and spread across the globe in different models and in
different forms. First, mercantile capitalist system evolved during 17th-18th century Europe
which led to colonialism and imperialism. The trading companies of Europe were first to
colonize the third world countries. Mercantile capitalism gave way to classical competitive
capitalism of 19th century, which was followed by monopolist capitalism which is also
called the Fordist Model. This phase lasted till 1973. This was the golden period of
capitalism in which large multinational corporations having branches in multiple nations
emerged. Subsequently, neoliberal capitalism emerged after 1973 and still continuing.
However, we can delineate another phase of capitalist evolution in the form of globalised
capitalism since 1991 in the post-cold war era. This is the present form of globalisation.
which is represented by Liberalisation, Privatisation, Globalisation (LPG).

In the next section of the answer, I will try to explain in brief the different models/forms in which
capitalism evolved and spread across the globe since its origin in 16th century England.

How capitalism originated?

• During 16th-17th Century in England several factors led to market-mediated relation
between landlords and peasants in which extraction of ‘surplus labour’ of the
farmers/peasants was by economic means and not by coercion or ‘extra-economic’ means
as happened under the feudal system. This was the beginning of classical capitalism.
• Enclosure (consolidating small landholdings into larger farms from the 13th century
onward), Separation of economic and political sphere, emergence of unified national
67
 market, centralized state, balance of power between central Monarch and aristocratic
Parliament were some of favourable factors for emergence of capitalism in Agriculture in
16th century England.
• Land Rent were market determined; only those peasants who could have increased the
labour productivity by innovative methods and technology would have increased cultivable
land. This was the beginning of competitive capitalism.
• The tenants took land on rent, purchased labour from market, and sold the agricultural
produce at profit. Extraction and exploitation of ‘surplus labour’ was in built into the
economic system and mode of production of this new agricultural system.
• Roughly same time in France (16-17th century), ruling elites and emerging Bourgeois both
competed for extracting ‘surplus labour’ of peasants through taxation and coercive means.
This was persistence of ‘politically constituted property’ and feudal, pre-capitalist social
order.
• In contrast, the capitalist accumulated property was generated economically by keeping the
‘surplus value of labour’ (profit minus labour cost). This was ‘economically constituted
property’.

How capitalism expanded worldwide during its course of evolution?

As explained above, capitalism originated in England during 16th-17th century from agriculture
sector. Since then, we can delineate (demarcate) different phases in which capitalism spread
around the world in different capitalist model. Following are the phases and the capitalist model
during those phases:

• Classic capitalism in agriculture during 16th-17th Century England

• This was the beginning of capitalism. From the feudal system, mode of agriculture
production shifted to capitalist mode of production. The capitalist class purchased
land on rent, hired labour from market, and sold the agricultural produce at profit.
This was capitalist mode of agricultural production.
• Mercantile Capitalist system: 17th- 18th Century Europe
• This was trading oriented capitalism. Technically, it cannot be called capitalist
system as no product was created. But products were purchased from one place and
sold at another place at profit.

68
 • This model of capitalism is linked to colonialism and imperialism.. Trading
companies of Europe were the first to colonise 3rd world regions.
• Classical Competitive capitalism of 19th century.
• Entrepreneurs started producing in small workshops/factories.
• Perfect competition among the producers, which were in plenty.
• Monopolist Capitalism: 20th Century- Inter-war period, Post WWII to 1973
• Giant monopolistic companies like Ford, AT&T, BP, etc. emerged.
• Keynesian or ‘Demand led’ Capitalism
• Evolution of Multi-national Corporations (MNCs)
• Also called Fordist Model- assembly line, affordable mass production by scientific
management, monopolist firms, economies of scale.
• This model manifested in different way in Germany and Scandinavian countries.
There it was moderated by social Welfare and Regulatory state. This gave rise to
Social Democratic capitalist system.
• Neo-liberal Capitalism: 1973 till 1991
• De-Regulation, Privatization became the main theme
• Neo-liberalism denoted revival of classical competitive capitalism- free market,
free trade, less regulation, low taxation, limited role of State in economy.
• Regan (USA)- Thatcher (UK) era
• Also called Post Fordist model
• From mass production by assembly lines to differentiated products, decentralized
production, from economies of scale to economies of scope.
• Globalized capitalism : post 1991; post-cold war era
• Faster spread of Neo-liberalism across the globe after the fall of USSR and the
communist bloc.
• Liberalisation, Privatisation, Globalization (L.P.G.) became the buzzword in
globalized phase of capitalism.
• Economic and financial globalisation.
• Even the erstwhile communist countries, such as China, Russia, adopted state led
capitalism.

69
Conclusion:

With the decline of feudal system, Capitalism originated in 16th century England. It was
supported by many favourable factors such as enclosure movement, centralised state and
market, separation of politics and economy, less power of Monarchy vis-à-vis parliament
and market, etc. Agriculture was the first sector in which classical capitalism originated.
In contrast to the feudal Lords who extracted surplus labour and agricultural produce from
the peasants by force, the capitalist class took the land on rent, hired labour from market
and sold agricultural produce at profit. This way they extracted the surplus value of labour
not by force but by economic means. This was the start of classical capitalism.
In the body of the answer, I have tried to delineate the different phases in which different
models of capitalist system evolved and spread across the globe. In sum, after the
agricultural capitalism came the mercantile capitalist system. This was followed by
classical competitive capitalism in 19th century Europe and USA. Subsequently, the
monopolist capitalist system during the interwar and post-World War II Era emerged which
gave way to neoliberal capitalism which is still in existence. Presently, we are witnessing
globalised capitalism which is faster spread of neoliberal capitalism around the globe
without any resistance after the fall of USSR and the communist bloc.

70
Q.4 : What are the major challenges of capitalist world order today?

Introduction:
Contradictions and tensions are in built into the capitalist system. Capitalism is torn apart
by opposing philosophies. On one hand it is guided by liberalism which support the
normative values of equality whereas on the other hand its ideal is free market economy
and market mediated social relationship. Market treats inequal as equal and hence creates
greatest inequality. The capitalist system creates haves and have nots. The capitalist class,
which is in minority, possess all means of production, property, wealth and all material
resources whereas the other class which is in vast majority is property less, without the
ownership of modes & factors of production, subordinated, and subjugated in all respect
by the dominant capitalist class. Such class antagonism creates socially and economically
unstable system.
Another challenge posed to capitalism is of separation of political and economic domains
which were unified during the pre-capitalist era. Because of this there is also a separation
of two moments of exploitation- exploitation by force or coercion in political domain and
exploitation by capitalist mode of production in economic domain. Another issue with
capitalism is its inherently expansionist nature. Capitalism produces more product and
services then required. Hence, to sustain itself it always requires new markets, new
consumers, and new products and services. This leads to search for new markets and
consumers worldwide by the capitalist powers. Multinational corporations are
manifestation of this expansionist nature of capitalism. This creates many challenges such
as Imperial tendencies, interference in other countries’ affair, political resistance to MNCs,
and trade conflict trade, etc.
Challenges and contradictions in capitalism have manifested in forms of frequent crisis in
the capitalist system during its entire period of existence. The recent one has been the prime
lending crisis of 2008 which originated in USA but the entire world was affected because
of globalised capitalism. Challenges in capitalism is also reflected in jobless growth in
recent years due to explosive growth of services, computerisation, and the financial
globalisation. The ways in which capitalist mode of production is carried out,, it also faces
the challenge of ecological degradation, energy and economic sustainability. Higher
inequality in income and wealth distribution and resulting social tensions are perhaps the
greatest challenges of the capitalist system.

71
 In the next section of the answer, I will try to elaborate upon some of the challenges and
contradictions in built into the capitalist system.

Challenges & Contradiction of Capitalism:

• Dialectic (tension, conflicting) nature: Capitalism, by its nature, has in built

contradictions, tensions, and conflict.
• Class contradiction: It produces class based social structure. Capitalist vs Labour
class. Have vs Have Not. Elite vs Masses. Entitled vs Deprived class.
• Such antagonistic class structure is very unstable and filled with conflict and
tension. When vast majority of population are property less, without means of
production and are dominated by small minority of propertied class, the socio-
economic structure would be very conflicting and unstable. This is perhaps the
biggest challenge of the capitalist world order.
• Contradiction of Liberalism and free market economy existing together
• Ideological base of capitalism is Liberalism, which believe in normative
value of equality. But capitalism is inherently an unequal system. It creates
inequality in every domain- social, economic, and political.
• Market creates inequality. It gives equal treatment to unequal. Hence, the
market increases inequality
• Market relationship is making capitalist society atomistic and antagonistic
• Capitalism has replaced traditional social relationship into market relationship. All
relationships are mediated by the market. Relationships are weighed by the pros &
cons of money and profit. This makes society mere aggregation of self-interested,
atomistic individuals who act in their relationship as rational economic agent,
devoid of emotions and normative values of morality, ethics, moral obligation. C.B.
MacPherson derided this by terming it ‘Possessive Individualism’. This creates the
challenge of degenerating social relationship in the era of capitalism.
• Separation of political and economic spheres
• Capitalism has separated two types of exploitation- political and economic.
Political class in power exploits the masses by monopoly of force and coercion.
Whereas the capitalist class exploit by means of extracting surplus value of labour
through capitalist mode of production.

72
 • In the pre-capitalist era, both these exploitations were unified in feudal system. The
Kings, Zamindars, feudal Lords, etc. were exploiting the masses economically by
means of political force/coercion. Now the masses are exploited by political forces
by the ruling political dispensation and by economic means by the capitalist class.
Such separation of economic and political exploitation makes it inherently unstable
system. This is another challenge of the capitalist socio-economic system.
• Jobless growth
• One of biggest challenge of the capitalist system is of jobless growth.
• Capitalist mode of production produces giant monopolistic firms. They use
assembly lines, automation, computerisation, and many such technologies to reduce
labour cost. This results into flooding of products and economic growth ( GDP
growth) without generating matching labour employment.
• Service sector led growth is another reason of the jobless growth. Services require
much less labour than product/commodity production.
• Financialization of capitalism is another reason for jobless growth. In classical
capitalism, money was invested to produce goods/services, which were sold to
generate more money. Under the Financialization of capitalism, money is directly
converted, by financial method, into more money. For example, share market, in
which money is multiplied without producing any goods/services.
• Because of the unsatiable need for new products, new markets, new consumers, capitalism
is leading to crisis of 3 E: ECOLOGY, ENERGY, ECONOMY
• Global warming, ozone hole, pollution, and pandemic are all manifestation of
ecological crisis brought by the capitalist system.
• Oil crisis of 1973 brought on fore the challenge of managing energy in the capitalist
system. Since the system needs huge amount of energy for ever increasing
productions by mechanized mode, it consumes huge amount of energy and deplete
fast the energy sources. It also wastes lots of energy.
• Economic crisis is in built into the capitalist system. Huge number of
products/services can only be consumed by the labour class, which gets payment
(in form of wages) from the capitalist class. This creates a peculiar contradiction.
Unless the workers are paid enough wages, they cannot purchase the
product/services produced by the capitalist system. But increasing the wages
reduces the profit to capitalist class. This creates the challenge of selling the huge
amounts of goods/services produced by the capitalist system.

73
 • Frequent crisis: 1930, 1973, 2001, 2008, 2012
• Because of the contradiction and challenges explained above the capitalist world
has been facing frequent crisis.
• The crisis of 1930 also known as the Great Depression was the first major crisis
faced by the capitalist system.
• The 1973 crisis was energy crisis. All of a sudden, the oil producing countries of
West Asia hiked the prices of petroleum to abnormally high level. This created the
oil shock which spread to entire globe and shook the capitalist economy.
• The Asian financial crisis was a period of financial crisis that spread to much of
East Asia and Southeast Asia beginning in July 1997 and raised fears of a
worldwide economic meltdown due to financial globalisation..
• The 2001 crisis was busting of the dotcom bubble. This was end of the dream that
without any physical structure of brick-and-mortar software company could be
started in places like garages, hotel lobbies, a single room in metropolis and by that
anyone can become a millionaire. But that dream was busted in 2001 and resulted
into the dotcom crisis.
• The crisis of 2008, which originated in USA, was called Prime lending crisis. It
was a financial crisis of cheap and dubious home loan in which lakhs of the home
loan borrower defaulted on the payment. This crisis also spread to entire globe.
• Financial crises struck different parts of globe in 2012-2014. Reduction in real
wages, lower Government spending and demands, lower real state and oil prices,
etc. created the crisis.
• All these crises indicate towards the fact that because of the globalised capitalism,
crisis in one part of the system will very soon spread to other parts and become a
global crisis. This is one of the biggest challenges of the capitalist system as the
challenges/ crises cannot be confined to one place.

Discussion and Conclusion:

Capitalism is inherently contradictory and unstable system. It produces antagonistic class
based social structure. The class division between ‘have’ and ‘have nots’ make the society
fraught with tension and instability. When vast majority of the population having no
property and means of production is subjugated by a small number of propertied and
privileged class, then the socio-economic system will never be stable. This is the biggest
challenge of the capitalist system.

74
We have seen that it also faces several other challenges in contemporary times. The crisis
of three Es , that is Ecology, Energy and Economy, has now become the feature of the
capitalist system anywhere in world. The present ecological crisis of global warming,
depletion of energy resources and frequent economic crisis, all have defined the capitalist
system in recent time. We have also seen that of late capitalism has resulted into jobless
growth and financialization of capital.
Because of its inherent challenges and contradictions, capitalism has faced frequent crisis.
In the body of the answer, I have tried to explain six major crises. First was in 1930 - the
economic depression; than the oil shock of 1973, 1997 Asian financial crisis, dot.com
bubble bust in 2001, Prime lending crisis of 2008-09, and multiple financial and fiscal crisis
during 2012-14.
Capitalist system anywhere in world faces both economic and social crisis on regular
intervals. This is the very nature of capitalism and cannot be avoided. The present capitalist
world order will have to deal with these crises. For the time being there is no alternative.
The alternative system in the form of Sate socialism have failed. In the post-cold war era,
there is no alternate ideology to challenge the capitalism and free market economy.
Therefore, the globalized world will have to learn to live with the challenges and
contradictions of capitalism. By our own ingenuity(innovations) and effort, we can
moderate these challenges, lessen their impacts, but we cannot completely avoid them.

75
 THEME 4: HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF MODERN
GOVERNMENT: SOCIALISM

4. A: CBCS SYLLABUS:
Socialism: meaning, growth and development

4. B: KEY POINTS:

• Socialism is understood as social ownership of means of production (land, equipment,

technology, capital, entrepreneurship), in which profit is not retained by individuals but are
distributed for social welfare, reducing inequality.
• Socialism in practice: Means of production are mostly owned and operated by state.
Private property and enterprise are regulated heavily. Characterized by policies of
progressive taxation, welfare state- free or subsidized education, health care, social
security, public facilities, income distribution to lessen inequalities, etc.
• Communism is vision of property-less, class-less, stateless, co-operative community living
in bliss and contentment. Everyone works as per his ability and get as per his needs.
Remained largely a Utopia.
• Idea of common ownership and classless community is as old as human civilisation – pre-
historic tribal community, primitive communities, etc.
• Many early proponents of socialism, such as John Ball, Thomas Müntzer, Robert Owen,
Charles Fourier, etc., devoted their life to realize the socialist vision but credit goes to Karl
Marx for providing scientific and critical analysis of capitalism as passing phase of
historical evolution of social relation and mode of production and providing vision of
socialism and communism.
• According to Marx, history of social relation and mode of production shall follow the path
of primitive, feudal, capitalist, socialist, and communist phases. Thus, in Marxist view
Capitalism is a passing phase in history of socio-economic structure. Capitalism will be
followed by Socialism and Communism.
• In practice, socialism was realized in form of totalitarian state socialism (in erstwhile
USSR, North Korea, China, Cuba, Vietnam, etc), social democracies (Norway, Sweden,
Finland, etc), and of mixed types, capitalism with strong welfare measures by the state.

76
 India also adopted a mixed economic model, slightly leaning towards socialism from 1950
to 1980.
• Communism, except some experimental communes, however, largely remained a utopia.
• State socialism is specific variant of socialism in which state owns and operate means of
production, act as supreme moral guardian and providers of welfare to the citizen.
• Russian Revolution in 1917 led to establishment of single party communist rule in Russia,
setting up of USSR, and communist rules in Central and Eastern Europe.
• Most of eastern Bloc nations- Poland, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, etc- were restored
from German control by ‘Red Army’ of Russia during World War II; USA and Western
Europe accepted Russian Influence in these states; they became satellite nations to USSR.
• All these satellite nations of USSR became single party ruled communist state with the
active support of USSR. Thus, state socialism manifested in all the communist bloc nations
around the world.
• Cold war, beginning after world war II, denoted ideological tussle between the capitalism
and liberal democracy led by USA and western Europe and State socialism led by USSR.
• Beginning 1980s, factors such as socio-cultural changes, poor economic conditions of
communist states, rise of nationalism, transformative leadership of Gorbachev and Yelstin
in USSR and Russia, declining of Cold War, and many other international factors led to
sudden fall of communist states during 1989-91.
• Post-communist states faced great economic hardship and social turmoil due to ‘Shock
Therapy’ prescribed by western capitalist power. They were compelled to adopt free
market capitalism without any transition phase.
• End of cold war, unipolar world, ideological victory of capitalism, free-market economy,
and liberal democracy, decline of socialism in 3rd world, emergence of many new nations,
etc. are major impacts of fall of State socialism in Europe.

77
 4. C: ANSWER TEMPLATES TO PAST YEAR’S AND OTHER
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Q.1: Explain the meaning of Socialism. Critically analyze the rise and fall of
socialism in former Soviet Union.

Similar Questions:
1. Discuss main causes of decline of state socialism with specific reference to Europe.
2. Discuss main causes of decline of socialism in former Soviet Union.

Answer Template:

Introduction:
Socialism can be defined as a mode of production and consequent socio-political order in
which means of production (land, equipment, technology, capital, entrepreneurship) are
owned by society as a whole. It denotes social ownership of means of production. Thus, in
Socialism, means of production are owned and operated by Society, which is represented
by the State. Profits generated from socialist mode of production is used for social welfare
and distributed on the principle of equity. Here equity entails fairness and justice in
distribution of resources, wealth & income, social services, political offices, rewards,
honours, etc. Socialism is an alternative and opposite to capitalism, in which means of
production is owned by small numbers of individuals/firms. Profit generated by capitalist
mode of production is retained by the capitalist class.
In practice, under the socialist system, means of production are mostly owned and operated
by the state, which represents society. Private property and enterprises are not entirely
banned, but are regulated heavily. All major economic and productive activities are
managed by public sector enterprises. Economic decision, such as what, where, how to
produce, distribute, and consume, are taken by the State. Socialist state generally adopts
progressive taxation (more income, more taxes) policy. Socialist state attempt to become a
welfare state, ensuring free or subsidized education, health care, social security, public
facilities, income distribution to lessen inequalities. Socialist state believes in positive
liberty (enabling people to live better life) and equality of outcome. Erstwhile USSR, North

78
 Korea, China before adopting state capitalism, and India in 1970s, are some of examples
of socialist state.
Socialism also denotes different conception of society, role of state, relationship of
individuals with state, rights, and common Good, etc. It views society as organic whole of
which individuals are integral part. State is like moral/spiritual guardian which ensures
good life of the citizen. Instead of rights, it stresses duties of individuals towards
society/community/state. Socialism supports positive liberty and equality of outcome.
Under socialist system preference is given to common Good over private good and
individual’s interest/preferences and rights. Thus, Socialism envisions (visualizes) a very
different social order in comparison to capitalism.
First Nation to adopt state socialism was Russia which became a communist state after the
Bolshevik revolution in 1917. Subsequently, in 1922 USSR was formed. By 1940, 15
independent nations joined the USSR. After World War II, with the active support of
USSR, several Central and Eastern European nations adopted state socialism. Together
with USSR they were known as Eastern bloc communist nations. USSR became the leader
of communist world in direct confrontation to USA which led the capitalist world. This
was the start of the cold war.
But by 1989 socialism and communism in Eastern bloc nations including USSR came
under great stress. Stagnant economy, low living standard, no individual freedom, and
living under a totalitarian state created extreme unrest in the population of these nations.
Starting from Poland, the unrest spread to all other nations of the eastern bloc including
Russia. By 1991 the USSR was dissolved, all the 15 nations under USSR became
independent, and Communist Party was banned in most of the Eastern bloc nations. This
also signified the end of the cold war.
In the next section of the answer, I will try to explain in brief the rise and fall of socialism in
Soviet Union.

Rise of state socialism in Soviet Union:

• Following are the timeline and major events of formation of USSR as federation of 15
socialist/communist nations:
• 1917: ‘Bolshevik revolution’ under the charismatic leadership of Lenin. Russia
became communist state overthrowing the ‘Tsar’ regime, which was monarchy.
• 1922: Union treaty among Russia, Ukraine, Belarus and the Transcaucasia-
Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan-to form Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
(USSR).

79
 • 1924-36: Re-organization and inclusion of central Asian Republics- Uzbekistan,
Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan- into USSR.
• 1940: Baltic nations-Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia – and Moldova (cut from
Romania) incorporated into the USSR.
• Thus, by 1940, USSR became federation of 15 communist states, of which Russia
was the fulcrum (great support).
• How Eastern European nations adopted state socialism under the guidance &
protection of USSR?
• During World War II Germany occupied most of eastern European nations. It
reached almost up to Moscow. But ‘Red Army’ of Russia pushed German army
back and won most of the eastern Europe.
• After World War II Russia allowed quasi-independent status to Eastern European
nations as its satellite.
• Soviet-imposed communist regimes were set up in central and eastern Europe after
world war II.
• Western Europe and USA accepted Russia’s zone of influence and policy of no-
interference.
• An iron curtain ( in the words of Churchill) separated the western capitalist and
eastern socialist nations in Europe.
• 1947: Cominform (from Communist Information Bureau): Forum of all the
communist parties of Eastern Europe was formed.
• 1955: Warsaw pact was signed by Eastern Bloc nations. The pact was collective
defence treaty between the Soviet Union and seven other Eastern Bloc socialist
republics of Central and Eastern Europe. It was in response to NATO under the
leadership of USA.
Thus, by 1955, state socialism was adopted by almost the entire Eastern European nations under
the guidance and protection of USSR, which became the leader of the communist nations and
harbinger of socialist ideology.

