MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

OPTION: AUTOMOBILE TECHNOLOGY

COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

Year 1

Academic year 2023-2024

TRAINER’S NAME: Eng.Niyitanga Irénée

September 2023

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Table of Contents
CHAP 0: General Objectives of the Module .................................................................................................. 3
CHAP 1: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS. ................................................................ 4
1.1 Useful definitions. ............................................................................................................................... 4
1.2 TYPES OF THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS .............................................................................................. 6
1.3 Thermodynamic Properties/Coordinates ........................................................................................... 7
1.4 Thermodynamic Processes and Cycles. .............................................................................................. 7
1.5 PHASE, HOMOGENEOUS AND HETEROGENEOUS SYSTEMS. ............................................................ 10
1.6 THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM ..................................................................................................... 10
1.7 State of a System .............................................................................................................................. 12
1.8 Extensive and Intensive Properties ................................................................................................... 13
1.9 Specific value and Molar value ......................................................................................................... 13
1.10. MACROSCOPIC AND MICROSCOPIC POINTS OF VIEW ................................................................... 13
CHAPTER 2: WORK AND HEAT TRANSFER................................................................................................... 15
2.1 WORK ................................................................................................................................................ 15
2.2 HEAT AND HEAT TRANSFER .............................................................................................................. 20
CHAP III: FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS. ............................................................................................. 29
3.1 INTERNAL ENERGY ............................................................................................................................ 29
3.2 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY ............................................................................................... 29
3.3 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS ................................................................................................... 29
3.4 APPLICATION OF FIRST LAW TO A PROCESS ..................................................................................... 31
3.5 ENERGY—A PROPERTY OF SYSTEM................................................................................................... 31
3.6 PERPETUAL MOTION MACHINE OF THE FIRST KIND—PMM 1 ......................................................... 32
3.7 Ideal gas and Specific heat capacities ............................................................................................... 33
3.8 Relation between two specific heats. ............................................................................................... 35
3.9 Joule’s law of internal energy. .......................................................................................................... 35
3.10. APPLICATION OF FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS TO NON-FLOW OR ..................................... 36
CLOSED SYSTEM ...................................................................................................................................... 36
CHAPTER IV: SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS ................................................................................... 63
4.1Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 63

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4.2 STATEMENT OF THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS............................................................. 64
4.3 QUALITATIVE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HEAT AND WORK ................................................................ 66
4.4 ENERGY RESERVOIRS......................................................................................................................... 67
4.5 CYCLIC HEAT ENGINE ........................................................................................................................ 67
4.6 THERMAL EFFICIENCY OF A HEAT ENGINE. ....................................................................................... 70
4.7 REFRIGERATORS ................................................................................................................................ 70
4.8 HEAT PUMP ....................................................................................................................................... 74
4.9 GAS POWER ENGINE CYCLES............................................................................................................. 75
4.9.1 CARNOT ENGINE CYCLE.............................................................................................................. 75
4.9.2. CONSTANT VOLUME OR OTTO ENGINE CYCLE ......................................................................... 80
4.93. CONSTANT PRESSURE OR DIESEL ENGINE CYCLE....................................................................... 88
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................ 94

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CHAP 0: General Objectives of the Module
Knowledge and Understanding

Having successfully completed the module, students should be able to:

- Interprete the propulsion chain

- Classify the different types of thermodynamic systems
- Compare the macroscopic and microscopic approaches
- Explain the condition required in which a system is in Thermodynamic equilibrium
- Explain the working Principle of Cyclic Heat Engine performed a closed system
undergoing four successive energy interactions with the surrounding and Heat Engine
Cycle performed by a stead flow system interacting with the surrounding.
- Exemplify open system and closed system

Cognitive/Intellectual skills/application of knowledge

Having successfully completed the module, students should be able to:

- Use zeroth, first, second,and third laws of thermodynamics in solving Thermodynamic

problems
- Execute a refrigeration cycle and Domestic refrigerator

Communication/ICT/Numeracy/Analytic Techniques/ Practical skills

Having successfully complete the module students should be able to:

- Distinguish Heat Pump and Refrigerator

- Find the solution of problems on Thermodynamic Processes.
- Differentiating reversible and irreversible processes

General Transferable Skills

Having successfully completed the module, students should be able to:

- Design a steam power plant and explain its working principle for those who want to
impliment it.To explan to the out siders the application of thermodynamics systems in
different mechanical devices.

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CHAP 1: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS.

1.1 Useful definitions.

Thermodynamics: is a science of the relationship between heat, work, temperature, and energy.
In broad terms, thermodynamics deals with the transfer of energy from one place to another and
from one form to another.

System: A system is a finite quantity of matter or a prescribed region of space.

