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Power System Dynamics and Stability

Article in IOSR Journal of Electrical and Electronics Engineering · September 2022

DOI: 10.9790/1676-1602012638

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IOSR Journal of Electrical and Electronics Engineering (IOSR-JEEE)
e-ISSN: 2278-1676, p-ISSN: 2320-3331, Volume 16, Issue 2 Ser. I (Mar. – Apr. 2021), PP 26-38
www.iosrjournals.org

Power System Dynamics and Stability

Kawther Adam Eshag Mhmoud 11*, Ahmed abdalla M. Imam 22, Ahmed
Zakieldeen M. E. Elhassan 32*
1
(Electrical Engineering, Nyala Technical College, Sudan)
2
(College of Engineering, karary University Sudan)

Abstract:
Power System Stability is investigated by simulating a set of critical contingencies to determine whether the
disturbances information to classify system states. Low frequency power oscillations that occur between remote
generating pools or power stations, due to different types and settings of the automatic voltage regulators at
different power stations.
This review paper presented a basic concept of power system stability, classification stability of power system,
dynamic Stability, how to assessment the transient stability by using several methods to achieve dynamic and
transient stability enhancement and modulate the power system.
Key Word: Power System Stability, synchronous machine, Dynamic stability, Low frequency oscillation.
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Date of Submission: 04-03-2021 Date of Acceptance: 17-03-2021
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I. Introduction
Power system stability has been recognized as a vital important issue for a reliable and secure
interconnected power system operation as far back as the 1920s. The importance of stability problem associated
with power system operation arises from increasing power exchange between the constituent parts of a large
interconnected power system. In a free deregulated market, utilities are allowed to participate in the market
without mandatory upper or lower limits. Thus, a number of highly publicized blackouts happened in the early
years. The blackouts illustrate the necessity of assessing the stability of large power systems and maintaining an
adequate level of system security to minimize the risk of major blackouts resulting from cascading outages
emanating from a single disturbance. The main requirement of system stability is to keep the synchronous
operation of power system with adequate capacity and fast reaction to meet the fluctuations in electric demand
and changes in system topology. Successful operation of a power system depends largely on the engineer’s
ability to provide reliable and uninterrupted service to all loads and supply the required amount of loads by the
available facilities .Distance between the current state and a hypothetical state wherein units may lose
synchronization evaluated after each state of estimation and after each new power flow. In the evaluation, the
concern is the behavior of the power system when it is subjected to transient disturbances. If the oscillatory
response of a power system during the transient period following a disturbance is damped within acceptable
time, and the system can settle in a finite time to a new steady state, it is considered stable [1-3]
Stability of power systems is one of the most important aspects in electric system operation. This
arises from the fact that the power system must maintain frequency and voltage levels, under any disturbance,
like a sudden increase in the load, loss of one generator or switching out of a transmission line, during a fault [4].
Since the development of interconnection of large electric power systems, there have been spontaneous system
oscillations at very low frequencies in order of (0.2 - 3.0) Hz. Once started, they would continue for a long
period of time. In some cases, they continue to grow, causing system separation if no adequate damping is
available. Moreover, low-frequency oscillations present limitations on the power-transfer capability. To enhance
system damping, the generators are equipped with PSSs that provide supplementary feedback stabilizing signals
in the excitation systems [5].

II. Material And Methods

2.1 Power system stability
Power system stability is defined as the capability of a system to maintain an operating equilibrium point
after being subjected to a disturbance for given initial operating conditions.
From this general definition, two categories of stability are derived: small-signal and transient stability.
Small signal stability is the ability of the system to return to a normal operating state following a small
disturbance. Investigation involving this stability concept usually involves the analysis of the linearized state
space equations that define the power system dynamics. Transient stability is the ability of the system to return

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 Power System Dynamics and Stability

to a normal operating state following a severe disturbance, such as a single or multi-phase short circuit or a
generator loss. Under these conditions, the linearized power system model dose not usually applies and the
nonlinear equations must be used directly for the analysis. A third term, dynamic stability, has been used to
describe a separate class of stability. However , this term has represent different concepts for different authors,
for these reason several international engineering organizations have recommended that this term not be
considered when discussing the stability problem. [6-8].

2.1.1 Power system stability is categorized based on the following considerations:

 The nature of the resulting instability mode indicated by the observed instability on certain system
variables.
 The size of the disturbance which consequently influences the tool used to assess the system stability.
 The time margin needed to assess system stability [9, 10].

2.1.2 Classifications of power system stability:

Stability phenomenon is a single problem associated with various forms of instabilities affected on
power system due to the high dimensionality and complexity of power system constructions and behaviors. For
properly understood of stability, the classification is essential for significant power system stability analysis.
Stability classified based on the nature of resulting system instability (voltage, frequency and rotor angle
instability), the size of the disturbance (small disturbance, large disturbance) and timeframe of stability (short
term, changes long term). In the other hand, stability broadly classified as steady state stability and dynamic
stability. Steady state stability is the ability of the system to transit from one operating point to another under the
condition of small load. Fig. 1. shows the classification of power system stability in IEEE/CIGRE joint task
force on stability terms and definitions [1, 11].

power system
stability

roter angle stability frequency stability voltage stability

small disturbance transient stability short term long term large disturbance small disturbance-

short term

large disturbance
Short term

Fig. 1. Classification of stability based on IEEE/CIGRE joint task force on Stability.