Fall of state socialism in Soviet Union:

If the rise of state socialism post Bolshevik revolution in USSR was extraordinarily impressive, its
fall was even more spectacular and dramatic. In 1985 Mikhail Gorbachev took charge of General
Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Within next 6 years USSR disintegrated,

80
communist party was banned in most of the eastern bloc nations, which adopted democracy and
free market economy.
Following are the Event Trajectories of fall of state socialism in USSR:
• 1985
• Mikhail Gorbachev took charge of USSR as its general secretary and top leader;
He Initiated ‘Glasnost’- Openness in political domain and ‘Perestroika’-
Restructuring in economic sphere.
• 1989 :
• 1989 Revolution in Eastern Europe, starting in Poland and then spreading to all
eastern bloc nations including east Germany. It led to demise of communist state
one by one.
• USSR, under the leadership of Gorbachev, adopted a passive policy. As earlier, it
didn’t intervene to protect the communist regime there.
• Fall of Berlin War; unification of Germany; USSR withdrew from Afghanistan.
• first openly-contested elections for new Congress of People's Deputies in Russia.
• 1990
• Boris Yeltsin became president of the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Soviet
Federative Socialist Republic. In simple term he effectively became top leader of
Russia.
• 1991:
• Open, democratic election to Presidency: Boris Yeltsin became president of
Russian Republic. He became the most popular leader in Russia.
• August 1991: Coup by hardliner communist leaders who attempted to bring back
hard-core communism of Stalin model in USSR; the coup failed by street protest
led by Boris Yeltsin.
• September 1991: Baltic Republics- Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia- declared
independence from USSR.
• November 1991: Communist party was banned in Russia.
• December 25, 1991: Gorbachev Resigned, USSR was dissolved.

81
Why state socialism failed in USSR?
Following are the main causes of decline of socialism in former Soviet Union and in eastern
Europe:
• Social changes
• Demographic changes, Rise of middle class, growing awareness of western cultural
openness and economic prosperity.
• Unrest among people under the totalitarian state.
• Critical Thinking within Communist party
• Many young leaders, Gorbachev being one of them, thought in new way. They
wanted to reform the state socialism to make it more open, modern, and
progressive.
• Transformational leadership of Michael Gorbachev
• Single most important factor. By his twin policies of Glasnost and Perestroika, he
accelerated the fall of Soviet system. By this twin open policies, he got the Genie
out of the bottle. Though he never wanted to dismantle state socialism in USSR,
but he couldn’t control the forces which only he brought into fore.
• Economic problems
• Stagnant economy, low productivity, low quality, lower living standard, etc in
comparison to western capitalist world.
• Rise of Nationalism in Republics of USSR and Eastern European nations:
• In the 15 federating states of USSR, people resented being subordinated to Russia.
Under the Brezhnev doctrine, the Eastern bloc nations had limited autonomy.
USSR/Russia was controlling its economic and foreign policy. Single party
communist regime in these nations were maintained with brute force of
USSR/Russia.
• People resented the limited national autonomy and hegemony of Russia/USSR.
Nationalist feeling was always present, but these were suppressed by force by
USSR.
• With the changed attitude of USSR under Gorbachev, feeling of nationalism grew
into revolution against the communist regime.
• International Factors:
• Reagan-Thatcher doctrine, which helped improve west-east relations.

82
 • Lessening of cold-war rivalry.
• Soviet-Yugoslav split: it was big jolt to unity of nations based on communist
ideology.
• Economic Reforms in China, which adopted state capitalism.
• Success of mass oppositions/demonstration in eastern bloc countries-chain effect.

Conclusion:
Socialism denotes a mode of production and resultant social order in which the means of
production is owned by the entire society. Profits generated from socialist mode of
production is used to provide facilities and welfare measures to the people at large. Public
sector enterprises manage most of the economic activities. Economic decisions of
production, distribution, and consumption are taken by the state and not left to market
forces. In social domain, socialism provides an alternate vision of social order. Society is
considered as organic whole and individuals its integral part. The focus is more on duty
than rights, common good than private good, positive Liberty than negative freedom, and
equality of outcome than equality of opportunity. This is in contrast to capitalist social
order in which society is considered as aggregation of individuals having their own interest
and preferences.

The rise of state socialism in USSR after the Bolshevik revolution of 1917 was spectacular
and impressive. It gave alternative socio-economic ideology to the world. USSR soon
became the leader of the communist world in direct confrontation with USA which was the
leader of the capitalist world. This started the cold war in post-world war II era.

But the fall of the state socialism in USSR was even more spectacular and dramatic. Within
the span of only few years after Gorbachev became the top leader of USSR, the Soviet
Union fell like the house of cards. One by one 15 nations under USSR declared their
Independence. The satellite states of USSR in eastern Europe abandoned communism and
adopted democracy and free market economy. By 1991, USSR was disintegrated, Germany
was united, and socialism as an ideology lost the battle against capitalism.

83
Q.2: Discuss the rise and growth of state Socialism.

Similar Questions:
1.Discuss various factors leading to the growth of Socialism.
2.Discuss the factors contributing to growth of state socialism.

Answer Template:

Introduction:
Socialism can be defined as a mode of production and consequent socio-economic order in
which means of production (land, equipment, technology, capital, entrepreneurship) are
owned by society as a whole. It denotes social ownership of means of production. Thus, in
Socialism, means of production are owned and operated by society, which is represented
by State. Profits generated from socialist mode of production is used for social welfare and
distributed on the principle of equity. In practice, socialism has been manifested as state
socialism, in which nation-state ruled by communist party was governed on socialist
ideology. USSR and China were the two of the most prominent faces of state Socialism.
First Nation to adopt state socialism was Russia which became a communist state after the
Bolshevik revolution in 1917. Under the charismatic leadership of Lenin, communist party,
the vanguard (frontline) party representing dictatorship of proletariat, overthrew the ‘Tsar’
regime and set up a communist govt in Russia. Subsequently, in 1922 USSR was formed.
By 1940, 15 independent nations joined the USSR Federation. After World War II, in
several of Central and Eastern European nations, communist regime was established with
the active support of USSR. Together with USSR, they were known as Eastern bloc
communist nations. State socialism also emerged in many of newly independent nations of
Asia and Africa. India, under the leadership of Nehruji, also adopted a kind of state
socialism. USSR became the leader of communist world in direct confrontation to USA
which led the capitalist world. This was the start of the cold war.
Several factors led to rise of state socialism in all parts of the world. Force of idea of
socialism given by Karl Marx, blot of colonialism and two world wars on the capitalist
world of western Europe, sudden death of fascist and aggressive nationalist ideology during
the second world war, de-colonisation and emergence of new nations in 3rd world, inherent

84
 contradictions and tensions in the capitalist system, etc were main factors which supported
spectacular rise of state socialism in post WW II era.
In the next section of the answer, I will try to elaborate upon the points stated above.

Rise of State Socialism in Eastern Europe:

Following are the timeline and major events leading to formation of USSR as federation of 15
socialist/communist nations:
• 1917: ‘Bolshevik revolution’ under the charismatic leadership of Lenin. Russia
became communist state overthrowing the ‘Tsar’ regime.
• 1922: Union treaty among Russia, Ukraine, Belarus and the Transcaucasia-
Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan to form Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
(USSR).
• 1924-36: Re-organization and inclusion of central Asian Republics- Uzbekistan,
Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan- into USSR.
• 1940: Baltic nations-Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia – and Moldova (cut from
Romania) were incorporated into the USSR.
• Thus, by 1940, USSR became federation of 15 communist states, of which Russia
was the fulcrum.
• How Eastern European nations adopted state socialism under the guidance &
protection of USSR?
• During world war II Germany occupied most of eastern European nations. It
reached almost up to Moscow. But ‘Red Army’ of Russia pushed German army
back and won most of the eastern Europe.
• After World War II Russia allowed quasi-independent status to Eastern European
nations as its satellite nations. This was as per the doctrine of limited sovereignty
of Brezhnev.
• Soviet-imposed single party ruled communist regimes were set up in central and
eastern Europe.
• Western Europe and USA accepted Russia’s zone of influence and policy of no-
interference.
• An iron curtain ( in the words of Churchill) separated the western capitalist and
eastern socialist nations in Europe.

85
 • 1947: Cominform (from Communist Information Bureau): Forum of all the
communist parties of Eastern Europe was formed.
• 1955: Warsaw pact was signed by Eastern Bloc nations. The pact was collective
defence treaty between the Soviet Union and seven other Eastern Bloc socialist
republics of Central and Eastern Europe. It was in response to NATO under the
leadership of USA.

Thus, by 1955, state socialism was adopted by almost entire Eastern European nations
under the guidance and protection of USSR, which became the leader of the communist
world and harbinger of socialist ideology.
State socialism also rose in mainland China, which became the communist state in 1949.
Cuba under the charismatic leadership of Fidel Castro, Vietnam, North Korea, Laos, and
many newly independent nations of Asia and Africa adopted state socialism. USSR
supported all such communist state. Whereas USA left no stone unturned to stop the rise
of state socialism in newly emerging nation-states. One feature of the cold war was
manoeuvres and counter manoeuvres of USA and USSR to have regimes of their favourite
ideology in the 3rd world countries.

Factors leading to the growth of Socialism:

Following are some the important factors which supported rise of state socialism in all parts of the
world in the post WW II era:
• Force of idea of socialism given by Karl Marx:
o Idea of social ownership of means of production and vision of property less, state
less self-sustaining community had charmed both humankind and political thinkers
since time immemorial. But it was Marx who gave socialism a solid theoretical
base. His prediction that capitalism is merely a passing phase of historical evolution
of social relation and mode of production gave certainty of coming of socialism
after the demise of capitalism.
• Blot of colonialism and two world wars on the capitalist world of western Europe:
o The nations of western Europe who colonised 3rd world countries were capitalist
power. Competition among them for more territory, more colonies, and their
imperial aspirations led to two world wars. Hence, capitalism had the blot of
colonialism, imperialism, and devastations of two world wars.

86
 o This gave moral support to alternate ideology of socialism.
• Sudden demise of fascist and aggressive nationalist ideology during the second world
war:
o Fascism in its heyday was very forceful and popular ideology. It denoted intense
nationalism. With the defeat of Germany and Italy in WWII, Fascism as ideology
met with its sudden death.
o This made socialism/communism as only remaining ideology against the
capitalism.
• De-colonisation and emergence of new nations in 3rd world:
o As stated above, colonialism and imperialism were linked to capitalism. Hence,
majority of newly de-colonized nations moved away from capitalism and adopted
socialism or remained non-aligned.
• Inherent contradictions and tensions in the capitalist system:
o Capitalism is inherently contradictory in nature. Politically it supports liberal
democracy which champion normative values of Rights, Equality, Liberty. But
economically, it supports free market economy and socially, market mediated
impersonal social relationships. All these values cut each other. Division of society
into minority ‘Haves’ and majority ‘Have Nots’ makes capitalism an unstable
system.
o Such contradictions, and instability gave credence to socialist ideology. It became
a credible alternative to those who were critical of the capitalist system.

Conclusion:
Socialism in practice manifested itself in the form of state socialism which is a kind of
single party ruled communist state. Socialist state owned and controlled almost all means
of production, decided all economic decisions, and interfered in all aspects of individual’s
life. It was a kind of totalitarian state. Russia, erstwhile USSR and China are best example
of state socialism. After the World War II state socialism rose rapidly in Russia, Eastern
Europe, China and among the newly independent nations of Asia and Africa.
Several factors led to such a spectacular rise of state socialism in all part of the globe. Some
of the factors which were explained above are Karl Marx’s scientific prediction of demise
of capitalism and coming up of socialism, linkages of capitalism with colonialism,
imperialism, and two world wars, sudden demise of fascist and aggressive nationalist

87
ideology during the second world war, de-colonisation and emergence of new nations in
3rd world, inherent contradictions and tensions in the capitalist system, etc.
Rise of state socialism effectively divided the world into two camps; one was the capitalist
world led by USA and another was socialist or communist world led by USSR. From the
list of nations aligned along these two ideologies, it was amply clear that capitalist world
had rich and more powerful nations in its fold whereas the communist/socialist bloc had
mostly agrarian, low income, and newly independent nations as its member. In the battle
between these two camps naturally the rich and powerful won and state socialism withered
away with the sudden disintegration of USSR in 1991.

88
 THEME 5 : HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF MODERN GOVERNMENT :
COLONIALISM

5.A : CBCS SYLLABUS:

• Colonialism and decolonization: meaning, context, forms of colonialism
• Anticolonialism struggles
• Process of decolonization

5. B : KEY POINTS
• Colonialism is domination, control, and rules of foreign powers on people/nations.
• Colonialism denotes socio-political and economic dominance of European powers on
people/nations of other parts of the Earth, called 3rd world, during 16th to 20th Century.
• Colonialism manifested in different forms, in varying patterns, had multiple features and
consequences.
• On the basis of economic relationship between colonizer and colonized people, colonialism
can be categorized as Mercantile, Industrial, Extractive, Finance, Planter, Transport, etc.
• On the basis of Modes of control, colonialism can be Direct or Indirect.
• On the basis settlement and motives, it can be categorized as Settler, Exploitative,
Surrogate, and Internal.
• Features of Colonialism:
• Greatly varying forms and patterns
• Global Phenomenon
• Master- subordinate relationship between colonizing and colonized
• Political subjugation and economic exploitation of colonies
• Unequal exchange between colonizing and colonized – drain of wealth
• Colonies becoming market for expanding capitalism in colonized countries
• Cultural hegemony, Racism, and Eurocentrism
• Closely linked to Capitalism and Imperialism

89
 • Colonialism and Imperialism are related terms with different
connotations(meaning).
• Colonialism, originating from the Latin word colonus, meaning farmer,
denote transfer of population to a new territory, where they live permanently while
maintaining political allegiance to their country of origin. Thus, settlement of
foreign people in native nation is the essential feature in colonialism.
• Imperialism, originated from Latin term imperium, meaning to command,
denotes the way that one country exercises power over another. It may be through
settlement or indirect mechanisms, such as economic, political, of domination and
control. Thus, settlement of foreign people in native nation is NOT necessary in
Imperialism.
• Thus, all colonialism include imperialism but all imperialism may not
include colonialism

• Study of different patterns, forms of colonialism, anti-colonial struggle, de-

colonization process, and post-colonial states are rich sources for comparative politics
• Colonialism deeply affected socio-political structure and processes of colonies. It
shaped the current international society, state system, and globalized world
• Decolonization:
• Decolonization denotes Process by which erstwhile colonies become independent
of the colonizing country.
• Most of Decolonization happened in short period of about 25 years post World War
II during which colonizers were forced to transfer power and grant political
sovereignty to the colonies.
• De-colonization represented not only the transference of legal sovereignty, but also
movement for moral justice and political solidarity against imperialism
• De-colonization, therefore, also denoted rejection of superiority of European
cultural and civilization and reclaiming the indigenous culture & civilization
• Thus, it refers both to the anti-imperialist political movement and to an
emancipatory ideology which sought or claimed to liberate the nation and humanity
itself.
• Though event trajectories, processes, aims. and methods of Decolonization varied
across colonies, they all had an overarching commonality, these were: led by

90
 western educated urban elites, great leaders were successful in mass mobilization,
unified resistance for political and cultural sovereignty, nation building, political
process and institution building on the pattern of European nation-states, etc.
• Factors behind accelerated/sudden decolonization:
• Weakened European powers after two world wars
• Rise of USA and USSR as superpowers with polar opposite ideologies
• Rise of Germany and Japan as new Imperial power
• Setting up of UN and its role in giving voice to colonized nations
• Anti-colonial struggle and nationalist movements in colonial nations
• Independence of India and coming together of Afro-Asian nations against
colonialism
• New Discourse on Civilization: Ideological crisis post WW1– Denouncement of
‘Civilizing Mission’
• Features of Decolonization
• Suddenness: happened in short span of about 25 years.
• led by western educated Elites.
• Continuance of Colonial institutional structure and socio-political system in the
post-colonial state.
• Superimposition of ‘homogeneous nation-state concept’ on historically multi-
lingual, multi-religious, multi-ethnic heterogeneous society.
• Quasi-state nature of post-colonial nation-states.
• Continued dependence- economic, political, military- on colonial powers.
• Post-colonial states facing Neo-colonialism and Neo-Imperialism.
• Internal Colonialism (colonies within colony) in the post-colonial states
• Greatly varying post-colonial experience
• Divide and quit; ethnic conflict, civil war, boarder conflict

91
 5. C: ANSWER TEMPLATES TO PAST YEAR’S AND OTHER
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Q.1: Differentiate between Colonialism and Imperialism. Discuss the impact of

colonialism in any one colony in Asia.

Introduction:

Colonialism is domination, control, and rules of foreign powers, called colonizing powers,
on people/nations, called the colonies. Colonialism denotes socio-political and economic
dominance of European powers on people/nations of other parts of the Earth, called 3rd
world, during 16th to 20th Century. Settlement of people from colonizing countries to
colony is the essential feature of Colonialism. Imperialism, on the other hand, denotes the
way that one country exercises power over another. It may be through settlement or indirect
mechanisms of domination and control. Thus, settlement of people from colonizing
countries to colonies is not necessary in Imperialism.
Imperialism is an ideology, tendency to dominate and subjugate other nations. Therefore,
practice of colonialism is driven by the ideology of Imperialism. Colonialism is one of the
methods of Imperialism. Thus, Colonialism and Imperialism are related terms with
different connotations(meaning).
Colonialism leaves a deep and permanent impact on erstwhile colonial nations. Long
period of political, economic, and cultural dominance of colonizing powers impacts all
aspects of socio-economic structure and processes in the colonial nations. Colonizing
powers impose alien language, political institutions, norms, practices, and values on the
colonial people/nations. Colonies were economically exploited in several ways. Exchange
was in favour of colonizing countries. Raw material and valuable natural resources were
taken from the colonies at cheap rates and finished products, at high price, were sold to the
colonies. Thus, wealth was systematically drained from the colonies. Thus, Colonialism
had very adverse impact on colonial people/nation.

In the next section of the answer, I will try to elaborate in brief the points made above.

92
Differences between Colonialism and Imperialism:
Following are some of the key differences between these two closely linked concepts:
• Both are closely related concepts but carry slightly different connotations.
• Colonialism, originating from the Latin word colonus, meaning farmer, denote transfer of
population to a new territory, where they live permanently while maintaining political
allegiance to their country of origin. Thus, settlement of people from colonizing nation to
colonies is an essential feature of colonialism.
• Imperialism, originated from Latin term imperium, meaning to command, denotes the way
that one country exercises power and dominance over another. It may be through settlement
or indirect mechanisms of domination and control. Thus, settlement of people from
colonizing countries to colony is not necessary in Imperialism.
• For example, economic dominance by way of grants and aid in return of political favour
may be one form of imperialism.
• It is obvious that practice of colonialism is driven by the ideology of Imperialism.
Colonialism is one of the methods of Imperialism.
• Therefore, all colonialism is Imperialism, but all Imperialism is not colonialism.
• Neo-colonialism and Imperialism:
• In Marxist/Left ideology, global capitalism led by free trade, free market, and
globalization denote a form of new Imperialism of USA and western Europe over the
3rd world- Latin America, Asia and Africa. To Lenin, Imperialism is the highest Stage
of Capitalism

Impact of colonialism on colonial nation: Case of India

Colonialism leaves a deep and permanent scar on the colonial nation. All aspects of socio-
economic life are negatively impacted by the Colonialism. Following are some of the adverse
effects of Colonialism on India which was the colony of England for more than 190 years:
• Cultural Shock and turmoil: imposition of alien language, worldview, values, practices,
and institutions on the colonies by the colonizing powers creates cultural shock, which unnerve
(unsettle) the people. Indian people are still not able to overcome the cultural impacts of the
English rule. Perceiving English language and western way of life superior than local language
and customs affects Indian nation negatively in many ways.

93
• Economic Exploitation:
•By multiple ways, such as, unequal exchange- taking raw material at cheap rates, selling
finished product at high rate, making India market of cheap machine produced cloths and
other items, systematically draining wealth of India, etc., India was economically exploited
by the British colonial rule.
•Traditional skill based small manufacturing, such as iron smelting, cotton cloths, etc. were
killed by design.
•Surplus labour of people of India was extracted in form of profit to England- it was one of
the methods to drain wealth of India.
Indian farmers were forced to produce crops, such as Indigo, to suit the commercial interests
of the colonizing powers.
•Colonial nation, such as India becomes the ‘periphery ‘ to the colonizing country which
were like ‘Core’. Thus, colonial nations are integrated into world capitalist system as
‘Periphery’ or satellites of the ‘Çore’ nations. It took India many years to overcome the
status of ‘periphery’.
Breaking link with the past:
• Societal progress took different path, cut off from the past, which continued unchanged
even after independence.
• National consciousness, becoming nation-state like European nation-states without having
homogeneity and long historical evolution, has been attempted. This resulted into Indian
post-colonial state facing challenges in fully evolving as nation-state. Nation building
remained a continuous challenge for the Indian state in the post-independence period.
• Aspects of everyday life, including literature, arts, religion, architecture, music, food,
hairstyle, clothing, customs, and even the standard of beauty, were deeply influenced by
European culture.
• Dichotomy and contradiction in socio-economic life in the colonies- termed as ‘Prismatic
Society’ by Fred Riggs:
• Superimposition of ‘modern’ institutional structure on traditional structure and
practices.
• Homogeneous nation-state imposed on top of highly heterogeneous and
multicultural society. This resulted into dualistic/prismatic society in the terminology
of Fred Riggs.