Thermodynamic system: It is a finite quantity of matter or a prescribed region of space

undergoing a thermodynamic study. When working with devices such as engines it is often useful
to define the system to be an identifiable volume with flow in and out. This is termed a control
volume.

Control volume: Control volume is defined as a volume which encloses the matter and the device
inside a control surface. Everything external to the control volume is the surroundings with the
separation given by the control surface. The surface may be open or closed to mass flows and it
may have flows from energy in terms of heat transfer and work across it.

The boundaries may be moveable or stationary. In the case of a control surface that is closed to
the mass flow, so that no mass can enter or escape the control volume, it is called a control mass
containing same amount of matter at all times.

Boundary: The actual or hypothetical envelope enclosing the system is the boundary of the
system. The boundary may be fixed or it may move, as and when a system containing a gas is
compressed or expanded. The boundary may be real or imaginary. It is not difficult to envisage a
real boundary but an example of imaginary boundary would be one drawn around a system
consisting of the fresh mixture about to enter the cylinder of an I.C. engine together with the
remanants of the last cylinder charge after the exhaust process (Refer to the figure below).

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Fig 1: System Fig 2: Real and imaginary boundary

State: It is the condition of the system at an instant of time as described or measured by its
properties. Or each unique condition of a system is called a state. Some of the variables that
determine the state of a thermodynamic system are pressure, volume, temperature and amount of
substance or number of mole of a substance. These variables are called state variables from the
fact that they characterize the state of a thermodynamic system.

Process: A process occurs when the system undergoes a change in a state or an energy transfer at
a steady state. A process may be non-flow in which a fixed mass within the defined boundary is
undergoing a change of state. Example: A substance which is being heated in a closed cylinder
undergoes a non-flow process. Closed systems undergo non-flow processes. A process may be a
flow process in which mass is entering and leaving through the boundary of an open system. In a
steady flow process mass is crossing the boundary from surroundings at entry, and an equal mass
is crossing the boundary at the exit so that the total mass of the system remains constant. In an
open system it is necessary to take account of the work delivered from the surroundings to the
system at entry to cause the mass to enter, and also of the work delivered from the system at
surroundings to cause the mass to leave, as well as any heat or work crossing the boundary of the
system.
Quasi-static process: Quasi means ‘almost’. A quasi-static process is also called a reversible
process. This process is a succession of equilibrium states and infinite slowness is its characteristic
feature.

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1.2 TYPES OF THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS
 Closed System: If the boundary of the system is impervious to the flow of matter, it is
called a closed system. An example of this system is mass of gas or vapor contained in an
engine cylinder, the boundary of which is drawn by the cylinder walls, the cylinder head
and piston crown. Here the boundary is continuous and no matter may enter or leave. The
exchange of energy in form of heat is only allowed and its boundary is called diathermal
boundary.
 Open System: This is a system whose boundary allows transfer of mass and energy into
or out of the system. In other words, the boundary allows exchange of mass and energy
between the system and the surrounding.

Fig: Closed system Fig: Open system

 Isolated System: This is a system that its boundary allows neither mass nor energy
between it and the surrounding. In other words, the boundary does not allow exchange of
mass nor energy.

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1.3 Thermodynamic Properties/Coordinates

These are macroscopic coordinates or properties used to describe or characterize a system. Because
they are macroscopic properties or coordinates, they can be observed and measured. Some
examples are Temperature (T), Pressure (P), Volume (V), density (𝝆 ), mass (m), specific heat
capacity at constant volume (Cv ), specific heat capacity at constant pressure (Cp), thermal
conductivity ( k ), thermal diffusivity (𝜶 ), and chemical potential (𝝁).

1.4 Thermodynamic Processes and Cycles.

A system undergoes a thermodynamic process when there is some sort of energetic change within
the system, generally associated with changes in pressure, volume, internal energy, temperature,
or any sort of heat transfer.
There are several specific types of thermodynamic processes that happen frequently enough (and
in practical situations) that they are commonly treated in the study of thermodynamics. Each has
a unique trait that identifies it, and which is useful in analyzing the energy and work change related
to the process.
Adiabatic process: This is a thermodynamic process in which there is no heat transfer into or out
of the system. For this process, change in quantity of heat is zero (i.e. ∆Q = 0 during this process)
Isochoric process: This is a thermodynamic process that occurs at constant volume (i.e. ∆V = 0
during this process). This implies that during this process no work is done on or by the system.
Isobaric process: This is a thermodynamic process that occurs at constant pressure (i.e. ∆p=0
during this process).
Isothermal process: This is a thermodynamic process that takes place at constant temperature (i.e.
∆T = 0 during this process). It is possible to have multiple processes within a single process. A
good example would be a case where volume and pressure change during a process, resulting in
no change in temperature and no heat transfer. This kind of a process would be both adiabatic and
isothermal.
Cyclic Processes: These are series of processes in which after certain interchanges of heat and
work, the system is restored to its initial state. For a cyclic process ∆U =0

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Reversible Process: A reversible process can be defined as one which direction can be reversed
by an infinitesimal change in some properties of the system.