2.2 Rotor Angle Stability:

Rotor angle stability is the ability of Synchronous machines to remain in synchronism under normal
operating conditions and after being subjected to a disturbance. According to the type of incident, the rotor angle
stability can be further classified into small signal (for small disturbance) and transient stability (for large
disturbance) [1, 11] , [2, 10, 12]. The stability of synchronous machines depends on the ability of restoring the
equilibrium between their electromagnetic outputs torques and the mechanical input torques and keeping at
synchronize with other machines following a major disturbance such as short circuit. Under steady state
conditions, there is equilibrium between the input mechanical torque and the output electromagnetic torque of
each generator, and the speed remains constant. When the system is perturbed, this equilibrium is upset and
instability may occur increasing or decreasing angular swings of some generators leading to their loss of
synchronism with other generators. The change in electrical torque ΔTe of a synchronous machine following a
perturbation can be resolved into two components as follows [10]:
……………………………………………..( 1 )
Where is the component of torque change in phase with the rotor Angle perturbation referred to
synchronizing torque component. is the synchronizing torque coefficient. TD Δω is the component of torque
change in phase with the speed deviation Δω and it is referred to damping torque component. TD is the damping
torque coefficient. Stability of each machine in the system depends on the existence of both components. Lack

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 Power System Dynamics and Stability

of sufficient synchronizing torque produces instability through aperiodic or non-oscillatory drift in the rotor
angle, whereas lack of damping torque results in oscillatory instability causes rotor oscillating with increasing
amplitude. Rotor angle stability depends on the initial operating state and the severity of the disturbance on
synchronous machines. Commonly, rotor angle stability classified into small disturbance-rotor angle stability
and large disturbance-rotor angle stability.

2.2.1 Small Disturbance Rotor Angle Stability

Small-disturbance rotor angle stability (oscillatory stability) is concerned with the ability of the power
system to maintain a steady state operating point when subjected to small disturbances Oscillations have been
recognized as a consequence of parallel operation of alternative current generators which are connected to
provide more power capacity and more reliability. Thus electromechanical oscillations are understandable
because of the change in kinetic energy of rotating parts (rotor) in electrical machines due to their moment of
inertia and the synchronizing torque, which acts to keep the generators in synchronism during disturbances.
Oscillations can also arise in the power system due to any sudden change in a power system such as high power
flows over weak tie lines, which can become heavily loaded if many generators oscillate towards another group
at the same time. Fast and powerful voltage regulators or other types of controls may produce oscillations in the
network. If the disturbance is small, the synchronizing torque keeps the generators in synchronism with
generators relative angles oscillation. These oscillations should decay for small signal stable system operation
otherwise; the system is a small signal unstable. Critical oscillatory modes can be triggered by a small
disturbance because of the weak[13-15].
Oscillatory stability problems are usually due to insufficient damping for power system oscillations. The
system mode parameters can be investigated using two basic approaches; namely modal analysis of complete
state spaces or time response analysis of collected synchronized measurements. Rotor angle instability can be
oscillatory or non-oscillatory due to the lack of damping or synchronizing torques, The oscillatory instability
can be one of the following modes [1, 11], [10]:
 Local mode or intra-area mode.
 Inter-area mode.
 Control mode.
 Torsional mode.

Local modes are associated with the swinging of units at generating station with respect to the rest of
power system at 1.0 to 2.0 Hz. Local modes affected by the strength of the transmission system at the plant,
generation level and excitation control system. The oscillation may be removed with a single or dual input
power system stabilizer that provides modulation of the voltage reference of the automatic voltage regulator and
compensation circuit. Inter-area modes are associated with the swinging of many machines in one area of an
interconnected power system against machines in other areas and have major impact on the global stability of
the complete power system. It involves two coherent groups of generators swinging against each other at (0.05-
1.0) Hz. Poorly damped inter-area oscillation affecting every part of interconnected power system and
coordinated analysis are required to check the small signal stability of the whole power system. Inter-area modes
depend on various reasons such as weak ties between interconnected areas, voltage levels, and the nature of the
load. Additionally, other types of oscillations have been recorded such as interplant modes, torsional modes and
control modes. Interplant modes is associated with machines on the same power generation site oscillate and
depending on the unit ratings and the reactance connecting them. Usually the rest of the system is unaffected
because the oscillations manifest themselves within the generation plant. Torsional modes associated with the
turbine, generator shaft and the Components of system. Due to the interaction between generator exciter control
and prime mover control, usually these modes are excited when a multi-stage turbine generator connected to the
grid through a series compensated line. A mechanical torsional mode of the shaft system interacts with the series
capacitor at the natural frequency of the electrical network. The shaft resonance appears when network natural
frequency equals synchronous frequency minus torsional frequency [16].
Control modes are associated with generating units and other equipment control such as poorly tuned
controls of excitation systems, speed governors, Flexible Alternative Current Transmission Systems (FACTs)
devices controls, High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) converters. Loads and excitation system can interact
through control modes. Transformer tap-changing controls can also interact in a complex manner with nonlinear
loads giving rise to voltage oscillations. [17, 18]. The minimum damping ratio of oscillation, which is associated
with the local and inter-area oscillations, is considered as an indicator for oscillatory stability in this paper. The
disturbances should be considered sufficiently small where the linearization of the system equations is
permissible for the purpose of modal analysis. In case of inaccurate linearization process, an identification
technique is required to identify the system modes based on the time response of electrical signals.