94
 • Adoption of western style liberal representative democracy created western educated elites
vs largely illiterate impoverished masses.

Discussion and Conclusion:

Both Colonialism and Imperialism denote domination, control, and subjugation of

people/nation by some foreign powers. Colonialism is one form or method by which
ideology of Imperialism is realized. Permanent settlement of people from colonizing
countries to colonies are supposed to happen in Colonialism. Whereas, settlement may or
may not be necessary in Imperialism. Essentially, imperialism is an ideology, whereas
Colonialism is process or practice guided by that ideology. In the body of the answer, I
tried to explain the main difference between these two concepts.
Colonialism leaves a deep and permanent mark on the colonial nation. All aspects of socio-
economic lives are impacted, mostly in negative ways. Many of the impacts are
irreversible. Cultural shock and turmoil, economic exploitation, breaking link with the past,
Dichotomy/duality and contradiction in socio-economic life in the colonies, etc. are some
the negative impacts of Colonialism on colonial people/nation. I have tried to explain these
impacts by taking India as a case study.
But we must concede that not all impacts of Colonialism are negative. We can identify
some positive impacts, too. Emergence of national consciousness as part of independence
movement, de-colonization as nation-building process, institution building, democracy,
becoming part of international state system, coming closer to other colonial nations, etc
were some the positive impacts of colonialism in the context of India. But overall,
Colonialism did more harm than good to India as well as to other colonies.

95
Q.2: Explain the decolonisation process with an example drawn from erstwhile
colony.
Similar Question:
Q: Give an account of process of decolonization in Asia and Africa in the twentieth century.

Introduction:
Decolonization denotes Process by which erstwhile colonies become independent of the
colonizing country. Decolonisation also symbolizes making of post-colonial states, which
were integrated into the international state system. Most of Decolonization happened in
short period of about 25 years after World War II during which colonizing powers were
forced to transfer power and grant political sovereignty to the colonies.
Though event trajectories, aims, strategies and methods of Decolonization varied across
colonies, they all had an overarching commonality, these were: Decolonisation movements
were led by western educated urban elites, these great leaders were successful in mass
mobilization, unified resistance for political and cultural sovereignty, nation building,
political process and institution building on the pattern of European nation-states, etc.
If we take example of India, we can identify three phases of Decolonisation process. First
phase was Proto-Nationalism, in which Demand for more concession, reforms, and
representation was made politely (by petition, prayer) by the western educated urban elites.
Second phase was the rise of new leadership and raising of national consciousness.
Gandhiji emerged as the new mass leader. The masses joined the elites to put up a unified
struggle for independence. Third and final phase was Mass Movement. In India, this phase
started with non-cooperation movement. Civil disobedience and quit India movements
forced the British Govt. to consider granting independence to India. This 3-phase scheme
of Decolonisation was given by Geoffrey Barraclough- an English Historian.

In the next part of the answer, I will try to elaborate upon the points made above.

De-colonisation: Definition and Meaning:

• Process by which erstwhile colonies become independent of the colonizing country.
• Decolonisation also symbolizes rise of national consciousness and emergence of post-
colonial states, which were integrated into the international state system.

96
 • Most of the Decolonization happened during short period of about 25 years after world war
II during which colonizing powers were forced to transfer power and grant political
sovereignty to the colonies.
• De-colonization represented not only the transference of legal sovereignty, but also
movement for moral justice and political solidarity against imperialism.
• De-colonization, therefore, also denoted rejection of superiority of European cultural and
civilization and reclaiming the indigenous (local) culture & civilization.
• Thus, Decolonization refers both to the anti-imperialist political movement and to an
emancipatory ideology which sought or claimed to liberate the nation and humanity itself.
• However, from Marxist perspective Decolonization denotes Integration of post-colonial
state into global capital system as ‘Periphery’ or Satellite, of which capitalist nations are
the ‘Core’.

De-colonization Process: 3 stage process:

English Historian Geoffrey Barraclough propounded 3 stage process of Decolonization; these are:
• Proto-Nationalism
• Demand for more concession, reforms, and representation by the urban elites in
form of prayers, petitions to colonizing powers.
• Little national consciousness among masses. Masses are aloof from the ideas of
nationalism and national independence.
• For example: Indian National Congress from 1885 to 1905.
• The Rise of New Leadership
• New mass leaders emerge who becomes successful in mass mobilization. Demand
for full independence is put forth.
• Masses are made ready for mass movements for independence.
• Rise of national consciousness. Nation building process start.
• For example. Sarakat Islam in Indonesia, committed itself to independence in 1917
under the leadership of Sukarno ; India: Leadership of Indian National Congress
passed on to Gandhi, Nehru.
• Mass Movement:
• Active mass movement for independence.

97
 • Colonies gaining independence.
• For example: Civil disobedience, Quit India movement in India; national
Independence movement in Indonesia in 1945 and Nigeria in 1951.

De-colonization: How it unfolded?

• Japan victory over Russia in 1905- first victory of the dominated peoples against an
imperial power. It gave confidence to colonies that they can gain independence even by
force.
• Anti-colonial struggles intensified during inter-war period but it was not a coherent event
like Russian revolution.
• The process was accompanied by the rise of national consciousness and nation building in
the colonies.
• The timings and patterns of decolonization were extremely varied, and the goals of the
anti-colonial struggles in different countries were not always consistent with each other.
• However, there was an overarching pattern and process: they were led by western educated
urban Elites, great leaders were successful in mass mobilization, unified resistance for
political and cultural sovereignty, rise of national consciousness and nation building,
political process and institution building on the pattern of European nation-states.
• First to get Independence was Philippines from the United States in 1946. But, India’s
Independence in 1947 accelerated the decolonization process first in Asia, then west
Africa, and East Africa.
• Establishment of UN, its commitment for liberty of colonial nations and support of USA
made the process very fast. One by one colonial nations in Asia and Africa got
independence.
• Bandung conference 1955, in which newly independent Afro-Asian nations denounced
Imperialism and expressed solidarity, further accelerated decolonization in Asia and
Africa.
• NAM movement in 1961 helped strengthened autonomous political existence of newly
independent nations.

Discussion and Conclusion:

Decolonization means the process by which erstwhile colonial nations of third world
gained independence from the colonizing powers. It also denoted rise of national

98
consciousness in 3rd world and emergence of new nation-states, called post-colonial states,
which were integrated into the Westphalian international state system.
Processes of decolonization in the colonial nations, strategies and methods adopted, aims
for which the process was undertaken and the outcomes were different in different regions.
But there were overarching commonality in the process which can be identified and
demarcated in three phases- proto nationalism, emergence of new mass leadership, and
mass movement. If we take the example of India as a case of decolonization all three phases
of decolonization process where identifiable. The first phase was from 1885 when Indian
National Congress was formed by urban western educated elites with some liberal British
officials. The phase lasted till 1905 in which militant ‘Swadeshi’ movement indicated end
of the first phase. The second phase started when Gandhiji arrived on the scene as a new
mass leader. Soon he galvanized the Decolonisation process by taking masses along. He
also started nation building by raising national consciousness. Tilak, Nehru, Patel, Azad ,
Subhash Chandra Bose, etc joined Gandhiji as new mass leaders. This phase ended with
non-cooperation Movement in 1919. Last phase was in which three major mass Movements
in the leadership of Gandhiji was launched for full Independence. These were non-
cooperation movement, followed by civil disobedience movement and then finally Quit
India Movement in 1942. Along with that institution building, new constitution and other
necessary political-legal structures for the new nation-state were also in making.
Decolonisation process was completed with independence of India in 1947 and adoption
of Indian Constitution in 1950.
From the Indian case study, we can see that decolonization was a complex process of
gaining independence, becoming a nation-state, formation of political and legal institutions
for the new nation-state, acceptance and integration of the newly independent nations into
the international state system, and finally the emergence of a new nation-state.
Decolonisation was also rejection of imperialism and inequality in global order. It signified
emergence of new nations in the 3rd world. The international state system expanded beyond
the western world. Actually, Decolonisation made the ‘world’(which was confined to
western nations) bigger covering entire planet Earth. Thus, Decolonisation was not only
freedom of erstwhile colonial nations. It signified much more. It changed the human world
in many ways.

99
Q3: Examine the contributions of anti-colonial struggles in the study of
comparative government and politics.

Introduction:

Majority of 3rd world nations were made colonies of western colonizing powers. These
nations had very different pre-colonial cultures, socio-political and economic
arrangements. Though colonial masters tried to impose a uniform administrative
mechanism, political institutions, and economic system in all its colonies, yet they were
realized and manifested in very different ways in different colonies. For example, the
British colonies of India and Nigeria were very different in their socio-political and
economic arrangements. How local cultures absorbed the shock of imposition of external
culture was also different in different colonies of same colonizing powers. Hence,
comparing the way colonization manifested in different colonies of 3rd world became a
valuable source of comparative government and politics.
The anti-colonial struggles in erstwhile colonies followed different event trajectories, had
different aims & objectives, adopted varying methods & strategies, and had varying
outcomes. Rise of national consciousness, Institution building, Constitution and
Government formation, and emergence of a post-colonial state had many different hue &
colour in the erstwhile colonies. Hence, comparison of anti-colonial struggles in the
colonial nations became the treasure trove (valuable objects that are found hidden) for the
study of comparative government and politics.
How post-colonial states emerged after gaining independence, democratization and
realization of liberal ideologies in them, how new political institution and structures over
the traditional socio-political structure functioned, etc. gave new and interesting subject
matter and cases for Comparative Politics. It also helped Comparative Politics overcome
the challenge of Eurocentrism and ethnocentrism. Scope and domain of Comparative
Politics were enlarged, they moved beyond the western nations. Decolonization was direct
outcome of the anti-colonial struggles. Inclusion of newly independent post-colonial states
into the international state system made the state system truly global. Thus, anti-colonial
struggle and consequent emergence of post-colonial states contributed significantly in the
study of Comparative Govt and Politics.

In the next section of the answer, I will try to elaborate upon the points made above.

100
How anti-colonial struggle contributed significantly in the study of Comparative Politics?
Following are some of the ways in which anti-colonial struggle helped study of Comparative Govt
and Politics:
• Colonialism and subsequent anti-colonial movements had different forms & patterns, aims
and objectives, strategies & methods, event trajectories, and outcomes in different colonial
nations. Hence, comparing them to understand the political phenomena became valuable
sources for the comparative study.
• comparing colonization in different part of globe, finding pattern and causal
relationship have enriched comparative politics.
• Similarly, comparing the pattern of anti-colonial movements, its leadership,
strategies & methods, event trajectories, and outcomes gave deeper insight of many
political phenomena, such as rise of national consciousness, political recruitment
and socialization, institution building etc. in the 3rd world nations.
• Western political thinkers came to know more about political phenomenon in colonial
nations- despite Orientalism and Eurocentrism.
• In fact, more and more cases from post-colonial states were taken after the Decolonization.
This has broadened the scope of Comparative Politics.
• Study of anti-colonial struggle provided deeper insights on political culture and political
behaviours of people in both the colonies and colonizers.
• Process of De-colonization and subsequent creation of new nation-states- post colonial
states- provided entire new areas and case studies for comparative govt and politics. For
example, how western style liberal democracy and political institutions were superimposed
on traditional socio-political structure in the post-colonial state gave many interesting
insights on Comparative govt and Politics.
• Fred Riggs’ Comparative study of public administration in post-colonial states, which
underpinned (supported) his ecological theory of public administration is another example
of importance of Decolonization and anti-colonial struggle for study of Comparative Govt
and Politics.
• Despite differences, finding a common pattern and causal relationship in all the anti-
colonial struggle also enriched Comparative Politics.
• By moving the focus beyond western world towards the 3rd world, also helped Comparative
Politics overcome the challenge of eurocentrism and ethnocentrism.

101
 • Newly emerged nations, the post-colonial states, became the laboratory for testing
hypothesis as part of theory building in political science.
• More Examples: Comparative International relation: post-colonial states were compared
for the theory of modernization, dependency and development. World system Theory of
Wallerstein and Dependency theory of Andre Gunder Frank are another example of
Comparative study of post-colonial states and their integration into the international state
system. ; Comparative Public Admin- Riggs Ecological approach and his theory of
prismatic societies( the society of post-colonial states); Sartori’s comparison of political
parties, etc. are examples of how anti-colonial movements and post-colonial states
provided a rich sources of case studies for Comparative Politics.

Conclusion:
In sum, decolonization, anti-colonial movement, and emergence of post-colonial state
provided a large number of units, items of analysis and cases for the study of Comparative
Politics. It broadened the scope of Comparative Politics, which till then was largely
confined to the Occidental (western) world. After Decolonization, more and more
Comparative studies were done by taking cases from 3rd world countries/regions.
This also helped understand the political culture of oriental world and political behaviour
of people in post-colonial states. How mass leaders emerged in erstwhile colonial nations,
how masses joined elites to launch movements for independence, how new nation-state
was formed, how new institutions and constitutions were built and realized in practice, how
the traditional heterogenous communities made the nation-state on the pattern of European
homogeneous nation, etc. became interesting subject matter for Comparative Govt and
Politics.
No doubt colonization, decolonization, anti-colonial struggle and emergence of post-
colonial states contributed significantly in the study of Comparative Politics. It made
Comparative Politics broader in scope, help overcome eurocentrism, provided new
insights, enriched, and made it more meaningful.

102
Q4. How the anti-colonial struggles influenced the political processes of post-
colonial societies in Asia?

Introduction:
All the erstwhile colonial nations saw anti colonial struggle and independence movements
before becoming a free nation-state. The post-colonial states were having unique features.
Politically, they had a mix of legacy political structure, institutions, and processes of
colonial times with addition of new elements which crystallized during the anti-colonial
struggle.
The political processes such as formation of new government, new constitution, elections,
political mobilization, party systems, franchise, citizenship etc., were deeply influenced
both by the colonialism and anti-colonial struggle and movements. It may be noted that
broader political structure and institutional mechanisms in the post-colonial state remained
more or less intact from the colonial period. For example, India retained the parliamentary
form of representative government on the pattern of its colonial rule. Similarly, the
structure of legislature, judiciary, and executive remained as they were during the colonial
time. But as far as political processes are concerned right from the grass root level, that is
in villages to the metropolis and urban centers, they took a new form. This was more in
tune with the political culture which developed during the anti-colonial struggle.
Many of these political processes, for example universal adult franchise and party system,
were evolved by the event trajectories and political mobilization during the anti-colonial
struggle. During the Indian independence movement, Congress after a long deliberation
formed a new constitution for independent India. It also decided that universal adult
franchise shall be given at one go to all the citizens of free India. Thus, anti-colonial
struggle had a deep influence on the political processes, and institution building in the post-
colonial state.
In the next section of the answer, I will try to elaborate upon the points made above.

How Anti-colonial struggle influenced political process in the post-colonial

states:
• First time people’s political behaviour manifested in mass political mobilization against
the colonial rule. It crystallized the political culture of the new nation-state.

103
 • Introduction of democratic political processes and Institutions, which were influenced by
liberal ideology of the west:
• Nationalism, nation-state on the pattern of European nation-state.
• Political Parties, Political socialization and recruitment, political thoughts, Rights,
Equality, liberty based political discourse, free media.
• Democracy, Elections and voting rights.
• Legislative accountability of executives.
• Parliament, state legislature, elected government.
• Separation of powers between Executive, Legislature, and Executives and
sufficient check and balances by suitable institutional design.
• Retained the political structure, institutional mechanisms of colonial period. But political
processes were realized and manifested in very different ways in the post-colonial states.
• Rise in national consciousness, nation-building, elites led mass mobilization influenced the
new political structure and processes.
• Many of the political processes were direct outcome of the anti-colonial struggle. Whatever
was linked to colonialism, imperialism, and capitalism were avoided. Hence, most of the
post-colonial states abandoned racialism, adopted pluralism, and leaned towards socialism.
• Anti-colonial struggles were led by urban coastal core by western educated elites who were
liberals and hence strengthened the western political processes and institutions. But these
were moderated by mass sentiments, which joined the elites in the anti-colonial struggle.
• This created a Dichotomy and gap between modern core and hinterland. This also created
a dualism, formalism, and overlapping in institutional mechanism and public
administration. This was termed ecological impact in the prismatic society by Fred Riggs.
• Political system and process having colonial imprints- authoritarianism, paternalistic,
patrimonial, and elitist democracy- plagued the post-colonial states.
• Thus, both colonialism and anti-colonial struggle deeply influenced the political processes
and institutional mechanisms in the post-colonial state.

Discussion and Conclusion:

Colonial nation had a very different political structure and processes before they became
the colonies of the western powers. Most of them had absolute Monarchy in which masses
were aloof from the political processes. In the colonies the colonizing powers imposed their

104
own pattern of political structure and processes. For example, in India the British
introduced parliamentary form of representative government in rudimentary form in the
British ruled provinces. The British also attempted constitutional reforms on the basis of
their understanding of political processes in the colonies. Thus, the people in colonies
experienced modern political institutions and processes introduced by the colonizing
powers.
During the anti-colonial struggle there was a process of nation building in the colonial
nations. It was also the process of formation of a political community. Heterogenous
communities came together to fight against colonialism. National consciousness rose. The
popular leaders of the anti-colonial movement were successful in mass mobilization. First
time the people in colonies started to think themselves as part of a nation- shared
community having shared past and common future. This was the nation building process.
Anti-colonial struggle also formed a new political culture.
The political processes were part of this overarching nation building process and evolving
political culture. What kind of government and constitution the independent nation should
have? how citizenship and voting rights are to be granted? how political parties will
operate? how the organs of a state will have powers divided among them? How check and
balances in the political processes shall be maintained? how elections will be conducted?
etc. were important questions of new political processes which crystallized during the anti-
colonial struggle. For example, during the Indian Independence movement all these aspects
of political processes were decided after a long deliberation. That the free India will give
universal adult franchise, non-discriminatory unified citizenship, fundamental rights,
parliamentary form of government, free press, and freedom to form political parties, etc
were decided during the independence movement. Hence, it is obvious that anti-colonial
struggle deeply influenced the political processes and institution building in the post-
colonial state.

105
 THEME 6: BRITAIN- A COMPARATIVE STUDY

6 A : CBCS SYLLABUS
• Constitutional Developments
• Political Economy

6.B : KEY POINTS:

• The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (called UK) is a sovereign state
that includes England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.
• Great Britain is an island situated off the north west coast of Europe. England, Wales, and
Scotland are part of Great Britain Island. But Ireland is a separate Island. Northern Island
is part of UK, whereas remaining of the Ireland is an independent nation-state called
Republic of Ireland.
• Geography/demography:
• Group of Islands, called British Isles situated off the north west coast of Europe.
Separated from the mainland Europe by 21 miles wide sea water in the Atlantic
Ocean called English Channel. Across the English Channel is France on the
mainland Europe.
• In area, UK is 1/13th of India, in population ( 6 crore) it is roughly equal to Gujarat!
• Economy:
• GDP: about 2.82 trillion USD; 6th largest; Per capita GDP: about 45000 USD in
comparison to about 2000 USD in India
• Capitalist economy but moderated by strong social welfare measures, a kind of
social democracy.
• Political System:
• Constitutional Monarchy; Monarch is nominal head of the State; PM is the head of
the Govt. Parliament is sovereign and supreme.
• Oldest representative form of parliamentary democracy. Oldest constitutional
monarchy.
• Multi- party system;
• Electoral system: First Past the Post (FPTP) just like in India for popular elections.

106
 • Its Westminster (Westminster is the name of the Parliament building in London)
form of Parliamentary system and cabinet form of govt is the standard template for
parliamentary Govt in many of the Commonwealth nations (erstwhile colonies of
Britain/UK), including India

• Constitutional Convention in UK
• Gradualism (very small changes) and conventions are the twin features of British
socio-political system.
• It has no written constitution and codified law; they are based on conventions-
centuries of practices accepted and remembered by people.
• Role, functions, and features of British Monarchy:
• Oldest constitutional monarchy in the world.
• Embody the national values of conventionalism, gradualism, and conservatism.
• Reflect the political culture of Britain.
• Maintain absolute neutrality, non-partisanship, check & balances on the party and
electoral politics.
• Help keep the 4 British nations- England, Welsh, Scotland, Northern Ireland united;
also, is seen as link to the glorious past of the British nation and the great British
Empire.
• Has developed a special emotional bond with the people who see in the Monarch
what they want to see as proud British people.
• In comparison to Mainland Europe
• UK/England cherish its separate identity and autonomy from mainland Europe.
• Much more secular and liberal approach to politics.
• A sense of superiority- Philosophical base of Liberalism (Hobbes, Locke),
Conservatism (Edmund Burke), Classical Capitalism ( Locke), Representative
Democracy, Citizen Charter and Rights ( Magna Carta- 1215)
• Had the largest colonial empire.
• Never merged its currency, ‘Pound’, even being part of EU. Got separated from
EU(Brexit) in January 2020.

107
• Political Economy: 5 Phases:
• Before World war II
• Medieval period: Feudal society and agrarian economy
• 15th-16th century: Evolution of large-scale commercial farming- evolution
of capitalist agrarian economy.
• 17th century: Mercantile capitalism: Monopoly trading companies,
colonization.
• 18th-19th century: Industrial Revolution: Export oriented large-scale
Industrialization- textile, steel; Industrial colonization
• Collective Consensus Era : 1945- 1970s
• Welfare and interventionist state; a kind of social democracy.
• Neo-Liberal Era (Thatcher era) : 1979-1997
• Liberalization, Privatization, de-regulation.
• Reagan (USA) - Thatcher era- the political force behind neo-liberalism worldwide.
• New Labour Era (Blair-Brown era) : 1997-2010
• The New Labour adopted third way
• Mix of free market economy moderated by social democracy.
• Coalition Era and Brexit : Since 2010

108
 6. C: ANSWER TEMPLATES TO PAST YEAR’S AND
OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Q.1: Discuss the role of conventions in the political system of Britain.

Introduction:
Convention plays a big role in all aspects of the political system of Britain. We know that
it has the world's oldest Parliamentary form of government, constitutional monarchy and
liberal representative democracy. Britain manages without any written constitution and its
common laws are also mostly unwritten. Unlike Roman laws and Napoleonic codes, the
rules, regulations, and laws in Britain are not codified in written form. They developed as
part of the political culture for centuries of conventions and practices.
People accepted and consented practices and processes in the Socio-Political system which
became part of societal convention. These conventions are so strong that their infringement
in practice is severely condemned and therefore Britain hardly require any written rules for
its political processes and laws.
Biggest example of conventionalism is the unwritten constitution of UK which is practiced
as convention. Similarly. the common laws of Britain, which is act as base for laws world
over in modern jurisprudence is not actually codified. They are also based on conventions.
We may cite many other examples- the collective responsibility of the cabinet, norms and
behaviour of the nominal head of the state which is Constitutional monarchy, un-written
norms and expectation on behaviour from the occupants of higher political officers, etc.-
all are based on convention.
Of late, there have been some attempt to codify different aspects of political processes and
political system. The cabinet manual, the Sewel convention, and court rulings became
somewhat like the codification of rules and regulations for political activities and political
processes but overarching basis of all the political processes, activities, and political system
is still the centuries-old political and constitutional conventions.

In the next part of the answer, I will try to further elaborate upon the points made above.

109
Constitutional Convention in UK:
Following are some of the remarkable aspects of conventionalism as definitive feature of political
culture of UK:
• Conventions constitute ‘the understandings, habits or practices’ that ‘regulate the conduct
of the several members of the sovereign power, of the Ministry or other officials’(Dicey).
• No written constitution and codified law. The common law system is largely based on
conventions.
• An informal and uncodified procedural agreement that is followed by the institutions of
the state.
• Occupants of high political offices and people, both are very conscious of following the
conventions.
• Conventionalism is reflected in conservatism and gradualism in the political culture of
Britain.
• People don’t like major changes in the long-standing practices and traditions. They cherish
their past.
• Of late, there have been some attempts towards Codification of Conventions: The Cabinet
Manual, Sewel convention, court rulings, etc are some of the examples. But still most of
the political processes are followed as part of the conventions.
• Examples of constitutional conventions:
• The monarch will accept and act on the advice of their ministers, who are
responsible to Parliament for their advices.
• Collective responsibility of the Cabinet. It means that for any cabinet
decision the cabinet ministers are both individually and collectively
responsible. Thus, even if an individual minister is not agreeing to the
cabinet decision, he/she will have to own and defend the decisions in public.
Similarly, even if a single ministry’s proposal is defeated on the floor of the
lower house of parliament, the entire cabinet falls.
• The House of Lords will not oppose the second or third reading of any
government legislation promised in its election manifesto- Salisbury
Convention
• The monarch grants royal assent to all legislation but monarch does not
refuse to sign a Bill approved by Parliament.

110
 • During a general election, no major party shall put up an opponent against
a Speaker seeking re-election.
• ‘Once a speaker always a speaker’: speakers of the house are generally not
changed unless they don’t get elected to the house.
• The Prime Minister should be a member House of Commons.
• UK Parliament does not legislate on matters devolved to Scotland without
prior consent of the Scottish Parliament -The Sewel convention.

Discussion and Conclusion:

Unique feature of political system in Britain is its conventionalism. Its constitution,

common laws, rules and regulation, norms of behaviour of political activities, political
offices, and political processes are not codified or written in any structured way. Most of
them are part of a larger political culture, convention, and practices accepted and consented
by the people over centuries of settled constitutional monarchy and parliamentary
democracy. It is unique because no other country can match United Kingdom in this
respect. In comparison, the constitution of USA is written and most of their laws, though
based on the British common law, are also codified.
The question arises why Britain could manage with unwritten constitution and common
law by following the conventions? One reason maybe longest history of settled political
structure and processes. Most of socio political and religious issues were settled more than
400 years ago. The issue of constitutional monarchy is as old as early 17th century.
Parliamentary form of Government was settled with the glorious revolution of 1688. The
dominance of protestant form of Christian religion and churches of England (Anglican
church) was settled in 16th and 17th century. Other socio-cultural issues were also settled
long back.
Another possible reasons may be cultural. The British people feel proud in following their
conventions. This aspect of culture is also reflected in its political culture. The way people
cherish the conventions of British Monarchy is one example. Even in day to today life
British people feel proud in following rules written or conventional. For centuries the
country could manage without any traffic police on roundabouts because of such discipline
in following rules.
Thus, United Kingdom has a very unique political culture wherein for last several centuries
there have been only gradual changes in its political system and people have memorized

111
the accepted conventions for political behaviour and processes. Such conventions are
meticulously followed by both the office bearer of political offices as well as the people in
general. These conventions are cherished by the people of Britain who consider it as part
of their unique culture and civilisation.
In recent times there have been some attempts to codify the rules and regulations for
executive processes in the form of cabinet manual. Also, important rulings of the Higher
Courts serve as a written code of common law. The Sewel convention also attempted to
codify some of the conventions related to devolution of powers to the parliaments of
Scotland, Welsh and Northern Ireland. But still large part of the political processes and
activities are guided by unwritten convention, practices, and traditions which have been
settled and continued for centuries together. This is a unique political system and political
culture having no parallel anywhere in world.

112
Q.2: Critically examine the major changes in the British political economy after
WW II.
Similar Question:
Q: Discuss the changing nature of British Political Economy in post Thatcher era.

Introduction:
Political economy is the broader study of Economics within overall socio-political settings
of a particular Nation. It is studying economics from political perspective. In fact, earlier
studies of economics were in form of political economy; for example, ‘Wealth of nation’
by Adam Smith. Economics as modern academic discipline evolved from the political
economy.
World War II was the watershed in the political economy of Britain. The Mighty British
Empire was crumbling after the most devastating war of the century. The after effects of
the war were showing their adverse impacts on the economy. The unemployment rate was
high and the people were feeling the economic distress. During that period emerged a
political consensus to revive the economy and manage the government by adopting the
Keynesian demand led economic model. State would intervene in the economy to ensure
fulfilment of basic needs of healthcare, education, old age care, etc. Thus, the state would
act like a welfare state. This was different from the classical liberalism which required
laissez-faire economic policy in which the state is supposed to play a minimal role in the
matter of economic decisions which were left to the market forces. The state took upon the
responsibility to rebuild the economy, strengthen the infrastructure by adopting demand
led economic approach. This consensus era was called collectivist consensus era. It lasted
till about 1970s.
This golden period faced the winter of discontent in 1978-79 with economic slowdown,
high inflation, high rate of unemployment and social unrest. Finally, the labour strike broke
the consensus and the winter of discontent in 1978-79 finally ended the era of collectivist
consensus. This was followed by Thatcher era which was reversal of the demand led
economic model. She adopted neo-liberalism and supply side economic management as
suggested by Friedrich Hayek, once her teacher in college. This phase saw the privatisation
of the public enterprises such as British Telecom, British Airways, and British gas. Despite
impressive GDP growth, lower inflation and lower employment this phase also came to an

113
 end with the change in the government led by the Labour party which in 1997 grabbed the
power from the conservative party.
The Labour government led by Tony Blair adopted the economic model different from
both neo-liberalism and socialism. It was called the third way- a kind of mixed economy
similar to what India adopted after independence. It focused more on human resource
development, education, skill enhancement and training to help take benefit of market
economy. This era of labour as the third way lasted till about 2010 after which the coalition
era came which continued till 2019, after which the conservative party led by Boris Jhonson
formed a majority govt. Of late the Brexit and post-Brexit have dominated the discourse
on political economy of Britain.
Thus, we can see from the above discussion that after World War II there was a significant
change in the political economy of Britain. From the classical liberalism, of which it was
the originator, it adopted a kind of social democratic model of capitalism in which the state
ensures basic needs of the people, provide them subsidized or free healthcare, education,
unemployment allowances, and old age care. This was a kind of interventionist and welfare
state. Thereafter, the political economy of Britain saw many phases. Beginning 1980s,
Thatcher era of neo-liberalism came, then arrived the Third way of Labour government.
After 2010 a coalition era emerged. Of late, the political economy of Britain has been
dominated by the issue of Brexit.

In the next section of the answer, I am trying to explain the phases of political economy of Britain
in the post-World war II period:

Collectivist Consensus Era: Post World War II till 1970s:

• Golden period, political consensus for interventionist and welfare state.
• State had the primary role in economic management, ensuring social welfare, and
equity - free education, free health care, social security.
• State took the responsibility to secure low levels of unemployment (a policy of full
employment), expand social welfare services, maintain a healthy rate of growth, keep
prices stable, and achieve desirable balance-of-payments and exchange rates.
• Nationalization of key sectors- telecom, utility, airlines, oil/gas.
• Social peace and harmony, strong sense of patriotism and nation building.
• Economic model: ‘Keynesian’ demand led economic management. In this model, primary
responsibility falls on the Govt to spur up the demand in the economy by massive

114
 expenditure on infrastructure and social welfare. For this, the Govt may take loan or print
money. Hence, this model may result into high fiscal deficit, high public debt, high interest
rate and high inflation.
• But by 1970s economic slowdown, high Inflation, high unemployment, social unrest, and
labour strikes broke the consensus and the “winter of discontent” in 1978–1979 finally
ended the golden era.

Thatcher Era: Neo-liberalism- free market economy: 1979- 1997:

• Rejection of Keynesianism- Demand side economic management by huge Govt spending.
• Influenced by neo-liberal doctrine of Friedrich Hayek, who became the chief economic
advisor to Thatcher.
• Monetarism and strict fiscal policy: controlling the money supply, tax reforms, containing
fiscal deficit and public debt.
• Minimal intervention of state in market economy – steering than rowing
• Privatisation of state-owned companies- British Telecom, British Airways, British
Gas.
• Reforms in National Health Service: Purchase provider separation. An attempt to
bring efficiency and accountability of the private sector in public services.
• New public management (NPM) dominated the discourse of political economy and
public administration.
• Promoted entrepreneurship, competitiveness, and individual autonomy. Privatization and
liberalization became the buzzword.
• Successes: Impressive GDP growth, Lower Inflation, Lower unemployment.

New Labour Era: The Third Way: 1997-2010:

• The Labour Party, having adopted traditionally socialist agenda, changed its colour under
the leadership of Tony Blair and Gordon Brown.
• New Labour projected itself as an alternative to both Thatcherite neo-liberalism and
traditional Keynesianism (demand led growth).
• Attempted to combine best of both socialism and capitalism – Mixed economy or the Third
way.

115
 • Human resource development, education, skill enhancement, training to help them take
benefit of market economy.
• Accepted and embraced globalization: attracting FDI, strict control of Inflation, pro-
business and pro-investment economic environment.
• Inclusive “stakeholder” economy in which business has the flexibility, security, and
mobility to compete and workers have the skills and training to participate effectively in
the global labor market.
• Balanced pragmatism and innovation in economic management.
• Commitment for the Social Welfare. Broader social investment in education, health care,
and training.
Common features of the political Economy of Britain:
• Very strong sense of social welfare responsibilities of the state.
• Its deep rooting in gradualism makes it economic policy slow and reactive.
• Economic strength: Financial services, knowledge intensive high-technology industrial
sectors, superior microeconomic competitiveness, top rank in national business
environment and company operations and strategy.
• Economic weaknesses: low productivity in manufacturing, large trade deficit ( 50 b USD
in 2019), low investment, and low spending on R&D, rising costs of fuel, declining housing
values, and the credit crunch, low GDP growth.
• Low to moderate GDP growth rate- averaged 2.45 percent from 1956 until 2019; all time
high in 1973 and lowest in 2009; below 2 % in recent years.
• Economic shift in focus: heavy industry to a predominantly service economy especially
financial services - now net importer of manufactured goods;

Discussion and Conclusion:

In the political economy of Britain World War II was a watershed. Britain adopted a
welfare state model more like social democratic model of capitalism after the World War
II. This was the era of collectivist consensus in which there was a broad consensus among
all political parties that the state should take care of the basic needs of the people by
providing free or subsidised Health Care, Education, Old age care, and Unemployment
allowances. This phase also saw massive investment in infrastructure rebuilding and
demand led growth on the Keynesian model in which the state acts as an engine of
economic growth by pumping up money in the economy. This is considered the golden era

116
of British political economy. There was consensus in political domain and rapid economic
development and infrastructure rebuilding after the devastating war.
However, collectivist consensus phase ended by late 1970s and then came the Thatcher era
of neo-liberalism. On international arena Regan and Thatcher combined to change the
economic model in the western world from interventionist and welfare state to neo-
liberalism in which State again became a minimalist state leaving the major economic
decisions to market forces. In Britain, however, this era gave way to the Third way of the
new Labour led by Tony Blair in 1997. This was a combination of both neo-liberalism as
well as socialism, hence called the third Way.
One thing is obvious from above discussion, Britain adopted different economic policy in
comparison to USA, after a brief period of convergence during Raegan- Thatcher era. Here
the social welfare and the state’s role in providing the basic minimum needs of the people
get precedence over the pure play of free market capitalism which leaves the economic
decisions to market forces.
This is another uniqueness in the Socio-Political system of Britain. Despite being the
originator of classical capitalism, it did not adopt neo-liberalism or full-fledged free market
economy. Its political economy is closer to the social democratic model of Germany and
Scandinavian countries. The welfare state ideology dominates the overall political
economy of Britain. Hence, the changes in political economy of Britain after the world war
II towards social welfare and interventionist state became the permanent feature of the
political economy of Britain.

117
Q.3: Highlight the major constitutional development that have taken place in
Britain.

Similar question:
Q: How the process of constitutional development strengthened the democratic political culture in
Britain?

Introduction:
Britain has witnessed one of the oldest constitutional developments starting since 1215 in
which the Magna Carta, that is the bill of rights to the citizen, were granted by the monarch.
It was the beginning of a long struggle for constitutional monarchy. England was the first
nation where capitalism originated, first in agrarian sector, then in mercantile and industrial
sector. With the rise of a new professional upwardly mobile capitalist class the tussle
started between the traditional landed feudal class the new capitalist class. This tussle, later
on, converted into conflict between parliamentarian who wanted constitutional monarchy
and the royalists, who supported absolute monarchy. This confrontation resulted into civil
war from 1642-1651, after which the monarchy had to accept the recommendations of the
Parliament for its major decisions. But this confrontation did not end and glorious
revolution of 1688 finally saw the victory of Parliamentarian and the establishment of
constitutional Monarchy in Britain. This was perhaps one of the oldest constitutional
monarchies in one of the most powerful nations of the world. This was the biggest
constitutional development in Britain.
If we trace further the constitutional development, we can site acts of Union in 1536 under
which England and Wales were politically unified, unification of Scottish and English
Crown in 1603 and act of Union of 1707 which resulted into political unification of
England, Wales, and Scotland. After these constitutional developments the entire British
Island was politically unified under one King/Queen.
We can further identify some constitutional development in later years particularly during
20th century which was mainly to broaden the representation and participation in
governance through universal adult franchise. Britain adopted new phase of political
system after the World War II which is called collective consensus under which the British
state became more interventionist and acted like a welfare state. It gave way to neoliberal

118
 phase which is called Thatcher era and thereafter emerged the Third way of new labour
under Tony Blair.
But the major constitutional development was settled after the glorious revolution of 1688-
89 after which the constitutional monarchy was established. Parliament became supreme.
The monarch became the nominal head of the state and the actual power was exercised by
Prime Minister with his advice of his cabinet. Thus, the constitutional development of
Britain unlike other modern Western state was settled long before and this has influenced
its political culture which is characterized by convention, conservatism, and gradualism.

In the next section of the answer, I will try to further elaborate upon the constitutional development
in Britain starting from signing of Magna Carta in 1215.

Constitutional development in Britain:

Major landmark in the constitutional development of Britain was establishment of
constitutional monarchy and parliamentary form of representative democracy in Britain
after the glorious revolution of 1688. Following are the some of the most important
constitutional development before and after the glorious revolution:

1. Magna Carta in 1215:

In 1215, during the rule by king John, under the threat of civil war, the monarchy granted
charter of rights and liberties, called Magna Carta, to all free men. Magna Carta also limited
the power of the monarch who was subjected to the rule of law. Thus, Magna Carta was
one the most important constitutional development which made the monarchy limited and
much less powerful. The Magna Carta provided the foundation for individual rights in
Anglo-American jurisprudence.

2. Constitutional development after the Civil war of 1642:

With the evolution of classical capitalism in 16th century England, new capitalist class
emerged. Tussle for political power between the landed feudal class and new capitalist
class started party politics in England. Whigs faction comprised of the capitalist class
whereas the Tories represented landed feudal class.
Both these elite classes demanded more and more political powers from the monarchy.
This started the confrontation between the Parliamentarians (who wanted constitutional

119
 monarchy) and Royalists (supporters of absolute monarchy). England had series of civil
wars from 1642 to 1651. Major constitutional changes after the civil wars were 1.Political
unification of British isles by establishment of Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and
Ireland. 2. Execution of King Charles I 3. established the precedent that an English
monarch cannot govern without Parliament's consent. Thus, Parliament’s power increased
vis-à-vis the Monarchy.
3. Establishment of constitutional Monarchy after the Glorious revolution in 1688-89:
Even the settlements between the Parliamentarians and Royalists after the civil wars in
1651, the tussle between them continued. Finally, the Glorious Revolution of 1688 led to
a constitutional monarchy restricted by laws, such as, the Bill of Rights 1689, and the Act
of Settlement 1701.
The Bill of Rights laid down limits on the powers of the monarch and set out the rights of
Parliament, including the requirement for regular parliaments, free elections, and freedom
of speech in Parliament. The Act of Settlement was passed in 1701, reinforcing the Bill of
Rights in 1689. The main aim of this legislation was to ensure a Protestant succession to
the English throne. Other clauses within the Act included a declaration that judges could
only be removed by Parliament. Thus, the Bill of Rights 1689 and Act of Settlement 1701,
made effectively the parliament sovereign and supreme. The monarch became the notional
head of the nation. It also established popular representative parliamentary democracy in
Britain.

4. Political Unification of England, Scotland, Welsh, and Northern Island as United

Kingdom:
Acts of Union in 1536 unified England and Wales; by the Union of the Crowns in 1603
Scotland and England came under the same monarch; through the Act of Union of 1707,
political unification of England, Wales and Scotland was completed. The Acts of Union
were two Acts of Parliament: The Union with Scotland Act 1706 passed by the Parliament
of England, and the Union with England Act passed in 1707 by the Parliament of Scotland.
By the two Acts, the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland—which at the
time were separate states with separate legislatures, but with the same monarch—were
united into one Kingdom as Great Britain.
Unification of Ireland into Britain: The Acts of Union 1801 were parallel acts of the
Parliament of Great Britain and the Parliament of Ireland which united the Kingdom of
Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain
and Ireland. After the Irish War of Independence, southern Ireland became independent

120
 nation-state- Republic of Ireland. Now only Northern Ireland remained in the UK. Hence,
full name of UK is United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

Conclusion:
Britain has world’s oldest constitutional monarchy, oldest representative democracy, oldest
constitution, and oldest parliamentary form of Government. This is because most of the
major constitutional development was already settled in Britain long time ago. Monarchy
already conceded rights to citizen by signing the Magna Carta way back in 1215. The
Magna Carta established that the king may not levy taxes without the consent of his royal
council, which gradually developed into a parliament. Centuries of Tussle between the
parliament and Royalty saw civil wars in 1640s, after which series of constitutional
development diluted powers of the Monarchy vis-à-vis Parliament. With the Glorious
revolution in 1688-89, finally, Parliament became supreme and the Monarch became the
notional head of state.
Thus, constitutional monarchy was established in 1689. Since then, only major
constitutional development has been multiple Acts of Union by which England, Welsh,
Scotland, and Northern Ireland were politically unified to constitute United Kingdom of
Britain and Northern Ireland.
In 1999-98, through a series of Acts passed in Parliament of UK, some powers were given
to the executives and legislatures of Scotland, Welsh, and Northern Ireland; this was called
devolution(de-centralisation) of powers from the union to the national governments. We
may also count Brexit (exit of UK from EU) also as one of the latest constitutional
developments.
Unique aspect of constitutional development in Britain is its oldness and its democratic
credence. Almost all major constitutional issues were settled by 1689. Socio-religious
issues were also settled by then. Long settled socio-political issues gave stability to the
political system. This may be one of the factors behind important role of conventions,
gradualism, and conservatism in the political culture of Britain. It is also obvious that each
and every phase of constitutional development strengthened the spirit of liberal democracy.
Britain, therefore, became the shining light of representative liberal democracy for the
entire world.

121
Q.4 : How monarchy signals convention, continuance, and gradualism in
Britain?
Similar question:
1.In the context of Parliamentary system do you think Monarchy is still relevant in Great
Britain?
2.“Constitutional monarchy in Britain has resulted in successful Governance”; Comment.

Answer Template:

Introduction:
British monarchy is one of the oldest constitutional monarchies in the world. It is also one
of the oldest uninterrupted monarchies in anywhere in the world. Uniqueness of the
constitutional monarchy of Britain is the important role it plays in defining the political
culture of the nation. The British people look towards the monarchy as part of their culture,
civilization, tradition, and conventions. The British monarchy maintains absolute non-
partisan in its constitutional duties as nominal head of the state. The monarchy undertakes
various official, ceremonial, diplomatic, and representational duties.
Formally, all the executive powers are vested in the monarch on whose behalf the British
government acts. Hence, the Government of the UK is known as her/his majesty's
government. The monarch is also the head of the British armed forces. It is also the supreme
convenor of the churches of England. British monarch is also the formal head of state of
14 commonwealth nations, such as Canada, Australia, New Zealand, many Caribbean
countries, etc. these 15 nations, including UK, are called commonwealth realm.
The British monarchy is not only the symbol of convention, continuance, and gradualism
in UK but it is also the best example of how a constitutional monarchy should behave and
act by fulfilling its constitutional duties. The world over the constitutional heads of the
state, be it in monarchy or in Republic, look towards the British Monarch as their role
model.