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 Power System Dynamics and Stability

2.2.2 Large Disturbance of Rotor Angle Stability:

Large-disturbance rotor angle stability (transient stability) is the ability of power system to maintain
synchronization among synchronous machines when subjected to a server transient disturbance (three-phase
short circuit)[19]. Transient stability depends on the current operating conditions of the system and the severity
of the contingency on connected generators. The angles between each pair of generator rotor angles will change
continuously by small amounts as power distribution change. Transient instability phenomenon is usually in the
form of uncontrollable significant increase and separation of the relative angles between two or more rotors due
to insufficient synchronizing torque[20]. The resulting system response involves large excursions of generator
rotor angles and influences by the nonlinear power angle relationship. Small-disturbance rotor angle stability as
well as transient stability is categorized as short-term phenomena.

2.2.3 Voltage Stability:

Voltage stability refers to the ability of a power system to maintain steady voltages at all buses in the
system after being subjected to a disturbance from a given initial operating condition [1, 11], [19]. The voltage
deviations need to maintain within predetermined ranges. A voltage stability problem occurs in heavily stressed
systems, which associated with long transmission lines. Voltage stability plays a major role in power system
security depends on the active and reactive power balance between load and generation in the entire power
system and the ability to maintain/restore this balance during normal and abnormal operation. The main
contributor in voltage instability is the increase of reactive power requirements beyond the sustainable capacity
of the available reactive power resources when some of the generators hit their field or armature current time-
overload capability limits. The other contributor is the extreme voltage drop that occurs when active and
reactive power flow through inductive reactance of the transmission network for power transfer and voltage
support [1, 10, 12]. A typical scenario of voltage instability is unbalance reactive power in the system resulting in
extended reactive power transmission over long distances. As long as the load increases, the power transmitted
to supply load also increases while bus voltages on transmission line will drop in inductive network. Close to the
maximum transmission capability, a small increase of the load implies a great decrease in the voltage level of
the network that may lead to cascaded outages (under-voltages protective devices) while instability occurs in the
form of a progressive fall of some bus voltages (voltages collapse). Generally, the voltage collapse mainly
affected by the large distances between generation and load, under load tap changing transformers performance
during low voltage conditions, unfavorable load characteristics, and poor coordination between various control
and protective systems. In addition, the system may experience uncontrolled over-voltage instability problem at
some buses due to the capacitive behavior of the network and under excitation limiters that preventing
generators and synchronous compensators from absorbing excess reactive power. This can arise if the capacitive
load of a synchronous machine is too large. Examples of excessive capacitive loads that can initiate self-
excitation are open-ended high voltage lines, shunt capacitors, and filter banks from HVDC stations.
The phenomena of voltage stability can be classified into small disturbance and large disturbance
voltage stability. Small-disturbance voltage stability refers to the system’s ability to maintain steady voltages
when subjected to small perturbations such as incremental changes in system load. A criterion for small
disturbance voltage stability in that, at a given operating condition for every bus at the system, the bus voltage
magnitude increases as the reactive power injection at the same bus increased. A system is voltage-unstable if,
for at least one bus in the system, the bus voltage magnitude decreases as the reactive power injection at the
same bus increased [20]. Large-disturbance voltage stability refers to the power system ability to maintain steady
voltages following large system disturbance such as loss of generation, loss of critical lines, system faults, or
protection system failures.
The voltage stability can be classified into short-term stability and long-term voltage stability. Short-
term voltage stability involves the dynamics of fast acting load component such as induction motors and
electronically connected devices with study period of interest in the order of several seconds. Long-term voltage
stability involves the slower acting equipment such as tap-changing transformers and generator current limiters
with study period extend several minutes. There are many methods can be used to mitigate voltage instability
problem including operation of uneconomic generators to change power flows or provide voltage support during
emergencies, using reactive power control and compensation devices, under voltage load shedding to avoid
voltage collapse or control of network voltage and generator reactive output.

2.2.4 Frequency Stability

Frequency stability refers to the ability of a power system to maintain steady frequency following a
severe system upset resulting in a significant imbalance between generation and load. A typical cause for
frequency instability is the loss of generation, which results in sudden unbalance between the generation and
load. The control schemes of frequency deviation used to recover the system frequency without the need for
customer load shedding by instantaneously activating the spinning reserve of the remaining units to supply the