Following are some of factors which makes British Monarchy relevant, and important aspect of
conventionalism and gradualism in the political culture of the Britain.

122
1. Oldest constitutional Monarchy in the world:
English monarchy gave away its power to people and parliament without much bloodshed.
It signed the Magna Carta way back in 1215, giving wide ranging rights to citizen. It also
accepted lesser powers by agreeing to subject its powers to the rule of law. The monarchy
accepted supremacy of the British Parliament without any bloodshed. Hence, it is called
the glorious revolution by which constitutional monarchy was established in Britain.
2. Contribution of the British Monarch in strengthening democratic political culture:
By signing the magna Carta in 1215, Bill of rights in 1689, the monarchy championed the
rights to its citizen. By accepting the supremacy of Parliament after the glorious revolution,
it strengthened the parliamentary democracy in Britain. The Monarchy has always been
progressive and pro- democracy. Its role in broadening the voting rights(franchise),
devolution of powers to national govts of Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, etc. has
been praiseworthy. The monarchy has always seemed to have strengthened the democratic
credential of the nation.
Not only in Britain, but through its vast empire, the British Monarch played important role
in developing parliamentary democracy and institution building in the erstwhile colonies,
including India. In fact, almost all its colonies adopted parliamentary form of democracy
after gaining independence. Because of this, British Monarch played important role in
democratisation world over.
3. Monarchy as a source of checks and balances:
The experience of functioning of parliamentary democracy and role of non-partisan
Monarchy has confirmed the value of the monarchy as a source of checks and balances
against elected politicians who might seek powers in excess of those conferred by their
respective constitutions, may misuse powers for partisan popularity, and ultimately as a
safeguard against dictatorship.
4. Monarchy as embodying and representing the nation, integral part of its political culture:
British Monarchy symbolises the spirit of the British nation. The people see in the
monarchy what they cherish as their shared glorious past as a community.
Conventionalism, gradualism, and conservatism, what we associate with British political
culture and British nation are reflected in the British Monarchy which embody these values
in its acts and behaviours.
5. British monarchy reminds British people of the great British empire:
At one point in history, one fourth of the world’s landmass and majority of the population
were part of the great British empire. Despite dissolution of the empire after world war II,

123
 still the British Monarchy is head of British Commonwealth (called Commonwealth
realms). It is also the common Monarch for 15 of the independent nations, such as
Australia, Canada, New Zealand, under the British commonwealth. Hence, the Monarchy
reminds British people of the great British Empire. They cherish that memory through the
Monarch.
6. Emotional bond between the people and the Monarch:
The British Monarch has developed, over the centuries, a direct emotional connect with the
people. In monarchy the people see their glorious past & traditions. The monarchs have
been extremely cautious in their private and public life not to offend the popular sentiments.
In the eyes of British people, the Monarchs are above the petty party politics. The Monarch
symbolizes continuance and gradual progression in comparison to fast changing party
politics. The British Monarch has developed a direct bond of love and respect with the
British people. It has become part of the political culture of the country.

Conclusion:
Conventionalism, conservatism, and gradualism are important features of the political
culture of Britain. All these features are part of the British monarchy. The British monarchy
is one of the oldest constitutional monarchies in the world. It is also one of the most
benevolent, pro- democracy and pro individual rights monarchy anywhere in the world.
To the British people, the monarchy symbolises a long glorious tradition, convention, and
gradualism. It also reminds them of the great British Empire. The monarchy played an
important role in strengthening the democracy and Individual’s rights in Britain as well as
elsewhere in the world by helping establish parliamentary form of Government and
institution building in its erstwhile colonies. Despite the dissolution of the empire after the
World War II still 14 commonwealth nations, such as Australia, Canada, New Zealand
proudly share the British Monarch as their own formal head of the state.
The British monarch therefore represent the conventionalism and gradualism of the
political culture of Britain. Because of this, it is very much relevant despite a deep-rooted
parliamentary democracy for last several centuries. From time to time the calmness,
neutrality, and moderation of the British monarchy has played an important role in the fast-
changing party and electoral politics. It has also helped keep united England, Wales,
Scotland and Northern Ireland. All these separate nations cherish sharing a common
monarchy. The monarchy has become a bond which unites people of Britain/UK to their
glorious past as well as keep them united in the present time. This is reflected in the name

124
of the British Nation-state as United Kingdom. This is the relevance of the British
monarchy despite having a well settled parliamentary democracy in place.

125
 THEME 7: BRAZIL- A COMPARATIVE STUDY

7 A : CBCS SYLLABUS
• Constitutional Developments
• Political Economy

7.B : KEY POINTS:

• Geography/demography:
• Occupies a large portion of north east of the continent of South America.
• 5th largest in both area (8.5 million Sq.Km, more than twice larger than India) and
population( 200 million, less than one sixth of India) in the world.
• Demography:
• White: 54%, Mulatto (mixed white and Black) 38.5%, Black 6.2%, 1.5 m
Japanese origin
• Religion: Mostly Christian- 75% Roman Catholic, 15% protestants
• Cultural Specialities:
• World famous for its Football, Carnival, Samba dance & Music, Sun shined
Beaches, Amazon basin
• Economy:
• GDP: about 2 Trillion USD (India about 2.82 T USD): 9th Largest
• GDP per Capita: about 9000 USD (India about 2000 USD) 73rd ; India 145
• Export base Economy: Largest producer of Coffee, Sugar, Soyabean;
other Agri exports: Cocoa, Tobacco, Corn, beef, ethanol and frozen
chickens; other export items: crude oil, iron ores, chemical wood pulp, cars,
steel.
• Huge Trade surplus: more than 50 b USD (India – minus 176 b USD)
• Political System:
• Federal Republic: 26 states and one Federal District (area containing the capital
Brasília) ; 5570 Municipalities
126
 • Executives: Presidential system of Govt.
• Head of the Govt:
• Federal Govt – President; State Govt- Governor; Municipalities- Mayor
• Legislature:
• Federal Bi- cameral; States: Unicameral
• Federal (National Congress) : Senate (81 members elected for 8 years, 3
from each state and Federal District) ; Chamber of Deputies (513 members
directly elected for 4 years)
• State: Unicameral; state legislative assembly
• Municipalities: Chamber - directly elected councillors
• Judiciary:
• Supreme federal Court, Higher court of Justice, regional courts, labor
courts, electoral courts, military courts, and state courts. Judiciary has
financial and administrative autonomy. Most judges are appointed for life
by President with the advice of Senate.
• Voting in Brazil is compulsory for all literate citizens over 18 and under 70, and
optional for citizens who are aged 16 and 17, older than 70 or illiterate.
• Extremely fragmented party system; 70 parties (32 registered); top one got only
about 12% votes.
• Its fragmented and personalized party system, authoritarian tendencies of head of
the state, populism, corporatism, clientelism, and corruption pulls down the nation

• Constitutional Development
• 1500 to 1822: Colony of Portugal: Pedro Alvares Cabral discovered and won it for
Portugal
• 1822-88 : Constitutional Monarchy
• 1822: Dom Pedro I declared himself emperor of Brazil, ending
Portuguese colonial rule.
st
• Old Republic (1889–1930) : 1 Republic
• 1889: Dom Pedro II exiled; landowning elites establish an oligarchical
republic- Coffee & Milk politics

127
 • 1891: A new constitution establishes a directly elected president.
nd rd
• New State (Vargas era): 1930-45 : 2 & 3 Republic:
authoritarian corporatist regime; nationalism, populism, social welfare, centralisation,
Industrialisation
th
• Populist and Fragile Democratic Period ( 1946-64) : 4 Republic :Expansion of
democracy
th
• Military dictatorship (1964–1985) : 5 Republic
• Bureaucratic Authoritarianism, State led development, “Brazilian
miracle”
• 1984 : Diretas Já!, a mass mobilization campaign, calls for direct
elections
th
• New Republic (Since 1986): 6 Republic
• 1988: A new constitution grants new social and political rights

Political Economy:
• Historically Agri Export based Colonial Economy
• After independence state led Industrialization and Development- mega PSUs- Petrobras,
Vale
• Relatively Closed Economy: Trade ( Export+Import = 20%) ; India : 45%
• From double digit GDP growth during Military Regime to moderate and negative growth
rates
• One of the most unequal countries in the world: Gini Index 51.3 (India 35.2)
• Huge debt despite trade surplus- Excessive public expenditure on mega projects and social
welfare
• Hyperinflation: 1980-1994 : (4 digit annual inflation ). Was tamed only after new currency
Real was launched in 1994; this was called ‘Plano Real’(Plan real)
• 87 % Brazilian lives in Cities- Huge Rural Migration; Favela (Slum)

128
• Its strong Agri based export, trade surplus, reasonably high Industrialization and
development are countered by highly unequal and sluggish growth, high inflation, huge
debt, unemployment, and corruption
• Starting with export led economy to state led industrialization and development since ‘New
state’ of Vargas in 1930s and then adopting neo-liberalism under the guidance of IMF in
1990s, Brazil followed the path similar to India and other developing 3rd World Nations.
• Neo-liberalism has mixed to negative outcomes- slower growth, unemployment, no
reduction in inequality, low investment, etc. Positive impacts were lower Inflation, poverty
reduction, and fiscal Discipline.
• Political economy of Brazil denotes the vital role played by socio-cultural factors on the
economic structure and relationship in any nation. Brazil is having everything to become
superpower but it is held back by social structure and power relations which is highly
inequal and unjust.

129
 7.C: ANSWER TEMPLATES TO PAST YEAR’S AND OTHER
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Q.1 Discuss the constitutional development in Brazil since its independence

from the colonial rule.
Similar Question:
Q: Critically analyse the functioning of Democracy in Brazil

Introduction:
Since its independence from the Portuguese Colonial rule in 1822, Brazil has seen more
than six republics having different constitutions. It has a checkered (mixed pattern)
experience of fragile democratic period interspersed between the authoritarian and military
regimes during these constitutional developments and governance models. From the ever-
changing constitutional arrangements of the Brazilian state one thing is very clear that there
are strong anti-democratic and authoritarian tendencies in the ruling elites which leads to a
very fragile democracy in the country. Brazil through all these periods of constitutional
development looked like an oligarchic state, ruled by few rich and wealthy people/families.
The first Republic starting in 1889 had the dominance of land-owning elites of Sao Paulo
and Minas Gerais. It was a kind of oligarchic Republic, that is, the rule by rich and wealthy
few. It was called coffee and milk politics because the land-owning elites came from the
coffee and dairy regions of south east Brazil. The second and third Republics during 1930
and 1945 established the ‘New State’ by Getúlio Vargas, one of the most influential leaders
of Brazil. The Vargas regime was populist but authoritarian.
Democracy was established in 1946 and Brazil remained democratic for next 18 years but
it was a very fragile democracy. In fact, the democracy was extended for 10 years after
1954 mainly because of the suicide committed by Vargas, who ruled in the democratic
period from 1951 to 1954. However, in 1964 a Military dictatorship was established as 5th
Republic which lasted till 1985. After a popular mass movement, called Diretas Já (direct
elections now) democracy was re-established in 1988 with a new constitution. This is
called the 6th Republic in Brazil. However, a legislative coup in 2016 in which the president
Dilma Rousseff was impeached by the right wing legislature dominated by Brazilian elites
undermined democracy in Brazil.

130
 Presently, democracy continues but remains fragile. The current president Bolsonaro
belongs to far-right conservative party and is considered to be supported by the landed
elite. Hence, democracy remains fragile and uncertain in Brazil.
Thus, we can see that the constitutional development of Brazil is a series of attempts to
democratise the government in the midst of an unequal, class conscious, conservative
society in which the elites who are land owning class continuously maintain a tight grip on
the government. Without support of the elites no rule can be stable. Elites’ support has been
somewhat towards authoritarian or military regimes. Left leaning parties such as the
Worker’s Party led democratic governments for long periods but they always faced
extreme pressures from the elites and oligarchs. Hence, democracy has always been very
fragile in Brazil. There is a continuous tussle between the left leaning political parties
which are Pro democracy and extreme right wing neoliberal parties which are dominated
by the land-owning elites, who are favourable to authoritarian and military regimes.
In the next section of the answer, I will try to outline the major phases of constitutional
development in Brazil.

Major Phases of Constitutional Development in Brazil:

• 1500 to 1822: Pedro Alvares Cabral discovered Brazil and won it for Portugal. Brazil
became the colony of Portugal.
• 1822-88 : Post-colonial state.
• 1822: Dom Pedro I declares himself emperor of Brazil, ending Portuguese colonial
rule.
• Brazil adopted constitutional monarchy.
• Old or 1st Republic (1889–1930) :
• 1889: Dom Pedro II was exiled; landowning elites established an oligarchical
republic. It was called Coffee & Milk politics, as the landowning elites were from
cocoa and dairy regions of Sao Paulo and Minas Gerais in south east of Brazil.
• Since then, the landowning elites have a tight grip over the Brazilian state. They
are the king makers.
• 1891: A new constitution established a directly elected president.
• New State (‘Estado Novo’ in Portuguese- the Vargas era): 1930-45 : 2nd & 3rd Republic
under the presidentship of Getúlio Vargas, the most influential leader in modern Brazil.
• Vargas regime was authoritarian corporatist but populist and pro-poor.

131
 • Nationalism, populism, social welfare, centralisation, and state led
industrialisation were the features of the ‘new State’ under Vargas.
• Populist and Fragile Democratic Period (1946-64) : 4th Republic
• Also known as the "Republic of 46" or as the "Populist Republic"
• Expansion of democracy; many new states (federating provinces) were created in
north east region.
• New democratic constitution: a more balanced and liberal Constitution which re-
established basic individual rights and the separation of powers. The constitution
also maintained an important role of the state in the nation’s economy.
• Was marked by political instability and pressure of military backed by elites on
democratic Govt which ended with the 1964 Brazilian military coup and
establishment of a military regime in 1964.
• Military dictatorship (1964–1985) : 5th Republic
• Bureaucratic authoritarianism, State led development,
• “Brazilian miracle”: spectacular growth rate of GDP, during this period average
annual GDP growth was close to 10%.
• 1984 : Diretas Já !, a mass mobilization campaign, called for direct elections and
restoration of democracy.
• New Republic (Since 1986): 6th Republic
• Democracy was restored.
• 1988: A new constitution grants new social and political rights.
• 2016: Legislative coup by elites to impeach and remove popularly elected
president.

Conclusion:
Oligarchic and authoritarian tendencies in the land-owning elites have put democracy
under constant threat in Brazil. From its history of constitutional development, it is clear
that the elites have a tight grip over whatsoever regime is in power. They are the king
makers. Till their interests are protected they support the governing regime, be it military,
authoritarian, or democratic. But if their interests are threatened by pro-poor policies, they
dislodge the regime by hook or by crook.

132
 Despite this, the nation has tried democratisation from time to time. Sometime by mass
movement, sometime by constitutional means. For last 32 years, democracy is continuing
despite facing many ups and downs. The legislative coup in 2016 against the popularly
elected president underlined the constant threat to democracy in this large and powerful
nation. Because of its class structure, wherein land-owning elites are the king makers,
Brazil has a long way to go before it can claim to have settled democracy in letter and
spirit.

Q2: Brazil has emerged as the major economic power in the recent years.
Discuss the political economy of Brazil in light of this statement.

Similar Question:
Q. How have the neo-liberal forces impacted the political economy of Brazil?

Introduction:
Political economy is the broader study of economics in the socio-political settings of a
particular nation/community. In case of Brazil, impact of politics is clearly visible in its
economic policies and performances. Traditionally Brazil has an Agri- Export based
Economy. It has been world’s largest producer of Sugar and Coffee, 2nd largest producer
of Soybean and Pineapple, and 3rd largest producer of maize and Banana. Brazil is the
world's largest exporter of coffee, soybeans, beef, and crop-based ethanol.
In 1930, in the ‘New State’ under Vargas presidency, sate led industrialisation was started.
The model adopted was Import substitution industrialization (ISI). This phase saw mega
state enterprises, called Para-statals, in Hydro-electricity, Iron & steel, Mining, Petroleum,
Shipbuilding sectors. The military regime from 1964 to 1985 saw more focus on consumer
durables. Beginning 1990s, Brazil, like many other developing countries, adopted neo-
liberal economic model under the guidance of IMF/World bank as per the Washington
Consensus.
During all these phases of its political economy few of the things remained unchanged.
Dominance of very small numbers of very rich land-owning elites, extremely unequal
economic growth, huge debt despite trade surplus, focus on mega projects and mega social

133
 welfare schemes, corruption, nepotism, patrimonialism, clientelism, and populism, etc.,
have been some the common features of the political economy of Brazil.

In the next section of the answer, I will try to explain about the political economy of Brazil in view
of the opening comments made above:

Major phases of the political economy of Brazil:

Starting 20th century, we can identify the following major phases of the political economy:
• 1900- 1930: Agri Commodity export led growth: Coffee, Sugar, Cotton, Corn, Soya,
Rubber
• Agri-export business had relative autonomy from state, low public finance, the
trading business was privately financed.
• 1930-84 : Import substitution industrialization (ISI) model ; state led growth
• Light phase: ISI sectors- Textile, food processing; low state capital, small subsidy,
tariff protection; created jobs
• 1945-64: Heavy phase: state led heavy, core, and mega Industries- Hydro-
electricity, Iron& steel, Mining, Petroleum, shipbuilding,
• Para-statals: PSUs: Petrobras, Electrobras, Vale
• 1964-84: Consumer durable phase: automobiles, televisions, refrigerators, and
machinery for the domestic market.
• 1980s: “Lost Decade”: Low growth rate and huge public debt, hyperinflation
• Political economy of Brazil was taken as typical case study of the ‘Dependency Theory’
by Andre Gunder frank. According to the theory economy of developing nations such as
Brazil get integrated to global capitalist system as satellite of the core capitalist regions
(western world). The satellite economy are sources for agricultural and low value raw
materials whereas the core supplies high value items to the satellites. This arrangement
ruins the economy of the satellite regions.
• 1990s: Neo-Liberalism; Liberalization, Privatization, and Globalization (LPG). Brazil,
like many other developing nations, had to adopt the neo-liberal economic policies under
the guidance of IMF/world bank as per the ‘Washington Consensus.’ Outcomes of neo-

134
 liberal economic policies have been mixed. In the later part of the answer those outcomes
are discussed.

Following are some of the common features of the political economy of Brazil:

• Historically Agri Export based colonial economy

• State led Industrialization- mega PSUs- Petrobras, Vale
• one of the most unequal countries in the world: Gini Index 51.3 (India 35.2)
• 5 vs 95 :richest 5 % have the same income as the remaining 95 %.
• 6 vs 50% : six richest men have the same wealth as poorest 50%
• Huge Regional Disparity: South, South Eastern – Developed vs Poor, undeveloped
north and North Eastern Regions
• 87 % Brazilian lives in Cities- Huge Rural Migration; Favela (urban Slum)
• Huge debt despite trade surplus- Excessive public expenditure on mega projects and social
welfare.
• Bolsa Família: Largest and most successful Direct cash transfer Scheme
• Corruption, Nepotism, Patrimonial state, Clientelism, Populism
• Hyperinflation: 1980-1994: (600 percent or more annual inflation): Huge Debt, Low
commodity price, and Oil Sock.
• Relatively Closed Economy: Trade (Export+Import = 20% of GDP) ; India in comparison
: 45% of GDP is value of trade.
• From double digit GDP growth during Military Regime to moderate and negative growth
rates
• The Environmental Costs of State-Led Growth has been huge. Loss of bio-diversity and
deforestation in the Amazon basin.
• Large Informal (Parallel) Economy outside Tax Net.

135
Impacts of Neo-liberalism in Brazil:

Since 1990, Brazil, like other developing countries, adopted neo-liberal economic policy
as per the ‘Washington Consensus’ under the guidance of IMF. This phase is characterized
by Liberalization, Privatization, and Globalization (LPG). It also entailed tight monetary
and fiscal policies, low interest rates, lower public debt, curtailing Govt expenditure,
withdrawal of the state from non-strategic economic sectors, focus on FDI, etc.
The outcomes of the neo-liberal policies are mixed. Following are some of the impacts of
neo-liberal policies on the economy of Brazil:
• Inflation was tamed( controlled)
• GDP growth declined- from average of 3% during 1980s to 1.82% in 1990s
• No reduction in Income inequality- unchanged GINI index
• Ranking on Human Development Index slipped from 59 (1990) to 74(1998)
• Reduction in Poverty, in absolute terms – reduced by 50% (38% to 19%) between
1983-2006
• Increase in real wages but Increase in Unemployment

Discussion and Conclusion:

Political economy of Brazil reflects the socio-political realities of the Brazilian state. Since
beginning land owning elites of south and south eastern Brazil, that is, of coffee and milk
belt, dominated as ruling elites. They remained as king makers. After independence from
Portuguese colonial rule, there have been two divergent political ideologies; one is left
leaning represented by parties like Workers Party and another is conservative right-wing
ideologies represented by Liberal Parties. What kind of economic policies should be good
for country has been the outcome of tussle between left and right ideologies. Ruling elites
have supported either of these ideologies at different times in their own interests. They
don’t mind whether their interests are served by left or right leaning governments. But the
moment the Govt. seems to harm their interests they change the govt either by military or
legislative coup.
For most part, Brazil has been ruled by pro left governments which went for import
substitution and state led industrialisation. Brazilian Para-statals, the state enterprises-
Petrobras, Electrobras, Vale, became giant companies. Another feature of the political
economy of Brazil is state funded mega projects, and mega welfare schemes such as Bolsa

136
Familia. Because of such extravagant expenditures by the State, Brazil always has faced
the problem of huge debt despite having trade surpluses. This also led to high interest rates
and hyperinflation.
By 1990, public debt and inflation became unsustainable. This compelled Brazil to adopt
neoliberal economic policies under the guidance of IMF as per the Washington consensus.
This was also made possible by the support of ruling elites, who saw opportunity in neo-
liberal policies.
The neo-liberalism had the same pattern, features, and outcomes as in other developing
nations. It mandated strict monetary and fiscal discipline, low interest rate, low public debt,
low government spending, and moderate taxation. However, this was in opposition to long
standing political economy of Brazil which was characterized by having mega government
spending, mega state enterprises, and mega welfare projects. Hence, the outcome of the
neoliberal policies has been mixed. In absolute terms, poverty was reduced, inflation was
under control but overall GDP growth rate came down, inequality remained as acute as
ever, Human Development Index went down, unemployment increased, and hence general
dis-satisfaction among masses increased.
In sum, political economy of Brazil denotes the vital role played by socio-cultural factors
on the economic structure and outcomes in any nation. Brazil is having everything to
become an economic superpower but it is held back by social structure and power relations
which is highly inequal, exploitative, and unjust.