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 Power System Dynamics and Stability

load demand in order to raise the frequency. In case of an incident with a large frequency deviation, the primary
control (in the first 30 minutes) is activated where the partly loaded or carry spinning reserve units selected to
initiate an automatic rapid increase of their outputs within a few seconds. The controllers of all activated
generators alter the power delivered by the generators until a balance between power output and consumption is
re-established. Spinning reserve to be utilized by the primary control should be uniformly distributed around the
system. Then the reserve will come from a variety of locations and the risk of overloading some transmission
corridors will be minimized. The frequency stabilization obtained and maintained at steady state value, but
differs from the frequency set point. The Secondary control, in the portion of the system contains power
unbalance, will take over the remaining frequency and power deviation after 15 to 30 seconds to return to the
initial frequency and restore the power balance in each control area [1] [2, 21]. Tertiary control is additional to, and
slower than, primary and secondary frequency control. Automatic load shedding initiated using under-frequency
relays expected to be able to shed the required amount of load during low frequency events. These relays detect
the onset of decay in the system frequency and shed appropriate amount of system load until the generations and
loads are in balance [21].
Generally, the lack of frequency instability is associated with several problems, such as poor
coordination of operation control, protection devices, weakness of equipment response and deficiency in
generation reverse [22] [23]. Many countries experienced major frequency disturbances under different
circumstances in the past. From 1970s to 2000s, many main systems had experienced serious system frequency
disturbances (e.g. islanding grids situation and blackouts) which led to examining the reasons of the system
frequency instability problems .[24].

2.3 Factors Affected on Power System Stability

Stability of a nonlinear system depends on the (type, magnitude) of inputs and the initial state of the system.
Power system stability is affected by many factors including the (behavior , characteristics) of system,
equipment and protection schemes. The most important factors can be summarized by:
 Pre-and-post-disturbance system state such as the generators loading before the fault and the generator
outputs during the fault. The higher the loading before the fault is the more likely to be less stable during
faults. The duration, location and type of the fault determine the amount of kinetic energy will be gained.
Longer fault duration allows generator rotors to gain more kinetic energy during the fault. At certain limit,
the gained energy may not be dissipated after the fault clearance. This gained energy may lead to instability.
 Synchronous machine parameters such as the inertia constant H (stored kinetic energy at rated speed per
rated power), and the generator terminal voltage. The increase of generators inertia constant tends to reduce
the swings of rotor angle and hence improve system stability. The generator bus voltages specify the profile
of the power angle curve and hence effects on the delivered power into the entire system.
 Excitation system and governor characteristics of synchronous machines have important role in damping of
power oscillations. The automatic voltage regulator (AVR) senses the terminal voltage and helps to control
it by acting within the excitation system. Fast valuing for rapidly opening and closing steam valves of the
turbine used to control the generators accelerating power during faults. Transmission reliability margin
greatly effect on stability where a transmission outage may take place due to overloading during system
abnormal conditions, which may lead to uncontrolled loss of a sequence of additional network elements.
 System relaying and protection have a great importance in system stability. The power system has a finite
capacity to absorb such energy and as majority of fault are transient in nature, rapid switching and isolation
of unhealthy lines followed by rapid reclosing improves the stability margins. Special protection schemes
can be used to split the grid at predetermined points in the network to quickly avoid cascading actions.

2.4 Power System Security Analysis:

Power system security describes the ability of a power system to withstand and survive plausible
contingencies without interruption of the customers. Security requires detection of dangerous operating
conditions and contingencies as well as the associated actions to steer the system away from any such situations.
Security analysis can be divided into static and dynamic security. Static security analysis is the ability of the
system to supply load without violating operating conditions and load curtailment, which mainly includes the
pre- and post-contingency states.[25] Pre-contingency states determine the available transfer capability of
transmission links and identify network congestion. Post-contingency states verify the bus voltages and limits of
lines power flow. Dynamic security analysis measures the ability of power system to withstand a defined set of
contingencies and survive by the transition to an acceptable steady state condition, which includes methods to
evaluate stability and quality of the transition from the pre- to post-contingency state. Dynamic security analysis
should be constantly in operation to detect when the security level falls below an adequate safety level to make
proper preventive measures for a secure operation. Dynamic stability assessment deals with the analysis of the
system in the transition from the initial to the final operation condition following a disturbance or a changing

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 Power System Dynamics and Stability

power demand. A power system is dynamically stable for a particular steady state operating condition and for a
particular disturbance if, following that disturbance; it reaches an acceptable steady state operating conditions.
An important requirement was the ability to determine the risk of blackout, which can be computed by
quantifying the distance between the current state and the steady-state stability limit rather than just
characterizing it as stable or unstable. This required a fast and accurate online security assessment tools and
special actions to prevent system instability, which commonly defined as remedial actions. The remedial actions
include curative and preventive actions that should be prepared in the operational planning stage. Urative
remedial actions should be prepared in advance and immediately activated after any credible contingency or
abnormal conditions to relieve system constraints. Preventive remedial actions should be designed in advance at
steady state to anticipate the events and restore the security level in case curative remedial actions which are not
sufficient to face the expected contingencies. Dynamic stability studies contain a wider range of phenomena by
different authors; dynamic stability concerns the system stability during small disturbance (oscillatory stability)
and large disturbance (transient stability). The dynamic stability studies consist of considering the fluctuations in
load and generation, the network reactions following critical disturbances and recommending operating
measures to avoid undesirable operating modes