137
 THEME 8: NIGERIA- A COMPARATIVE STUDY

8 A: CBCS SYLLABUS
• Constitutional Developments
• Political Economy

8.B: KEY POINTS:

• Geography/demography:
• A large country in sub-Saharan region, overlooking Atlantic Ocean, and served by
Niger Delta in mid-west coast of the continent of Africa.
• 1/3rd of size of India in area and 7th largest in population ( 200 million, less than
one sixth of India) in the world.
• Demography:
• Ethnic Division: North: Hausa and Fulani (Muslims) 29.0%, South east:
Igbo (Ibo) 18.0%; South west Yoruba 21.0%; both Igbo and Yoruba are
mostly Christian.
• Religion: Christian- 50 % Muslim : 50 %
• Economy:
• GDP: about 400 billion USD (India about 3 T USD): largest in Africa
• GDP per Capita: about 2000 USD (same as in India about 2000 USD ) 147th
• Oil export base Economy: 90 % Oil & Gas; other: Cocoa, Rubber
• Trade surplus: more than 8 b USD (India – minus 176 b USD)
• Political System:
• Multi-party Democracy since 1999; Presidential system
• Federal Republic: 36 state, 1 federal district (area containing capital city of
Abuja), 774 local Govt.
• Executives: Presidential system of Govt.
• Head of Govt:

138
 • Federal Govt – President ; State Govt- Governor; local government areas-
Chairman of Local Government Council
• Legislature:
• Federal (National Assembly) : Senate (109 members elected for 4 years, 3
from each state and Federal District) ; House of Representatives (360
members directly elected for 4 years)
• States: Unicameral: State Legislative assembly
• Local Govt, area: Local Government Council: directly elected councillors
• Judiciary:
• Federal, state, and local court system, headed by the Federal Court of
Appeal and the Supreme Court. Shari’a courts in northern states for cases
involving only Muslims in customary disputes (divorce, property, etc.). No
Judicial review powers.
• Election system: First past the Post; Parties based on ethnicity, now alliances of
convenience among ‘Big Men’ from across Nigeria.; APC : All people’s Congress
is the ruling and PDP – People’s democratic party- are the main political parties
• Very fragile democracy, military rule for more than half of the period since
independence.
• Ethnocentric prebendal system, extreme centralization, ‘Big men’ politics,
Clientelism, and corruption pulls down the nation

• Constitutional Development
• 1900 to 1960: Colony of Britain: Unification of northern & Southern protectorates
as state of Nigeria in 1914
• 1960-66: Independence, New Constitution in 1963, Parliamentary democracy, 1st
Republic
• Military Rule and Civil war (1966–1979)
• 1966: Igbo led Military coup; 2nd coup few months later by Yakubu Gowon,
a Middle Belt Christian.
• 1966-69: Civil war between Nigerian state and Biafra, an independent
country declared by Igbo.

139
 • 2nd Republic (1979-83) : return to Democracy, new constitution 1979; Presidential
form
• 2nd period of Military Rule and aborted 3rd Republic (1983-1999)
• Military coup in 1983, General Muhammadu Buhari became President
• 3rd Republic: New constitution 1989, 1993 presidential election, but
military ruler Sani Abacha Suppressed democracy and ensured military
rule till 1999.
• 4th Republic (1999- till date) : Return to Democracy ; New Constitution of 1999
• Olusegun Obasanjo, military ruler who restored democracy in 1979 became
civilian president.
• Peaceful election held every 4 years since then.
• In 2015 election, General Muhammadu Buhari, who led the military coup
in 1983, defeated incumbent president Goodluck Jonathan
• Muhammadu Buhari returned to power again in 2019 Election.

Political Economy:
• Oil based Export Economy; Largest in Africa and 8th largest in world; 90% export
and 75% govt revenue; but oil revenue is unpredictable and depends on external factors.
• Ill-managed industrial and infrastructural expansion under both military and
civilian regimes, combined with the neglect of the agricultural sector, despite fertile
land, not able to grow enough food for its population.
• Low investment, low-capacity utilization, dysfunctional power supply, unreliable
distribution, rampant corruption, and overregulation in the industrial sector.
• State is supreme in the Nigerian economy, : Big Parastatals: NNPC, agricultural
commodity boards, Telecom, Power, utilities ; Corruption, Nepotism, Patrimonial
state, Clientelism, Populism.
• Huge debt despite trade surplus, debt/GDP ratio had been more than 100% for many
years
• Triple threats of clientelism, corruption, and unstable authoritarian governing
structures, which together foster ethnic group competition and hinder economic
potential.

140
 • Low to moderate GDP growth rate- average 3.8 % from 1982-2017; negative growth
rate during 1980s.
• Large Informal Economy – one-fifth of the GDP, outside Tax Net
• Top-down policy making – president initiate but filtered by ‘Big Men’ interests and
tussle.
• Its economy is dangerously dependent on oil export. Both Agriculture and Industry are
poorly developed; Infrastructure, especially power supply, is inadequate.
• Its political economy suffers from Interventionist, patrimonial state having low
legitimacy and even lower accountability, Ethnocentric Prebendalism , ‘Big Men’
politics, weak political and economic institutions, and rampant Corruption.

Nigeria, a typical post-colonial state:

• Typical post-colonial state: Stateless tribal life disrupted by colonial rule, present system
is broken from the past traditions, dualism, formalism, heterogeneity, and functional
overlapping.
• Nigerian state is work in progress, unfinished. Instabilities and uncertainties, weak
legitimacy of the state, low political obligation, fragile democracy, individuals tend to
identify with their immediate ethnic, regional, and religious communities than to the
state/nation.
• Contradictory state: constant struggle in Nigeria between authoritarian and democratic
governance, the push for development amidst persistent underdevelopment, the burden of
public corruption, and the pressure for accountability.
• Nigeria provides important insights into the political economy of underdevelopment. Rich
endowment of resources is not enough to ensure economic development. In fact, it may
encourage rent-seeking behavior that undermines more productive activities.
• Another Lesson is that Democracy and Development depend on leadership, political
culture, institutional autonomy, and the external economic climate.
• Political economy of Nigeria denotes the challenges post-colonial state faces in nation
building and managing its economy and social well-being. Many of Nigeria’s problems
has colonial roots, self-interestedness, and opportunistic behavior of its elites aggravated
those problems.

141
 8.C: ANSWER TEMPLATES TO PAST YEAR’S AND OTHER
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Q.1: Discuss the role of military in the Nigerian politics.

Similar Questions:
1. Discuss the constitutional developments in Nigeria since its independence; also
highlight the role of military in the Nigerian politics.
2. More than half of the period since independence Nigeria had the Military rule; discuss
in the context of constitutional developments in Nigeria.
3. Examine the process of constitutional development in Nigeria.

Answer Template:

Introduction:
Nigerian constitutional development after its independence in 1960 from British Colonial
rule has been interspersed(sprinkled) with military and dictatorial rule. In fact, for more
than half of the period since its independence, it has been ruled by military. It is ironical
that the civilian rule has not been much different from the authoritarian military rule. In its
functioning and features both the civilian and military rule have many things in common.
Both are based on ethnocentric prebendal system (using state resources to further ethnic
interests), represent the patrimonial state, clientelism- a pyramid of patron-client
relationship develops from top to bottom, excessive corruption, nepotism, and
authoritarianism. This may be one of the reasons of general acceptability of the military
rule by the people of Nigeria.
If we trace the brief history of constitutional development in Nigeria, we note that it has
been work in progress. The state building is still on. Nigeria got independence in 1960
from British colonial rule. After that the first Republic was constituted with a new
democratic constitution in 1963 with Parliamentary form of Government on the pattern of
British political system. But soon after there was a military coup followed by three years
of civil war from 1966 to 69. It was the period of chaos and turbulence. Normalcy and
democracy both returned with the new constitution in 1979 which changed the government
from parliamentary to presidential form. But this democratic phase was very short lived.
Only after 4 years in 1983 there was again a military coup. This time the military rule lasted

142
 for next 16 years and ended only in 1999. Thereafter, a new democratic constitution was
drafted in 1999 which led to the foundation of the current fourth Republic. The present
republic has presidential form of government. The democracy, though fragile, yet is
continuing till date.
It is interesting to note that most of the civilian presidents under the democratic
constitutions have been erstwhile military rulers. This clearly denotes the great influence
of military in the political system of Nigeria. It also indicates general acceptability among
the Nigerian people of the military rule.
In the next section of the answer, I will try to elaborate upon the points made above.

A brief sketch of constitutional development in Post-colonial Nigerian State:

• 1900 to 1960: Colonial phase: Nigeria was colony of Britain. Unification of Northern &
Southern protectorates as state of Nigeria under the British rule in 1914. Before this
Northern & Southern region of Nigeria were the British protectorates.
• 1960-66: Independence and 1st Republic: New Constitution in 1963, Parliamentary
democracy on the pattern of British system.
• 1966–1979: Military Rule and Civil war: Period of Chaos and Turbulence.
• 1966: ‘Igbo’ led Military coup; 2nd coup few months later by Yakubu Gowon, a
Middle Belt Christian
• 1966-69: Civil war between Nigerian state and Biafra, an independent country
declared by Igbo tribes.
• 1979-83: 2nd Republic: Return to democracy, new constitution in 1979; changed from
Parliamentary to Presidential form of government.
• The 1979 constitution was innovative in many ways. It included the adoption of an
American-style separation of legislative and executive powers. It also reflected the
realities of the military rule, which suited more to the presidential style of Govt.
• Basic objective for changing the Govt from ‘Westminster’ to ‘Washington’ style
was to deepen democracy by having Govt form more in tune with the socio-political
realities of Nigeria.
• 1983-1999: 3rd Republic: 2nd period of Military Rule and aborted attempt to restore
democracy:
• Military coup in 1983, General Muhammadu Buhari became President.

143
 • 3rd Republic: New constitution 1989 ; it was to be implemented in 1992, but
couldn’t be implemented because of aborted attempt to democratise the nation in
1993.
• 1993 presidential election for restoration of democracy, but military ruler Sani
Abacha suppressed the attempt to restore democracy. Military rule continued till
1999.
• 1999- till date : 4th Republic: Return to Democracy ; New Constitution of 1999
• Olusegun Obasanjo, military ruler who restored democracy in 1979 became 1st
civilian democratic president of the 4th Republic.
• Peaceful election held every 4 years since then.
• In 2015 election, General Muhammadu Buhari, who led the military coup in 1983,
defeated incumbent president Goodluck Jonathan.
• Muhammadu Buhari returned to power again in 2019 Election.

Role of military in the Nigerian politics:

• 29 years out of its 60 years of independence, Nigeria had military rule.
• People, by and large, accepted Military Rule which was not tyrannical.
• In its functioning and features both the civilian and military rule have many things in
common. Both are based on ethnocentric prebendal system, represent the patrimonial state,
clientelism, excessive corruption, Nepotism, and authoritarianism.
• During the military rule, there exist no legislatures; Law is made through executive decrees
(a kind of ordinance) ratified by ruling council of high-level military officers. a Supreme
Military Council.
• Military president ruled with the help of expanded collegial institutions. The military rule
get support of the ‘Big Men’, who extract resources from the states for their own benefit.
the, ‘Big Men’ has been the common feature of both military and civil regimes.
• Individuals are appointed on the basis of patronage, ethnic group, and regional origin rather
than merit.
• Military rule left Nigeria with strong authoritarian influences in its political culture.
• Most of leading presidential contenders in 4th Republic are former military men, one of
whom— Muhammadu Buhari—was the ringleader of the 1983 coup. Buhari is now the
longest serving president of the democratic 4th Republic. Olusegun Obasanjo, who was the

144
 president under military rule, became the first democratic president of the 4th Republic in
1999.
• Thus, very influential role of military in the political system of Nigeria is very evident.

Conclusion:
Constitutional development and post-colonial political history of Nigeria represent the
challenges of nation and state building in a post-colonial state. In the absence of visionary
leadership, the problems created during the colonial rule were aggravated in the post-
colonial state. The leadership torn apart by ethnic rivalry failed to sort out the problems of
nation and State building. This resulted into quasi-state which Nigeria is even after 60 years
after its independence.
In its brief existence as free nation it was ruled for more than half of the period by military
rule. Even the civilian rule has not been much different in essence from the military rule.
Both suffer from ethnocentric prebendal system, patrimonialism, clientelism, nepotism,
excessive corruption, and authoritarianism. The ‘Big Men’ politics has been the feature of
the Nigerian politics. In this system the aim is not to aim for the common good of the
political community or society. Rather the state resources are used for furthering the
individual interest of the influential people, the elites, who use the State as their personal
fiefdom in their own interest. In such situation the democracy became a façade. The entire
system of Executive, legislature, judiciary become a veneer (external layer) to hide the
actual state of affairs which is based on personal interest, rivalry, and competition. Thus,
the state become a patrimonial state.

Q.2: Critically examine the political economy of Nigeria.

Introduction:
Since its independence in 1960 from British Colonial rule, Nigeria is struggling to build its
nation and state. Both the nation and state building are still the work in progress. Instability
of the of its political system is evident from the fact that more than half of the period of its
independence existence there has been the military rule. Instability and ineffectiveness of
its political system has reflected into its economy which is dangerously dependent on oil
export. Its oil production is the largest in Africa and eighth largest in the world. 90% of the
value of export is from oil, whereas 75% of government revenue is coming from oil export.
Such overdependence on oil export makes its economy vulnerable to vagaries of

145
 international oil market. Because of finding oil in Niger delta the nation did not pay
adequate attention on developing agricultural and industrial tractor despite having very
fertile land.
Nigerian industrial sector is characterized by low investment, low-capacity utilisation,
dysfunctional power supply, unreliable distribution, rampant corruption and over
regulation. Whatsoever industrialisation has been done in the country is mainly state led.
like Brazil, big parastatals dominate the economic landscape. Despite having a trade
surplus, it has got a huge debt which has been more than its GDP for past many years. GDP
growth rate has been low to moderate in past 30 years. It has also seen negative growth rate
during 1980s. Nigeria has a large informal economy which is out of the tax net. The
economic policy making follows the ‘top down’ approach. In sum, the triple threats of
clientelism, corruption and unstable authoritarian governing structure reflect upon an
unsettled and imbalanced economic structure in Nigeria.

Following is the brief sketch of the political economy of Nigeria:

• Oil based Export Economy; Largest oil producer in Africa and 8th largest in world ; Oil
export is 90% of export value and 75% of govt revenue, but oil revenue is unpredictable
and depends on external factors. Hence, overdependence on oil export makes Nigerian
Economy skewed( tilted on one side) and unbalanced.
• Oil has undermined the agricultural and industrial sector. Easy finding of oil and good
value of oil export has resulted less attention to both agricultural and industrial sector. It
has also developed rent seeking behaviour, that is, getting easy money from oil export
without much effort.
• Ill-managed industrial and infrastructural expansion under both military and civilian
regimes, combined with the neglect of the agricultural sector, despite fertile land of Niger
delta, has given a situation where the country is not able to grow enough food for its
population.
• Low investment, low-capacity utilization, dysfunctional (poorly functioning) power
supply, unreliable distribution, rampant corruption, and overregulation characterize the
industrial sector.
• State is supreme in the Nigerian economy. Whatever industrial development happened has
been led by big Parastatals (state enterprises) such as NNPC, agricultural commodity
boards, Telecom, Power utilities, etc.

146
 • Permanent feature of the political economy of Nigeria has been excessive corruption,
nepotism, patrimonial state, clientelism, and ethnocentric prebendal system.
• Huge debt despite trade surplus, debt/GDP ratio had been more than 100% for many years.
• Triple threats of clientelism, corruption, and unstable authoritarian governing structures,
which together produces ethnic competition and hinder economic potential.
• Low to moderate GDP growth rate- average 3.8 % from 1982- 2017 ; It has witnessed
negative GDP growth rate during 1980s.
• Large Informal Economy – one-fifth of the GDP, outside Tax Net. Tax revenue is less than
25 % of govt’s revenue, which mainly comes from oil export.
• Top down economic policy making. President initiate economic policies but they are
filtered by ‘Big Men’s’ interests and tussles of individual and ethnic interests.

Conclusion:

Nigeria provides important insights into the political economy of underdevelopment. Rich
endowment of resources is not enough to ensure economic development. In fact, it may
encourage rent-seeking behavior that undermines more productive activities. Nigeria has
been generously gifted by nature. It has got one of the most fertile land in Africa- the Niger
Delta, largest petroleum reserve, ancient civilization, and intelligent people. But lack of
visionary leadership, underdeveloped nation and state, indifferent political culture, and
‘Big Men’ political system have made its economy underdeveloped, unbalanced, and
underperforming.
Another lesson from Nigerian political economy is that Democracy and Development
depend on leadership, political culture, institutional autonomy, and the external economic
climate. Political economy of Nigeria denotes the challenges post-colonial state faces in
nation building and managing its economy and social well-being. Many of Nigeria’s
problems has colonial roots, but self-interestedness and opportunistic behavior of its elites
aggravated those problems during its post-colonial existence.

147
Q.3: Compare and contrast federalism in Nigeria and Brazil.

Introduction:
Both Nigeria and Brazil are important models of federal structure of government in Africa
and Latin America respectively. Both the countries became independent from colonial rule
under which both were unitary state. However, after independence both the countries
adopted federal form of government and federal constitution. However. the bases and
reasons for adopting federalism in both the countries were different. In Nigeria, it was to
accommodate the aspirations of multiple ethnic and linguistic groups whereas in Brazil it
was more like a historical convention by which natural boundaries of the regional states
were accepted. Despite having multiple challenges and transition of regimes both military
and civilian, and multiple constitutional arrangements, both the countries continued to
remain a federation. We can cite several similarities as well as differences in the federal
structure of these two large nations.
In the next section of the answer, I will try to list out some of the similarities as well as the
differences between the federal structure of these two countries.

Similarities of federalism in Nigeria and Brazil:

• In both the countries, regional states were artificially created from a unitary state. Thus,
both are not like coming together federalism of USA or Canada, where previously
autonomous States came together to form Federation. Rather they are ‘Holding Together’
Federalism.
• Both have similar methods of representation of the States in the Federal Legislature.
Members of Lower house of the federal legislature (House of Representatives in Nigeria
and Chamber of Deputies in Brazil) are elected directly by people of the states on the basis
of one person one vote. Thus, representation is proportional to population of the states. But
in Brazil, because of minimum and maximum limits (minimum 8 and maximum 70 ) on
numbers of deputies from the regional states, there is non-proportionality.
• In the upper house of federal legislature (called Senate in both the countries) each regional
state sends 3 senators. Also, in both the countries the federal districts (Abuja, the capital
city of Nigeria and Brasília, the capital city of Brazil) get 3 numbers of senators.

148
 • In both the countries, federalism was adopted since its independence. Also, despite multiple
constitutions and regime shift between military and civilian rulers, federalism was never
altered.
• Both countries have adopted presidential form of federal govt. In both the federation,
federal legislature is bi-cameral whereas states have unicameral legislature.
• In both the countries, populism and political reasons guided creation of more and more
regional states.
• Both the federation faces the challenges of regional disparity in development (in both the
southern regions are better off), fiscal and debt management. Both have trade surpluses but
despite that having huge public debt. Political economy of both the federations has many
things in common.

Differences of federalism in Nigeria and Brazil:

Comparison item Nigeria Brazil

Nature of federalism Highly unitary Less unitary tendencies. States have more
tendencies. autonomy vis-à-vis the Federal Govt
Centralization has been
the hallmark of the
federalism in Nigeria.

Reason for adopting Satisfying the No such compulsions here. Virtually powerless
federalism aspiration of multiple former provinces of the unitary state were
ethnic linguistic group simply converted into a federation by
constitutional design and historical
conventions.

Colonial legacy Even during British Brazil as Portuguese colony was ruled as
colonial rule, Nigeria unitary state. However, adoption of Federalism
was a kind of was a reaction against the empire’s
federation of 3 regions- authoritarianism and heavily centralized rule in
north, south, and west. a country with enormous size and distinct
regions with quite different traditions.

149
Proportionality in the lower house is because of minimum and maximum limits
representation of the represented by the (minimum 8 and maximum 70 deputies from
states in federal regional states in states ) on numbers of deputies from the
legislature proportion to their regional states, there is non-proportionality in
population. representation of states in the chamber of
deputies( lower house of federal legislature).
States with less population are over-
represented.

Relation between Intense rivalry and Not so much of rivalry and confrontation.
the federal and state confrontation between Though challenges of resource sharing, tax
govt the federal and state revenue, and debt management exist.
government over
resource and tax share.

Basis of creation of On the basis of Much more ethnic homogeneity. States are
regional states ethnicity created on the basis of historical and
conventional borders which have developed
and accepted over time.

Conclusion:
From the above it is evident that there are many similarities as well as differences in the
federalism of Nigeria and Brazil. One thing is clear that both are one of the shining
examples of federal structure of government in their respective continents. Despite facing
multiple challenges both the countries have developed a general consensus to continue as
federal states. Because of their large size and regional diversity both countries naturally
required a federal structure of governance.
Design of federal structure seems to be very similar in both the countries. Both have
presidential form of federation. Both have almost similar rules of representation of the
states in the federal legislature. However, origin, basis, features, and experiences of
federalism have been different in both the countries. I have tried to list out some of the
similarities as well as differences in the federalism of both these countries in above
paragraphs.

150
 THEME 9: CHINA- A COMPARATIVE STUDY

8 A : CBCS SYLLABUS
• Constitutional Developments
• Political Economy

8.B : KEY POINTS:

• Official Name: People’s Republic of China (PRC)
• Another China: The Republic of China
• Taiwan: An Island South east of Mainland China is called Republic of China
(RoC)
• In international state system and UN, PRC is recognized as China since 1979,
before that RoC was recognized as China
• Geography/demography:
• Large landmass in eastern Asia, China Sea in South east, share boundary with 14
countries.
• 3 times of size of India in area (3rd largest in world) and largest in population (1400
million) in the world.
• Demography:
• 92% Han Chinese, 8% others
• Religion: 81% Buddhist 12% Christian 2%; Muslim 1-2%; Daoist <1
• Economy:
• GDP (nominal): about 13 trillion USD (India about 2,72 T USD): 2nd largest
in world after USA (20 trillion). In PPP GDP, China is number one in the
world.
• GDP per Capita: about 10000 USD (India: 2000 USD) : 73rd rank.
• Export 2.50 Trillion USD: Import: 2.14 USD (2018); Trade surplus: 360
billion USD.
• Largest export economy in the world and the 2nd largest Imports after USA;
Largest trading nation.

151
• Political System:
• Single Party (Chinese Communist Party- CCP) ruled Communist state; CCP-
vanguard ( leading from the front) party following the principle of democratic
centralism.
• Unitary state having 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, four centrally
administered cities (including the capital, Beijing), and two Special Administrative
Regions- Hong Kong and Macau.
• One country two system (administrative, economic) in Hong Kong and Macau.
• Executives: Premier (head of government) and president (head of state) formally
elected by legislature, but only with approval of CCP.
• The head of the CCP, the general secretary, is in effect the country’s chief
executive, and usually serves concurrently as president and head of central Military
Commission.
• Legislature:
• Unicameral National People’s Congress (NPC); Single party (CPP)
members.
• About 3,000 delegates are elected indirectly from lower-level people’s
congresses for five-year terms.
• Largely a rubber-stamp body for Communist Party policies, although in
recent years has become somewhat more assertive.
• Day to day functions are carried by the standing committee of NPC
• CCP's Politburo and its corresponding Standing Committee wields real
power
• They select the standing committee which is formally, the "party's highest
organ of authority" when the NPC is not in session
• Judiciary:
• A nationwide system of people’s courts, which is constitutionally
independent but, in fact, largely under the control of the CCP.
• A Supreme People’s Court supervises the country’s judicial system and is
formally responsible to the National People’s Congress, which also elects
the court’s president.

152
 • Election system: On the principle of democratic centralism: all adults above 18
years choose People’s Congress members up to the county level. Above the
counties, delegates at each level elect those who will serve at the People’s Congress
of the next higher level.

• Constitutional Development
• Constitutionalism between 1949-54
• The Organic Law consisting of 31 Articles
• Instrument to legalize the system created for carrying out Mao’s Common
Programs.

• Constitution of 1954
• A brief document with only 106 Articles
• Unlike other socialist constitutions, did not give a constitutional recognition
to the status and role of the Communist Party of China.
• Seven fundamental freedoms of the citizens, their social, economic and
political rights, and duties towards the socialism.
• The Constitution of 1975
• only 30 Articles divided into only 4 chapters, it had a very long Preamble.
• Vision of an independent and relatively comprehensive industrial economic
system.
• 4 Modernization: of agriculture, industry, national defense, science and
technology
• Right to freedom of procession and freedom of strike to the people. It
curtailed the list of duties.
• Officially recognized prime role of CCP; The National People’s Congress
(NPC) was described as the highest organ of state power under the
leadership of CCP.
• 1978 Constitution
• The Consolidation of the “socialist economic base” and “development of
the production forces at high speed.”

153
 • The 1982 Constitution: Changing Mao’s (Mao Zedong’s) Legacy?
• Emphasis on decentralization and liberalization of the economy- Embracing
market socialism.
• The separation of the government and the Party.
Political Economy:
• Very divergent economic policies since 1949: Soviet-style planning system in the early
1950s, the radical egalitarianism of the Maoist model, and market-oriented policies
implemented by Deng Xiaoping.
• 1949- 78: State Socialism guided by Maoist (of Mao Zedong) ideology
• Command Economy: state owns or controls most economic resources, and
economic activity is driven by government planning and commands rather than by
market forces.
• First Five-Year Plan of 1953–1957
• Great Leap Forward (1958–1961) and the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) :
Less bureaucratic and more egalitarian developmental model.
• “Agriculture First," 1961–65 : 2nd -light Industry, 3rd -heavy industry
• Four Modernizations of Premier Zhou Enlai : Agriculture, Industry, Défense,
and Science And Technology
• Closed Economy – trade less than 10% of GDP
• By 1977 China was lagging behind Japan, Taiwan, and Hongkong and people faced
insufficient food supplies, rationed clothing, inadequate housing, and inadequate
and inefficient service sector.
• Since 1978: Open door Policy, reform of the economic system and opening to foreign
trade, free market Socialism. A kind of State led and guided Capitalism.
• Implementation of Four Modernizations
• Policy shift: developing the productive forces of Chinese people and economy to
have overwhelming abundance of material wealth.
• More authority to enterprise managers at the expense of party officials, differential
wage System, increased foreign trade, educational research, foreign exchange
program.
• Agriculture: contract responsibility system of production; free farmers' markets in
urban areas; specialized households

154
 • Special Economic Zones (SEZs); promoting Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)
• Private entrepreneurship and free-market activities were legalized.
• Ambitious ten-year plan for the 1976-85: Large construction projects, super high
growth of Agriculture & Industry

• CHINA: THE NEXT SUPERPOWER?

• Fastest growing economy for decades, Largest GDP on PPP (Purchase Power
Parity) basis and 2nd largest GDP on nominal basis. Predicted to overtake the US as
the world’s largest economy within a decade.
• Largest population, 3rd largest area, largest export/Import, Largest cash reserve,
largest oversea investments, largest FDI, 2nd largest GDP, 2nd Largest Military
expenditure, Veto power in UN.
• Unique in being communist politically and capitalist economically.
• BRI (Belt and Road Initiatives)- Building structural power
• Multi-trillion-dollar project to build infrastructure for smooth trade with
China
• Dedicated trade corridors-Road, High speed trains, maritime silk route,
building ports, oil pipelines, optical fibre cables, technology parks, etc.
• 60 countries joined, cheap unconditional loans to authoritarian and non-
democratic countries of Africa & Asia.
• Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank, and Regional Comprehensive Economic
Partnership (RCEP)-50 % world population, 40% GDP.
• In comparison to USA: faces less threat from terrorism, less antagonism with
Muslim world, no trade deficit, and less pluralism but lack the soft and structural
power.
• Challenges: Demographic- aging, gender imbalance, Non-Democratic, Poor HDI ,
Environmental degradation, Regional rivalry- Japan, Russia, India, Less favorite
destination for global talent pool, inequality and corruption, and risks to social
stability.

155
CHINA, IN A NUTSHELL:
• Chinese civilization is more than 4000 years old. It is the land of Confucius and Buddhist
religion. For most of its existence Chinese nation was ruled by dynastic Empire till 1911.
Last 100 years of which was semi colonial- indirect colonial rules by European powers.
• Revolution by Sun Yat Sen’s nationalist party made China a republic, free from colonial
rule, in 1912. After formation of Chinese communist party in 1921, long struggle between
nationalists and communists happened.
• Japan’s attack on China in 1937, nationalist’s defeat and communist’s resistance led to rise
of Communist Party which established Communist China (PRC) in 1949; Nationalists, fled
to Taiwan Island and formed govt in Taiwan (ROC). Till 1979, Taiwan was recognized as
China and was given veto power in UN by the International State System.
• From 1949-76, under supreme leader Mao Zedong, China followed state socialism of
different kind- rural peasant based, cultural revolution, socio-political purification, and
revolutionary zeal.
• But Maoism didn’t bring economic prosperity. By 1977, China was a poor underdeveloped
economy far behind Japan, Taiwan, and Hongkong.
• Under pragmatic leadership of Deng Xiaoping, since 1978 China adopted controlled
capitalism, unleashing productive potential of its huge labour force. Unique combination
of single party communist rule and market economy brought Chinese Miracle.
• Today, China is 2nd largest Economy, largest trading nation, regional superpower and most
credible challenger to USA hegemony. But its lack of soft and structural power may come
in its way of becoming global leader.

156
 9.C: ANSWER TEMPLATES TO PAST YEAR’S AND OTHER
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Q.1: Analyse the major constitutional development in the Chinese political

system.
Similar Questions:
1. Discuss the main features of the Chinese political system.
2. Analyse the major constitutional development in Chinese political system
3. The one-party system has played a vital role in the Chinese polity. Elaborate.
4. Evaluate the role of one-party system in China.

Answer Template:

Introduction:
Constitutional developments in the communist China post 1949 reflect the ideology of two
of its great leaders- Moa Zedong and Deng Xiaoping. The first three constitution in 1949,
1954 and 1975 had the definite imprint of Mao’s ideology of cultural socialism. The
constitution of 1978 was a transitional constitution in which the country decided to adopt
modernization policy, called four modernizations of agriculture, industry, defence, and
Science and Technology. In the latest 1982 constitution, which still serve the nation, there
was a definite shift from the ideology of Mao Zedong under the new leadership of Deng
Xiaoping. The constitution laid the foundation of the state guided capitalism or market
socialism while maintaining the socialist system of polity and governance. It was a
remarkable achievement without any parallel in the constitutional development of any
country in modern times.
In the next part of the answer, I will try to explain in brief the different stages of
constitutional development by enlisting the main features of the constitution of 1954, 1975,
1978 and 1982. However, we must acknowledge that China today represents the only
alternative ideology to the liberal democracy and free market capitalism marshalled by the
western powers led by United State of America. Hence, its constitution should be
understood in that context. China's constitution should not be compared with those of
liberal democracies, which reflect the ideology of liberalism and western culture.

157
 In China, aim of the constitution has not been to limit the state’s power vis-à-vis the
citizens; rather the constitution embodied the vision of an organic society of whose
individual is an integral part. The constitution gave required authority to the state to ensure
happy and fulfilled individual life. Here we can see the reflection of the vision of Plato,
Aristotle, and Hegel about the role and position of state. It is not to say that the communist
state of China is anyway near to platonic state, but only to highlight the difference between
the constitution of a liberal democracy which focuses more on individual rights and
limiting the state’s power and a communist constitution which envision organic society,
and assign the state the role of cultural and moral guardian to its citizen.

Brief outline of the constitutional development of People’s Republic of China (PRC) since its
evolution as a socialist state in 1949:

• Constitutionalism between 1949-54: The constitution of 1949:

• Common Program adopted by “Chinese People's Political Consultative
Conference" (CPPCC) to prepare for the establishment of a "New Democracy"
regime served as its constitution for next 5 years.
• Last time the constitution granted multi-party democracy, guaranteeing protection
of private property, "uniting" the bourgeoisie, and assisting private enterprise.
• Communist party was one among 8 parties included in the first People's
Government, elected in 1949.
• The document served as “Organic Law” consisting of 31 Articles
• Instrument to legalize the system created for carrying out Mao’s Common
Programme.
• Constitution of 1954
• A brief document with only 106 Articles.
• Based on two documents: 1. The Common Program of the Chinese people’s
Political Consultative Conference (CPCPCC) 2. The Organic Law of the Central
People’s Government of the People’s Republic of China.
• This constitution finally made China a socialist nation.
• Unlike other socialist constitutions, did not give a constitutional recognition to the
status and role of the Communist Party of China.

158
 • The constitution gave maximum powers to the President of the People's Republic
of China (PRC) who could convene Supreme National Meetings—emergency
meetings. Such powers were taken away in subsequent constitutions.
• Seven fundamental freedoms of the citizens, their social, economic and political
rights, and duties towards the socialist values.
• The Constitution of 1975
• Only 30 Articles divided into only 4 chapters, it had a very long Preamble.
• Vision of an independent and relatively comprehensive industrial economic system.
• Integrated the Communist Party and the Communist State
• Part integration of the State Constitution and the constitution of Chinese
Communist Party (CCP).
• Army, the PLA (People’s Liberation Army), shall be in the control of CCP.
• Clearly stated that the Chinese Communist Party was the leading force of
the Chinese people. The National People’s Congress (NPC) was described
as the highest organ of state power under the leadership of CCP.
• The posts of President and Vice President were abolished.
• Right to freedom of procession and freedom of strike to the people. It curtailed the
list of duties.
• Remained in effect for about three years, the shortest-lived constitution.
• 1978 Constitution
• Was enacted in the backdrop of cultural revolution (1966-76) of Mao Zedong.
• Restored many provisions of 1954 constitution by reversing provisions of 1978
constitution.
• The Consolidation of the “socialist economic base” and “development of the
production forces at high speed.”
• Officially included the Four Modernizations policy (of agriculture, industry,
national defense, science and technology) with an emphasis on socialist democracy,
scientific and educational development.
• Somewhat restored Citizen rights such as “the right to strike”. However, citizens
were duty bound to support CCP and socialist system.

159
 • The 1982 Constitution: Changing Mao’s Legacy under new leadership of Deng
Xiaoping.
• Lengthy document with 138 articles.
• Large sections were adapted directly from the 1978 constitution, but many of its
changes were derived from the 1954 constitution.
• This constitution attempted to get out of shadow of the Cultural Revolution by Mao
Zedong, many of whose themes were incorporated in the 1978 version.
• De-emphasized class struggle and placed top priority on development and on
incorporating the contributions and interests of non-party groups that can play a
central role in modernization. Thus, it was a move towards pluralism.
• It laid foundation of a new China- state led capitalism with socialist system of polity
and governance.
• Emphasis on decentralization and liberalization of the economy- embracing market
socialism.
• The 1982 Constitution reflects Deng Xiaoping's determination to lay a lasting
institutional foundation for domestic stability and modernization.
• The posts of President and Vice were re-established.
• two-term limit (10 years total) for all political offices.
• The separation of the government and Party was affected.

Discussion and Conclusion:

Constitutional development of China also highlights the prime role of a single party, that
is the Communist Party, in the polity and Governance of the nation. It is interesting to note
that the constitution of 1949 and 1954 did not directly mention the prime role of a single
party in the political system of the nation. However, the constitution of 1975 and 1978
declared formally the supreme role, position, and functions of the communist party, as the
vanguard party to realize the vision of the socialist state. In fact, in the beginning of the
communist state, the 1949 constitution (the common program document) talked of multi-
party governance model. The first people's government elected in 1949 had representation
from 8 parties including the Communist Party.
The 1954 constitution made China a socialist Nation. The subsequent constitutional
development officially declared Communist Party of China (CCP) as the vanguard
(frontline) party which was given the responsibility to realise the vision of the socialist

160
nation. The 1975 constitution finally integrated the communist party and the communist
state. By that constitutional development the constitution of the party and the state became
almost same. The army (People’s Liberation Army) was put in control of the Communist
Party. The 1975 constitution clearly stated that the Communist Party was the leading force
of the Chinese people. The national people's Congress (NPC- legislature) under the CCP
was declared as the highest organ of State Power.
Thus, we can see that through the successive constitutional developments the party and the
state became almost synonymous. The Communist Party was allowed to control all the
organs of the state. The President and Vice President where reporting to the party, the
legislature, that is, the NPC was controlled by the party, and the Judiciary was also in the
overall control of the NPC which was controlled by the Communist Party. Even the army
was put in the control of the Communist Party. In fact, the post of President and Vice
President were abolished in 1975 and 1978 constitution. The head of the Communist Party
was both the head of the state as well as the head of the executive arm of the government.
From this discussion it is evident that the Communist Party was given a very special role
in the communist state of China. In fact, communist states are defined as a single party
(which of course shall be communist party) ruled state. Here again we should note the
difference between liberal democracy which promote multiparty democratic polity and
governance and a socialist or communist state which believe in in single party rule.

161
Q.2: Discuss the political economy of China, highlighting how it has changed in
1980s and with what outcome.
Similar Questions:
1. Evaluate the changing nature of Chinese Economy.
2. Globalization has caused many changes in Chinese Political Economy. Discuss.
Answer Template:
Introduction:
Political economy of China took a U turn in 1980s. The nation started its journey as
independent republic with a typical socialist model of economy wherein Soviet style five-
year plans, state led infrastructure and industrialisation, heavy regulation of private
enterprises, and collective agricultural system, etc. dominated the political economy of
China during 1950s and 1960s. In later years of Mao Zedong’s visionary rule, China
adopted a kind of egalitarian and welfare model of socialist economy. But since 1980s after
arrival of Den Xiaoping as its supreme leader, China’s political economy suddenly changed
its course. From socialist model it became state guided capitalism. Since then the focus has
been on foreign direct investment (FDI), development of Mega Special Economic Zone
(SEZs), liberalisation of industrial and agriculture sectors giving much more freedom to
the farmers and private enterprises to innovate and make profits.
It has not only made a U turn in the economic policy but also made it miraculously
successful. This gives a very unique perspective to the political economy of China. after
its open-door policy since 1980s under Den Xiaoping it has fast risen as the economic
powerhouse of the world. Today China's PPP GDP is largest in the world, its nominal GDP
is also only second to USA, its per capita income is almost five times that of India, which
is remarkable for the country with more than 1400 million population. It is the largest
trading nation, largest exporter, and having maximum cash reserve among any other nation
in the world. China has heavily invested in USA and all parts of the world. Cheap Chinese
products have flooded the consumer market of developing as well as developed World.
Made in China has become ubiquitous lines inscribed on almost all kinds of products the
world over people use today in their day to day life.
Hence, the political economy of China is an interesting and unique study. How a socialist
nation ruled by a single party following extreme conservatism in its Socio-Political
ideology adopted free market capitalism in its own way without changing its political

162
 system is a unique case study in the comparative politics. No Country has been able to
achieve this.
In the next section of the answer, I will try to further list out phases of the political economy of
China and how it took U turn in 1980s under Den Xiaoping to produce the Chinese Miracle. I will
also try to list out some of the important features of the political economy of China.

DIVERGENT PHASES OF POLITICAL ECONOMY OF CHINA:

Very divergent economic policies since 1949: Soviet-style planning system in the early
1950s, the radical egalitarianism of the Maoist model, and market-oriented policies
implemented by Deng Xiaoping.
• 1949- 78: State Socialism guided by Maoist ideology
• Command Economy: state owns or controls most of the economic resources.
Economic activity is driven by government planning and commands rather than by
market forces.
• First Five-Year Plan of 1953–1957 on the Soviet five-year planning model.
• Great Leap Forward (1958–1961) and the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) : Less
bureaucratic and more egalitarian developmental model.
• Agriculture First," 1961–65: 2nd light Industry, 3rd heavy industry
• Four Modernizations of Premier Zhou Enlai: agriculture, industry, defense,
and science and technology
• Closed Economy – trade less than 10% of GDP.
• by 1977 China was lagging behind Japan, Taiwan, and Hongkong and people faced
insufficient food supplies, rationed clothing, inadequate housing, and inadequate
and inefficient service sector. In a nutshell, it was going the same way as other
communist nations such as USSR and Eastern European states.
• Since 1978 : Open door Policy, reform of the economic system and opening to foreign
trade, free market Socialism
• Implementation of Four Modernizations: of agriculture, industry, national
defense, science and technology.
• Policy shift: developing the productive forces of Chinese people and economy to
have overwhelming abundance of material wealth.

163
 • More authority to enterprise managers at the expense of communist party officials,
differential wage system, increased foreign trade, educational research, Foreign
exchange program.
• Agriculture: contract responsibility system of production; Farmers were allowed to
retain profits. free farmers' markets in urban areas; specialized households.
• Special Economic Zones (SEZs) ; promoting Foreign Direct Investment (FDI).
• Private entrepreneurship and free-market activities were legalized.
• Ambitious ten-year plan for the 1976-85 : Large construction projects, super high
growth of Agriculture & Industry.

Features of Chinese Political Economy:

• Rift between China’s authoritarian political system and its increasingly modern and
globalized economy remains deep and ominous.
• Chinese Miracle:
• GDP in 1978- 149 b USD (India 135 b USD), crossed 1 trillion only in 1998,
crossed 13 trillion in 2018. Today in PPP terms, it has the largest GDP. Second
only to USA in nominal GDP.
• Largest trading nation: Cheap Chinese product flooding USA/Europe and all parts
of the world. Largest exporter of the world.
• Largest producer of coal, hydel power, Steel, aluminium, Tin, Gold.
• Largest producer of Rice, Wheat, Tobacco, Tea, Apple, pear, peach, tomato.
• Having largest cash reserve.
• Largest overseas investment. Has a huge investment in US treasury securities.
• Contradiction between central command and guidance and free market economy.
• Income inequality; Regional Disparity; Environmental problems characterise the political
economy of China.
• Cheap low-quality mass industrial product-based export.
• Despite being 2nd largest and fastest growing large economy, low per capita Income; still a
poor Country; lack of socio-political freedom and choice.