2.5 Preventive Measures to Avoid System Instability

In design and preparation stage of power system wide number of disturbances be assessed by system
operators. If the system is to be unstable (or marginally stable) following contingency, variety of actions can be
taken to improve the system stability. These preventive actions can be classified mainly into Offline and online
preventive actions. Offline preventive measures: Improvement of system stability can be achieved by many
actions including:
 Organizing the system configuration and maintenances in such that being suitable for the particular
operating conditions without overloading during abnormal conditions.
 Reduction of transmission system which can be achieved by adding additional parallel transmission circuits,
providing series compensation by using transformers with lower leakage reactance.
 Activating new generation facilities for reactive power support and voltage control service such as power
system stabilizers, FACTs, rapid thermal units with fast valuing capability and fast acting automatic

order to break the acceleration of the rotor of generators during faults. Shunt resistors can be switched in to
create an artificial load following a fault, in order to improve the damping of accelerated generators.
 Installing efficient protective devices and coordinating between the interconnected system operators for
faster fault clearing and initiating proper corrective actions during abnormal conditions.
 Online remedial and preventive measures: The operation of interconnected power system is economically
oriented based competitive manner in the most cases. This complicates the ability of Offline preventive
measures to keep the power system away from the stability limits. This produces the importance of system
operators to use online dynamic stability assessment (DSA) and operating the power system within these
limits. There are many online preventive measures can be used to safeguard and enhance system stability
such as:
 Changing the system topology such as tripping of critical generator to ensure that the other generators
maintain in synchronism. In addition, generation rescheduling/re-dispatching can be used to reallocate
power generation in order to avoid system overloads and relieve constraints.
 Using of high-speed protective schemes such as transmission line protection with single-pole tripping and
adaptive reclosing capabilities to minimizes system disturbance. High-speed automatic reclosing system is
effective methodology to restore power continuity.
 Effectively use of online transformer tap-changers and phase shifting transformers to control the power
flow across transmission system by continuous control of voltage regulator set points and changing the
phase using taps.
 Automatic load shedding of interruptible consumers is an effective corrective counter-measure to maintain
the frequency at nominal value during abnormal conditions. In the simple implementation, under frequency
relays installed at fixed points and with fixed settings can be made adaptive by adjusting the location and
level of shedding in accordance with power flow and voltage conditions on the transmission network [26]
 Assuring reactive-power generation or absorption control and using special control of HVDC links to
control the DC power and maintain generation/load balance in AC networks during disturbances.
 Implementation of high-speed excitation systems to rapidly boosts field voltage in response to disturbances.
Increasing of the internal voltage of a generator has the effect of proving transient stability.

In real time application, the system configuration and power distribution are possibly not fully similar
to the planned situation studied. Therefore, abnormal operating conditions may require immediate actions for

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 Power System Dynamics and Stability

control the generation/consumption facilities to restore the standard security level. In deregulated electricity
market, makes a change in scheduled generation, as a recommended action in response to an abnormal
condition, may make a request to the independent system operator / transient stability assessment (ISO/TSO)
for compensation.

2.6 Dynamic Stability

Dynamic phenomena in power systems are usually classified as:
a. Electro-magnetic transients (100 Hz – M Hz).
b. Electro-mechanical swings (rotor swings in synchronous machines) (0.2 – 0.3 Hz).
c. Non-electric dynamics, e.g. mechanical phenomena and thermodynamics (up to tens of Hz).
A system is said to be dynamically stable if the oscillations do not acquire more than certain amplitude
and die out quickly. Dynamic stability is a concept used in the study of transient conditions in power systems.
Any electrical disturbances in a power system will cause electromechanically transient processes. Besides the
electrical transient phenomena produced, the power balance of the generating units is always disturbed, and
thereby mechanical oscillations of machine rotors follow the disturbance [17].

2.6.1 Dynamic Stability Assessment:

Transient stability is the capability of a power system to maintain
synchronization when subjected to large disturbances . [1] Sudden changes or disturbances in power
systems are associated with a number of phenomena with different timeframe involved. In general, the power
system stability can be assessed for the most severe fault possible such as three phase faults. Faults at critical
locations may cause circuit tripping due to overloading or loss of synchronism of some generating units.
Therefore, DSA is important issue in the modern interconnected power system where the disturbances produce
power swings and rotor oscillations. During network disturbances, the power generators have to provide
immediate support by changing the currently generated power supplied to the grid. The immediate change is
restricted by the power system inertia during the initial few hundred milliseconds. Most turbines are unable to
yield the fast torque response required to act in such small level in transient stability. Thus dynamic behavior
investment and preparing the proper actions that improve system response during contingencies are important
aspects during power system operation and control. The ISO coordinates the available control actions to
enhance the system behavior during abnormal conditions.
The operation of a power system requires the fulfillment of all forms of security constraints under
different operating conditions. This implies the assessment of limits associated with static constraints as well as
dynamic constraints such as rotor angle stability, voltage stability, and frequency stability. Violation of these
limits may result in system failures and severe consequences including system blackouts . [27, 28]
Voltage and frequency stability have been the main dynamic constraints to consider for system security
assessment.[29] Nevertheless, with the growth of interconnected power systems, the increase in long-distance
power flows, and the deregulation of the power sector in many countries across the world, modern power grids
are operated near security limits and problems related to small disturbance rotor angle stability (small signal
stability) have been reported. The small signal stability (SSS) problem of a power system is usually due to
insufficient damping for power system oscillations. [30-32].

2.6.2. Transient Stability Assessment:

Transient stability analysis concerns with the system’s ability to reach an acceptable steady state
operating conditions following a large disturbance. Transient stability associated with a large disturbance such
as loss of generators, sudden change in loads, network significant changes or three phase short circuit faults. A
large disturbance is a disturbance for which the equations describing the system dynamics cannot be linearized
for the purpose of analysis. This disturbance causes as imbalance between the mechanical input power to each
generator and its electrical output power.
TSA can be represented in a mathematical form by a set of high-dimensional differential algebraic
equations which are called time domain simulations (TDS). The accuracy of TDS can be improved with an
increase in model complexity, but the computing time also rises. The transient energy function (TEF) [25] [33] is a
model-based method that assesses the stability by analyzing the increased energy in the power
system after clearing a fault, and the assessment result is conservative with TSA for the implication of
the model.[34] Due to these properties, TDS and TEF cannot simultaneously meet the need of accuracy and speed
for on-line TSA.
Then, the generator rotors start to swing with respected to each other. There are three approaches for transient
stability assessment [10, 19, 35, 36]

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 Power System Dynamics and Stability

2.6.3 Direct / Lyapunov Methods

Such as transient energy function that is based on Lyapunov theory to compute the critical kinetic energy. The
system considered in a stable state if the kinetic energy cumulated at the instant of fault clearance and absorbed
by the electrical components of the system.

Time-domain (simulation techniques)

 It can be used to investigate the dynamic stability for the selected set of contingencies and to convert
the resulting behavior into index for transient stability assessment. TDS can deal with a very detailed
model of the power system, which improves the accuracy of TSA.

Automatic learning techniques

 It used to assess transient stability in the real time applications in order to reduce the computation
time. The well-known families of these approaches include decision tree, and ANN [20]. Good adequate
database is certainly the crucial point for automatic learning methods. The main advantage of these
methods is they are computationally fast.

2.7 Transient Stability Assessment by Direct Method:

he direct methods determine the stability without explicit solving the system differential equations using
transient energy for assessment of transient stability [20]. Transient energy function (TEF) methods are
formulated based on Lyapunov theorems for establishing asymptotic stability and regions of attraction for
equilibrium[37] .TEF describes the total system transient energy that is gained by the system during the fault-on
period, which describes the system state during post-disturbance operation. When the gained kinetic energy is
converted into potential energy, the system may be considered in transiently stable state. The transient energy
function V, which describes the total system transient energy for the post-disturbances is defined as[38]

j…………………………..…………………..(2)
Where and pmi are the per unit moment of inertia and the mechanical input power of generator i
respectively. wi and are the angular velocity of generator i and the angle of bus voltage at post-disturbance.
Cij and Dij are depending on the real and imaginary components of the admittance matrix and the generator
voltages. In equation1, the first term is called the kinetic energy, which is a function of generator speeds. The
sum of terms 2, 3, and 4 is called the potential energy, which is a function of generator angles. The quantity V
measures the amount of transient energy which is injected into the system by the fault. The critical energy Vcr
measures the energy-absorbing capability of the post-fault of the system, the system is stable if V is less than
Vcr [20]. The transient energy margin is defined as (Vcr - V) and is used as a measure of system relative stability.
The availability of a qualitative measure of the degree of stability or instability in terms of the energy margin
makes the direct methods an attractive tool for a wide range of problems [35]. There are some difficulties
associated with the application of TEF in recent power system. These difficulties include the impossibility of an
efficient TEF for detailed multi-machine system and the uncertainty of determination the correct energy margin
to classify system to be sufficiently stable. There are several works for modifying the TEF to improve these
limitations such as Pseudo-Lyapunov approaches, which combine TDS and TEF for online transient stability
assessment. These approaches take advantage of the superior ability of TDS in detailed system modeling and the
qualitative measure provided by TEF to derive preventive and corrective control actions [20].
The main disadvantage is the proper energy margin suggestion for stable system operation. TDS runs up to the
instant of fault clearing to obtain the angles and speeds of all generators, which are used to calculate the total
system energy at the fault clearing time. By comparing the calculated value with the critical system energy, the
system state of stability can be determined [38]
The transient stability assessment procedure simply involves the following steps:
a. Calculation of the critical energy Vcr.
b. Calculation of the total system energy at the instant of fault clearing V.
c. Calculation of stability index (Vcr - V), the system is stable if the stability is positive.
The calculation of the boundary of the region of stability for a large power system is the most difficult step in
applying TEF method. If the boundary can be determined, TEF gives a margin of stability rather than just the
stable/unstable result.