164
Conclusion:
The study of political economy of China gives a unique insight of successful adoption of
market capitalism by a socialist political system. It has got no parallel anywhere in world.
After its constitution as a free communist nation, China started as a typical socialist
economy adopting Soviet style planning model, state led enterprises, heavily regulated
private sector, and collective form of agriculture. This was the period of Mao Zedong
whose focus was more on cultural revolution, rural development, agriculture, developing
an organic political community of Chinese people, etc. But China lacked badly in economic
development, industrialisation, and infrastructure. Even its agriculture was not realising the
potential of such a vast fertile land.
But all that changed when in 1978 Den Xiaoping took the reign of Communist Party of
China. He adopted the open-door policy which did miracle for Chinese economy. If today
China is giving a real challenge to USA’s hegemony as world superpower it is because of
sustained double-digit economic growth since 1980s under the new economic policy. Even
during the current pandemic period when the other countries including USA are having
negative GDP growth China has reported about 5% of GDP growth. Many predict that after
the pandemic normalises China may inch closer to USA as the largest economy based on
nominal GDP.
Hence, political economy of China reminds us the important role of politics in economic
development of any country. It also proves that to achieve great economic success liberal
democracy of western style is not the only political model. Any country can achieve
economic success by having its own kind of polity suited to its socio-cultural context.
China's political economy is unique also because today only China has got a model of socio
political and economic policies which is different from the dominant ideology of liberal
democracy and free market capitalism supported by the Western ideology of liberalism.

165
 SECTION 3

SAMPLE
PAPERS

166
 SAMPLE PAPERS
SET 1

Total 8 questions. Attempt any four questions:

Q.1: What do you understand by Comparative Politics? Examine the changing nature and
scope of comparative politics in last few decades.

(Hint: straightforward question; refer to answer at page 11)

Q.2 : How current phase of Globalization is linked to Capitalism? Explain by highlighting

different phases of Capitalism as it evolved into its present globalized form.

(Hint: In essence, globalization and capitalism are two faces of a coin. Globalization is essentially
manifestation of global expansion of neo-liberal capitalism after the end of cold war. Beginning
from explaining the inherently expansionist nature of capitalism, you should highlight the close
linkages of globalization and capitalism. Refer answer at page 59.)

Q.3: What do you understand by Socialism? Critically analyze the rise and fall of socialism
in former Soviet Union and its satellite nations in eastern Europe.

(Hint: refer answer at page 78.)

167
Q4: Explain the meaning, nature, and forms of colonialism. How do you think it is linked to
Imperialism and capitalism? Explain by giving suitable examples.

(Hint: For first part of the question, refer to Key points at page 89 and answer at page 92 ; For
models of colonialism refer also to the pdf notes of Pol Sc Help video on Colonialism. linkage
between colonialism and imperialism is highlighted at page 92-93. Capitalism is also closely
linked to colonialism. Colonizing nations of Western Europe were the capitalist powers which set
up colonies in the third world nations to fulfil the expansionist tendency of the capitalism in their
country. The trading companies were first to colonize the third world regions as market for
European good. They were the face of mercantile capitalism. Later on, industrial revolution
in England and Western Europe led to industrial capitalism and industrial colonialism in which
the colonies became the source of cheap raw materials and markets for factory made cheap
products. Current age of neoliberal capitalism and its worldwide expansion particularly in
developing countries is considered by many as neo imperialism. Globalisation has become a
process of domination of Western capital powers on the poorly developed third world nations.
Thus, we can see that capitalism is closely linked to colonialism and imperialism in many ways.
you should highlight this linkage with many other examples.)

Q5: Give a brief account of the constitutional development in Britain highlighting important
role played by the constitutional monarchy in the political system of Britain.

(Hint: Refer to answers at page 118 and 122)

Q.6: Nigeria represent the challenges post-colonial states face in nation and state building.
Highlight the statement by giving an account of constitutional development in Nigeria since
its independence.

(Hint: Difference between Nation and State Building should be highlighted first. Nation is an
imagined community which think that they share the common historical past, culture, way of life,
worldview and future aspirations. Whereas the state is a political institution of highest order
having a fixed territory, population, Govt/Institutions and recognitions from other state. States are

168
sovereign, that is there is no world government over any state. The relationship between States
are reciprocal and based on mutual understanding.
The colonial nations such as Nigeria faced both the problems of nation building as well as State
Building. The colonies were ruled as one political unit disregarding the ethnic and linguistic
diversity of the region what is now called Nigeria. for example, its northern Hausa–Fulani
community found it very hard to imagine themselves as part of the same community as the south-
eastern Igbo tribes. This was the problem of nation building in Nigeria. European nations were
built on the basis of same language, religion, and living in a territory together for centuries.
Despite this, it has a long history of war and conflict after which the present form of nations in
Europe could develop. Nation building in the post-colonial countries is still work in progress.
Similarly, the State building also has been challenging for the post-colonial states. Here again
the problem was that they tried to build the state on the pattern of Westphalian states of the Western
Europe. The Institutions of the state, that is the legislature, executive, and Judiciary were designed
on the pattern of Western Nation-states. It was a kind of superimposition of Western institutional
design on a traditional and conventional socio-political order which were existing after thousands
of years of native socio-political arrangements. This give many challenges which Fred Riggs has
brought out in his study of postcolonial society which he termed as Prismatic society. Such post-
colonial states suffer from formalization (formal constitutional rules/laws vs conventional norms
of behaviour/practices), overlapping (same structure/institutions doing multiple functions) and
heterogeneity. In this answer you should bring out the challenges of nation and State Building in
Nigeria after its independence and emergence as post-colonial state. Refer to answer at page 143)

Q.7: “China’s political economy represent unique combination of state socialism and market
capitalism” In the light of this statement bring out the evolution and features of the political
economy of China.
(Hint: Refer to answer at page 162)

Q.8: “Understanding by comparison is basic human attribute” In the light of the statement
explain the Comparative methods and Approaches in the study of political science.

(Hint: It is a general question which may be answered in many ways. Essentially you should
highlight how comparison comes naturally to human and is essential method by which human
develop understanding of any natural or social phenomena. Thereafter, explain some of the
methods, for which refer to the introduction videos or its pdf and approaches given in answer at
page 39)

169
 SAMPLE PAPER
SET 2
Total 8 questions. Attempt any four questions:

Q.1 : What do you understand by Eurocentrism? What challenge does it pose to study of
comparative politics? Do you think Comparative Politics, in recent years, has overcome the
challenges of Eurocentrism? Give reasons in support of your answer.

(Hint: refer to answer at page 17. In my view, Comparative Politics has yet to fully overcome the
challenges of Eurocentrism. It still suffers from both Ethnocentrism and Eurocentrism. I have
given many arguments in support of my view. You may take opposite stance and support that by
your own arguments.)

Q.2: “Capitalism is inherently contradictory and unstable system” explain the statement by
highlighting the major challenges of capitalist world order today.

(Hint: Capitalist mode of production create minority but dominant capitalist class and majority
but subordinated labour class. Conflict and tension between these two ‘Have’ and ‘Have Not’
class create instability. Capitalism can only sustain if the goods and services produced by the
capitalist class is purchased by the labour class. But for that to happen the labour class should get
enough wages from the capitalist class. But if wages to the labour class is more, less will be the
profit to the capitalist class. This creates the contradiction in the capitalist system. You should
highlight both the contradiction and instability in capitalist mode of production. refer answer at
page 71)

Q.3: What factors led to decline of socialist ideologies after the end of cold war? Do you think
Socialism can ever challenge the globalized capitalism in near future? Give reasons in
support of your views.

(Hint: Refer to answers at page 78; for second part of the question, you may take either of the
view. But you need to support them with arguments. For example if one take the view that socialism
cannot challenge the globalized capitalism in near future, the possible arguments can be : 1.poor

170
experience of state socialism, 2.totalitarian tendencies of the erstwhile socialist/communist states,
3.socialist Govt lacks resources for huge welfare spending (this is because Tax revenue is less),
4.adoption of market capitalism by China, the biggest socialist state, Russia, and other erstwhile
communist states denote acceptance of failure of socialist economy by the champions of
socialist/communist ideologies. 5.demise of USSR as leader and supporter of socialism, etc.
If one takes the view that yes socialism can challenge the hegemony of globalised capitalism of
today then the possible arguments maybe: 1. the idea of socialism still carry a great force, 2. the
vision of a classless society is still charming, 3. state taking care of general well-being of citizen,
less socio-economic inequality, less social unrest, more social harmony, 4. socialist regime, by
innovative design of socialist production methods such as workers given ownership of public
Enterprises, profit distribution among the workers, differential wage systems, and competition
between private and Public Sector, etc, can match the economic growth as in capitalism. 5.Such
innovative socialist production system may generate enough tax resources for the huge welfare
expenditure 6 massive government expenditure generate further economic growth as per the
Keynesian demand led growth model 7. Thus, the socialist system is egalitarian, more
participative, harmonious, just, and more stable system in comparison to capitalist system which
is inherently inequal, unjust, contradictory and unstable system.

Q.4: What do you understand by Decolonization? How anti-colonial struggles helped nation
and state building in erstwhile colonies. Explain by taking example of any one colonial nation
of Asia or Africa.

(Hint: State building refers to framing of constitution and institution building in the post-colonial
states; refer to answers at page 96 and 103)

Q.5: Conventionalism, Gradualism, and conservatism are the important features of the
British political culture. Explain in the context of constitutional development of Britain
which led to evolution of a very distinct British political system.

(Hint : refer answers at page 118)

171
Q.6: Compare and contrast the constitutional development in Brazil and Nigeria since their
independence. Also highlight the different ways in which federalism manifested in both these
countries.

(Hint: There are many commonalities between the constitutional developments of Nigeria and
Brazil. Both had long period of military rule. Both faced problem in building an effective state on
the pattern of western liberal democratic state. Both the states suffer from patrimonialism,
nepotism, corruption, weak institutional structure etc. In different answers I have traced the
constitutional developments in both the nations; you need to combine them for comparison. Refer
the answers at pages 130,143, 148)

Q.7: “China today is the only country which challenges hegemony of USA with different
political ideology than liberal democracy” In the light of the statement give an account of
constitutional development in China since its emergence as a communist nation.

(Hint: Second part of the question is straightforward. Refer answer at page 157. For first part
highlight the ‘Chinese Miracle’ and how Chine rose as economic powerhouse in last few decades
without changing its political ideology and governance model. Refer answer at Page 162)

Q.8 : Trace the evolution of Comparative Politics, especially after the behavioural revolution
in 1950s. Also highlight the differences between Comparative Govt and Comparative
Politics.
(Hint: refer Pol Sc Help you tube video- Evolution of Comparative Politics-
https://youtu.be/NkIpjrC05F0 to get complete answer to this question. Also refer to answer at page
30)

172
 SAMPLE PAPER
SET 3
Total 8 questions. Attempt any four questions:

Q.1: Explain in brief some of most important approaches to study Comparative Politics.
Bring out differences between ‘traditional’ and ‘modern’ approaches.

(Hint: refer answer at page 39)

Q.2: What do you understand by Capitalism? Examine its salient features in the context of
globalization. Do you agree that Capitalism and Globalization are two faces of a single coin?
Give reasons in support of your view.

(Hint: refer answers at page 59 and also refer to hint of Q2 of sample paper set 1 at page 167.)

Q.3: How Socialism became a popular ideology in Post-World war II period? Explain by
highlighting factors which led to its spectacular rise world over, especially in Eastern Europe.

(Hint: straightforward question; refer to answer at page 84)

Q.4 : Give a brief account of Decolonization process after the end of World war II. What
were the factors which supported sudden Decolonization?

(Hint: straightforward question; refer to answer at page 96)

173
Q.5: “Despite being originator of capitalism, Britain’s political economy has taken a very
different path than neo-liberal capitalism in USA.” explain this statement by giving a brief
account of British Political Economy in the post-World War II period.

(Hint: Britain is the originator of both classical liberalism and capitalism. It was John Locke of
Britain which gave the theory which became the base of classical liberalism and capitalism. USA,
later on, became the champion of both liberal democracy as well as free market capitalism. Britain
took somewhat conservative approach in its political economy. Here the political consensus was
always for interventionist and welfare state. The country never felt comfortable leaving everything
to market forces. Only during a very brief period of Raegan-Thatcher era during the eighties that
both countries treaded almost the same economic path by adopting neoliberal economic model.
Except that period Britain always had more social welfarist model of capitalism.
In the answer you need to highlight this feature of the political economy of Britain. The focus of
the answer should be on explaining the unique features of British political economy which despite
being the originator of capitalism never gave free access to the market in its socio-economic
arrangements. The state never absolved itself from the responsibilities of providing basic needs to
the citizen.
The second part of the question is straight forward. For this, you need to highlight the collectivist
consensus era after the post-World War II in which there was a general political consensus on
interventionist and welfare state. This feature of its political economy remained intact since then,
except the brief period of 1980s-90s. Refer answer at page 113)

Q.6: “Brazil has everything to become a major economic power but is held back by
challenges faced by its political economy”. In the light of this statement give an account of
various phases and features of the political economy of Brazil.

(Hint: refer answer at page 133)

Q.7: What were the factors which led to China adopting capitalism under open door policy
of Deng Xiaoping? What role globalization played in this?

(Hint: First part is straight forward. Refer the answer at page 162. For second part, link
globalization, and its impact on Chinese political economy. China has been the major beneficiary
of globalization. From a closed economy, today it is the largest trading nation. Globalization

174
posed challenges to socialist political economy of China. But by the vision and ingenuity of its
leaders, China converted that challenge into opportunity. It embraced market capitalism, FDI, S
Kavanagh EZs, and export led growth to take advantage of globalized capitalism. China did in its
own way, without any dictates of IMF/world bank, and without changing its political system and
governance model which remained single party ruled communist regime. You need to highlight
such linkages of globalization and U turn in the political economy of China.)

Q.8: How political culture approach help in comparison of political institutions? What are
its limitations?
(Hint: General attitude and orientation of people towards politics and political system may be
called political culture. As per Almond and Verba, pattern of orientations to political objects
(both tangible aspects of the political system- Institutions, political parties and intangible
aspects- authority, legitimacy, conventions, etc) among the members of the nation determine
their political culture. As per Kavanagh, political culture denotes set of values, beliefs, and
attitudes within which a political system operates.
• In this approach, political phenomena are understood by comparing political culture
across space and time. It is obvious from the meanings of political culture stated above
that political institutions, such as representative democracy, parliament, executive,
judiciary, electoral system, political party, etc., reflect and represent the political culture
of a particular political system. Soft political institutions, pattern of political relation and
interaction, also reflect political culture of that nation. For example, ‘Civic culture’
support & represent stable democratic Institutions; Indian political Institutions reflect
political culture evolved during the national independence movement
• Political culture provides the overarching framework within which political institutions
function. For example, formalization of political Institutions in Prismatic society, as
explained by Fred Riggs. Political culture provides stability and legitimacy to political
institutions. For example, difference in political culture of India and Pakistan and resulting
into instability in latter. Political culture provides resources for political organizations and
social mobilizations, both affect political institutions.
• In turn, political institution and their functioning affect political culture. For example,
disillusionment of people from Bureaucracy and Politicians because of imperfect
functioning of Institutions.
• Such close association of political culture and political institutions make political culture
an important approach to compare political institutions of different nations.

175
• Almond and Verba used this approach to compare political institutions among 5 nations-
USA, UK, Germany, Italy, and Mexico. Based on comparison, they defined 3 ideal types of
political culture- Parochial, Subject, and Participative. Suitable combination of subject &
participative political culture, in which aware people have trust in elite leadership to
govern and make policies for good of the nation was called ‘Civic Culture’ by Almond and
Verba.
• Paul DiMaggio and Walter Powell gave the concept of ‘Institutional isomorphism’, which
denotes similarity of political institutions under similar political culture. Fred Riggs’
comparative study of public administration in ‘Prismatic Society’ is another example of
using political culture for comparing political institutions.
• However, there are limitation of using political culture for comparing political institutions.
First & foremost is vagueness of the concept of political culture. Secondly, cultural units
have not clear and distinct border. Many nations may have similar political culture,
whereas within a nation multiple political culture may be identified. Cultural explanations
require supporting social mechanisms (social phenomenon) to have any explanatory value.
Evolution of political institutions in any nation may be guided by external factors (
exogenic), for example in post-colonial states. In those nations political culture may not
reflect their political institutions.)

176
 SECTION 4

ANSWER
WRITING TIPS &
TRICKS

177
 Scoring Answer Writing Tips

How to Write Best Answers in University

Exam?
BA Hons Pol Sc Exam Help

• Yes, one may score better marks by writing strategically. Essay type answers require
different skills than MCQs. Structure (Template), organization, flow, and style matter in
essay types of answers. Here are my Tips:

178
 First Tips : Analyse Past Year’s papers

Select the topics asked

Topic wise analysis of
repeatedly- select
3-4 year’s question
topics to cover at least
papers shall reveal the
70%- 5-6 questions for
question pattern
sure

• This I have done for you. I have analysed past four year’s paper of DU on Indian Political
Thought. Provided standard answer template on all of those questions.

• In fact, the questions cover the entire syllabus. Thus, only by reading the answers in this
guide carefully and repeatedly, yes at least 7-8 times, you will be covering the entire
syllabus.

• When exam is very near, you may leave some of themes/topics by an intelligent guess.

179
 2nd Tips: Make Intelligent Guess !

Yes, by carefully
analysing past papers Do it with
you can guess confidence!
expected questions.

• Yes, you should do it. Examiners set paper by going through past 3-4 year’s paper. They
have to meet 2 conditions, 1st the question should be within the syllabus and 2nd they
should be on similar pattern and difficulty level as asked in earlier years. Hence, the paper
setter normally set questions very similar to one asked earlier. They also alternate the
theme/topic. Thus, if a topic is asked in 2017, they repeat that in 2019, and like that.

• Therefore, you can guess!

180
 3rd Tip: use the question as answer clue!

Answers are
Attentively read Provide standard
expansion of ideas,
question at least 3 Answers to twisted
issues stated in the
times, yes 3 times! questions
questions

• Answers are hidden in the Questions!

• While framing the question, the examiner is thinking about the answer. Hence, by carefully
and on multiple reading you can visualize the answer hidden in the question.

• And, yes, also read the Hindi translation of the question. Sometime, you may not know
exact meaning of the key word in the question. Hindi translation may give the meaning.
Also, many a times, wording of Hindi question disclose more about the hidden answer.
This is due to translation issue. Take advantage of questions in two languages.

181
 4th Tips: cleverly organise your answers

Write 1st answer on your best Choose 2nd best topic as last
prepared topic question

Because examiners pay more

Least prepared topics as 2nd attention to your first
and 3rd answers; Why? question, then the last, and
least to middle answers…yes!

• Yes, examiners actually browse through your answer, they don’t read word by word.

• Also, they assess your standard by your 1st answer. 2nd and 3rd answer may not change
your assessment. They assign you marks in range in accordance with the bracketing they
do in the 1st answer.

• Hence, write your best prepared topic as 1st answer. 2nd best as last, why? Because
examiner try to put some attention while browsing your last answer. Make use of his
attention. He may revise the marks bracket he decided while reading your 1st answer.

182
 5th Tip : Strategic writing?

How many words per

question? No fixed rule- Use standard answer
Normally, 800-1200 words structure (template)
(4-6 pages)

Numbered or bulleted Sprinkle and underline key

points in ‘Body’ phrases

• How many words to write?

• Actually, it shouldn’t matter. But unfortunately, in our country it does matter.
• Average writing speed is 25 words per minute. In a 180 minute (3 hour) exam, one may
write for about 160 minute, leaving 20 minutes for reading paper and organizing thoughts.
Therefore, in 160 minutes, maximum 4000 words can be written. This comes to 1000 words
per question.
• Write in bigger font, maximum 200 words in one page. Use bullets/number and
indenting. Leave good space between paragraph. They consume space.
• Examiners are used to see answers written in a particular template(structure). Follow them.
Carefully observe how I have tried to write in a fixed structure. I have given a standard
structure in next slide.
• Yes, insert standard phrases in your answer, sprinkle (scatter) them across your answer.
Why? Examiners are interested in seeing the key words/phrases in your answer, this help
them quickly browsing your answer. If the found them they assume that rest of your answer
is also okay.
• And finally, repeat key phrases. Yes! You may write the key phrase in Introduction, in
body and in the conclusion. Why? Simple, because examiners are compelled to note the

183
 key phrase/concept in your answer even if he is browsing through the answer. Hence, don’t
hesitate to repeat. It pays.
• Points, bullets or paragraph? No fixed rule! You may choose any one or mix them, even
in same answer. You may also insert tables, and flow chart. These days examiners don’t
mind them.

Answer Template: Example: “Write an essay on

Eurocentrism in Comparative Politics ”
• Introduction- 20 % of the total words in answer
• Introduce the topic , e.g. Eurocentrism, its meaning, how it is liked to ethnocentrism
• Establish the linkages between ethnocentrism and Comparative Politics
• Give a brief about the challenges ethnocentrism has posed to study of Comparative Politics
• Give hint of your view whether in recent years Comparative Politics has overcome the
challenge of eurocentrism or not. Only hint, not full arguments.
• Body: 60-70 % of the total words in answer
• Elaborate on the points made in the introduction.
• Explain in brief the challenges posed by ethnocentrism in study of Comparative Politics- main
part of you answer
• Analysis and Discussion
• Now elaborate your arguments, both for and against, on the statement that in recent years Comparative
Politics has overcome the challenge of eurocentrism.
• Provide your own view – crux of your answer
• Conclusion: 10-20% of the total words in answer
• Summarise key points: Paraphrase introduction
• State your final view and concluding remarks

• Introduction is where you should focus most. Why? Because examiner read first few lines
of Introduction carefully. It is here he is putting you in a bracket or grade for marking.

• Conclusion is basically introduction in other words (paraphrased introduction). Both give

an overview/summary of the theme, explain a bit about the question asked and give very
brief of their final argument. Difference is in wording. Introduction says I will explain or
as explained below, whereas conclusion say, as I have explained above and so on.

• You can break the body of the answer in two parts. One informative and other analytical.
In the latter part you may critically analyze the statement or theme in context of the
question. You may even merge these two parts into one.

184
• You may combine discussion with conclusion. In this case, analysis and discussion follows
conclusion under the heading ‘Discussion & Conclusion’.

185