2.8 Time Domain Simulation (TDS):

It is deals simultaneously with the system differential equations and algebraic equations to simulate the
dynamic behavior of the power system under fault. These equations describe the performance of system
equipment and the associated control systems. The simulation period split into pre-fault, during fault and post-
DOI: 10.9790/1676-1602012638 www.iosrjournals.org 33 | Page
 Power System Dynamics and Stability

fault with different network configuration to investigate the ability of the system to withstand the disturbance
under consideration. TDS starts with solving the load flow problem to initialize the pre-disturbance state. The
solved load flow gives the data corresponding to the pre-disturbance state.
The post-disturbance dynamic behavior of electrical signals is determined by systematic numerical
integration of differential equations, which are modeled the power system. At each time step of simulation, the
time derivative of each state variable is calculated. From the present state variables and their corresponding rates
of changes, the state variables at the next time step can be calculated by using the integration techniques [20].
Consequently, the algebraic variables are updated by using the algebraic equations. At the instant of
disturbance, the appropriate data must be modified. Then, the process repeated until the time of interest reached.
The swing curves represent the evolution of rotor angle of each machine known at the end of each time step.
These curves further compared with each other in order to determine whether the rotor angular
difference of any two machines exceeds the predefined accepted limit. The iterative process will stop if the
system is unstable based on a specified limit otherwise the calculations are pursued for the maximum simulation
time.
The stable cases are much more time consuming than the unstable ones.
The angular difference rather than absolute angles is often a better choice to distinguish between stable
and unstable system state since it is easily to observe the relative motion of rotor between the machines [20]. If
any angular difference becomes larger than a predefined limit, the system is considered under transient
instability encountering. The corresponding synchronous generator may loss synchronizing with other machines
in the system and may be isolated by the protection system. The critical fault clearing time is considered as
CCT, which associated with the contingency. The isolation of faulted element is accomplished by protective rely
to activate circuit breaker interruption.
The CCT depends on the system configuration and the loading level at the instant of fault occurrence.
The most accurate way to assess the transient stability power system is the systematic TDS. TDS is used to
accommodate for the complexity of system modeling and stability conditions by observing its electromechanical
angular and voltage swings during the simulation time. To reach this aim, Power System Dynamic (PSD)
simulation software based upon TDS method is presented and applied at all system operating points during
contingencies in order to calculate the CCT in this dissertation [20, 39].

2.9 Critical Fault Clearing Time (CCT):

The critical fault clearing time is defined as the longest duration of a fault that does not lead any
generator loss the synchronism in the system able. During large disturbances such as a three-phase short circuit,
the protection system senses the presence of fault and the corresponding relays initiate the tripping of the nearest
circuit breakers to isolate the fault. The time duration from the instant the disturbance occurs until the circuit
breakers isolate the fault is termed by FCT. Therefore, any generator shall have a CCT higher than FCT of the
protection devices installed in the transmission system to avoid a loss of the connected generators. The loss of
the connected generators may induce unacceptable consequences for the whole system following contingencies.
The total fault clearing time consists of the combination of operating time of the main protection system;
signaling time, rely time and breaker interrupting time. Normally, the three phase short circuit faults close to the
generator transformer terminals is the worst fault position. Therefore, the corresponding CCT has been used as
index to monitor the power system transient stability level during faults in many literatures. As the value of CCT
increases, the system has an increased opportunity to isolate and clear the disturbance using the protective relays
and circuit breakers.
Thus if the CCT value is less than the operating time of the circuit breaker for the corresponding
electric component experiencing the fault, then the system is not considered transiently stable. The accepted
limit of CCT is different from system to other but the common value is around 150 milliseconds, The CCT is
much more beneficial than the power limits which can be investigated using TEF. TSA using CCT is
characterized by the ability to screen and rank a set of contingencies to select the most sever ones beside
specifying stability scenarios as stable or unstable state.

2.10Power system modeling:

The power system comprises a large number of electrical components. The modern systems have
become more complex as they are enhanced with new devices such as FACTs and Distributed Generation
technologies.
The analysis of power system dynamics have been characterized by complex dynamic behavior due to
the modeling complexity and interactions/interrelations among individual components as well as the
computational structure for describing modern power systems. Modeling of power system dynamics have been
associated with describing each individual component by algebraic and/or differential set of equations.
Combining the individual dynamic models together with the associated algebraic constraints and power flow

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 Power System Dynamics and Stability

equations leads to the dynamic model of the whole power system. A nonlinear dynamic system with its control
can be described by equation (3) and equation (4 ), which should be solved simultaneously in order to
investigate the dynamic behavior following a disturbance. [12, 20, 40]
………………………………………………….....……………..……….( 3 )

……………………………………………………………..…………….. ( 4 )

Where, x is the state vector with n state variables. The state vector represents the dynamic states of
generators, loads and other system controllers. u is the vector of inputs to the system set which includes the
automatic voltage regulator set point and uncontrollable input parameters such as generator power levels
variations, and load active and reactive power levels, y is the vector of outputs such as pharos angle and
magnitude of bus voltages and bus generated reactive power, f is the vector of nonlinear functions defining state
variables in terms of state and input variables, g is the vector of nonlinear functions relating state and input
variables to output variables such as power flow equations and system constraints.
Each synchronous generator is represented by three mathematical equations: two electromechanical,
and one electromagnetic. A mathematical model of each generator may be written as follows [41, 42]

( – – D)………………………………………………………………..(5)

( ,………………………………………………...………………………(6)

……………………...………………………….(7 )

The electric output power is given by the following equation:

+ ) ………….…. (8)
Where: ω is the mechanical angular speed, M is the inertia constant, and T m, Te and D are the mechanical,
electrical, and damping torques, respectively. Symbol δ defines the power angle, and ω b is the base angular
speed. is the voltage behind the transient quadrature axis. is the field winding open circuit time
constant (sec). EFD defines the excitation internal voltage of the machine, while x d and x are the synchronous
and transient direct-axis reactance’s, respectively, of the synchronous machine. Vt is the terminal voltage of the
machine. The dot denotes the first time derivative of this variable.

2.11Synchronous Machines
The synchronous machine fundamentally consists of two elements, namely the armature or stator and the rotor.
Much like the dc generator, the operation of the synchronous machine is based on Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction and can operate as both motor and generator.
The theory of synchronous machines is primarily based on the relative motion of the two cylindrical parts and
the distribution of the flux in the air-gap of the machine. These parts are linked in a magnetic circuit, which is
set up by currents in conductors near the surfaces of the elements.
The phenomenon of stability of synchronous machine operation has received a great deal of attention in the past
and will receive increasing attention in the future. As economies in system design are achieved with larger unit
sizes and higher per unit reactance generating and transmission equipment designs, more emphasis and reliance
is being placed on controls to provide the required compensating effects with which to offset the reductions in
stability margins inherent from these trends
in equipment design [43]. Concurrent with these trends are improvements in calculating
methods and computing capability which permit predicting complex dynamic effects [44, 45] providing the means
for designing control equipment with the proper characteristics.

2.11.1 Stator (Armature)

In power station generators the armature is contained on the stationary member or the stator. The stator
is made up of the iron core and the armature windings. The iron core carries the magnetic flux and is laminated
to reduce eddy currents and hysteresis losses. On large machines the armature windings are usually copper bars
(solid or hollow to allow for cooling) that are placed on the inner periphery of the stator core as illustrated in
Fig. 2. below.

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 Power System Dynamics and Stability
q Axis’
Axis of phase b
Field winding

c’ b’

S N
Armature Winding d Axis’
Rotor

b
Air gap c ɵ

a’ stator

Axis of phase a

Axis of phase c

Fig. 2 Placement of stator phase coils with axes at 1200 displacement within the stator periphery of two-pole
synchronous machine [46].

2.11.2 Rotor magnetic circuit

In order to generate an electric current at synchronous frequency, the stator requires a synchronously
moving magnetic field. The dc current carrying rotor provides this magnetic field and is driven at synchronous
speed by the turbine. There are two types of rotors used, namely a round rotor and a salient pole rotor, shown
schematically in Fig 3. The round rotor is found in high-speed applications such as gas and steam turbines. This
rotor is characterized by its axially long shaft with diameters not normally exceeding 1.2 m. The rotor is
typically made of forged steel with slots cut into the length of the metal. Copper bars or strips are usually
contained in the slots along the periphery length of the rotor forming the windings of the rotor. The salient pole
rotor has a shorter axial length with a much larger diameter than the round rotor. This rotor is used in lower
speed applications such as hydroelectric generating stations. Salient pole rotors have projected pole faces with
concentrated windings around the pole face. The rotor winding carries a de current provided by an exciter. The
rotor also contains damper bars, which reduce eddy currents during dynamic conditions of operation. The next
section develops the theory to mathematically model the physical interaction between the armature and rotor of
the synchronous .[47, 48]
Field winding

S S

Field flux
(a) round rotor (b) salient pole
Fig. 3. Field windings and magnetic field paths shown within the (a) round rotor and (b) the salient pole rotor.

Fig. 4 shows the idealized machine with the three-phase windings replaced by windings (dq) on the
direct (d) and quadrature (q) axes. The fictitious dq windings carry the currents id and iq which are located on
the dq axes and have the same number of turns each as a phase winding that would set up the same magneto-
motive force (MMF) wave as the actual currents ia, ib, ic. Since three windings are replaced by two axis
windings, the base value of current in the dq axis windings is changed to one and a half times the base value of
current in the abc phase windings.

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 Power System Dynamics and Stability

q axis

µq
q
iq

µkq
kq

ikq

f kd d d axis

if ikd id
ω
µ
µf kd
µd

Fig. 4. Two-axis representation of a synchronous machine with one damper winding on each axis.

III. Conclusions
The small perturbation stability characteristics of a single machine supplying an infinite bus through
external impedance have been explored by means of frequency response analyses giving insights into effects of
machine and system parameters, voltage regulator gain, and stabilizing functions derived from speed and
working through the voltage reference of the voltage regulator. The assessment of transient stability requires
examining the behavior of a critical group of machines in the post-disturbance period. This is in contrast to the
prevailing practice, in the past two decades, of assessing transient stability via a system-wide energy function. In
this paper, a review on concepts of power system Stability has been presented. The paper covered the main
types of stability assessment and learned it by dateless. A simple and effective for improve the steady-state
stability increase system damping oscillations of power system and improve power system dynamic stability
extended power transfer limits of system and maintained the reliable operation of the grid.

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Kawther Adam Eshag Mhmoud, et. al. “Power System Dynamics and Stability.” IOSR Journal of
Electrical and Electronics Engineering (IOSR-JEEE), 16(2), (2021): pp. 26-38.

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