Fig: Reversible process.

This process has the following characteristics:

1. It must pass through the same states on the reversed path as were initially visited on the forward
path.
2. This process when undone will leave no history of events in the surroundings.
3. It must pass through a continuous series of equilibrium states.
No real process is truly reversible but some processes may approach reversibility, to close
approximation.
Examples. Some examples of nearly reversible processes are:
(i) Frictionless relative motion.
(ii) Expansion and compression of spring.
(iii) Frictionless adiabatic expansion or compression of fluid.
(iv) Polytropic expansion or compression of fluid.
(v) Isothermal expansion or compression.
(vi) Electrolysis.

Irreversible Process: An irreversible process can be defined as one which direction cannot be
reversed by an infinitesimal change in some properties of the system.

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An irreversible process is usually represented by a dotted (or discontinuous) line joining the end
states to indicate that the intermediate states are indeterminate. (Refer to the figure below.)

Fig: Irreversible process.

Examples.
(i) Relative motion with friction (ii) Combustion
(iii) Diffusion (iv) Free expansion
(v) Throttling (vi) Electricity flow through a resistance
(vii) Heat transfer (viii) Plastic deformation.
(viii) Decay of organic compound. (ix) Rusting of iron

Irreversibilities are of two types :

1. External irreversibilities: These are associated with dissipating effects outside the working
fluid.
Example: Mechanical friction occurring during a process due to some external source.
2. Internal irreversibilities. These are associated with dissipating effects within the working fluid.
Example. Unrestricted expansion of gas, viscosity and inertia of the gas.

Quasi-static Process: This is a process that is carried out in such a way that at every instant, the
system departs only infinitesimal from an equilibrium state (i.e. almost static). Thus a quasi-static
process closely approximates a succession of equilibrium states.
Non-quasi-static Process: This is a process that is carried out in such a way that at every instant,
there is finite departure of the system from an equilibrium state.

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CYCLE: Any process or series of processes whose end state is identical to initial state is termed
a cycle.

Fig: A cyclic process.

1.5 PHASE, HOMOGENEOUS AND HETEROGENEOUS SYSTEMS.

 Phase: A phase is a quantity of matter which is homogeneous throughout in chemical
composition and physical structure.
 Homogeneous System: A system which consists of a single phase is termed as
homogeneous system. Examples: Mixture of air and water vapor, water plus nitric acid and
octane plus heptane.
 Heterogeneous System: A system which consists of two or more phases is called a
heterogeneous system. Examples: Water plus steam, ice plus water and water plus oil.

1.6 THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM

Generally, a system is said to be in equilibrium when its properties do not change appreciably with
time over the interval of interest (i.e. observation time).
A system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium with its surrounding or with another system
if and only if the system is in thermal equilibrium, in chemical equilibrium and in mechanical
equilibrium with the surrounding or with another system. If any one of the above conditions is not
fulfilled, the system is not in thermodynamic equilibrium.

1.6.1 Mechanical Equilibrium

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A system attains mechanical equilibrium with its surrounding or with another system when there
is no unbalance or net force in the interior of the system and also none between the system and its
surroundings or another system.
Suppose two systems are separated by a movable boundary that does not allow exchange of mass
or heat as shown in figure below. If pressure P1 is greater than pressure P2 , the partition will
continue to move toward system 2 until P1 is equal to P2 . When this occurs, the two systems are
said to be in mechanical equilibrium.

Fig: Two systems separated by a movable partition

1.6.2 Chemical Equilibrium

A system attains chemical equilibrium when there are no chemical reactions going on within the
system or there is no transfer of matter from one part of the system to other due to diffusion. Two
systems are said to be in chemical equilibrium with each other when their chemical potentials are
same.
1.6.3 Thermal Equilibrium
This occurs when two systems in thermal contact or a system that is in thermal contact with the
surrounding attains the same temperature. For example if system 1 with temperature T1 and system
2 with temperature T2 are in thermal contact, there will be exchange of heat between the
two systems if there is a temperature gradient (i.e. when T1 ≠ T2 ). This process of heat exchange
will continue until thermal equilibrium is attained (i.e. T1 = T2 ).

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1.7 State of a System

This is a specific situation in which macroscopic properties (thermodynamic properties) of a

system have certain values (e.g. P = 10Pa, V = 100 cm3, and T = 300 K would be a state of a gas).
It is important to note that the state of a pure substance or a system can be defined or
specified by any two of its properties.

Change of state occurs when there is change in one, two or all the properties of the system. Using
figure above ( for a mechanical equilibrium) as example, suppose P1 is greater than P2 the
partition will continue to move towards system 2 until P1 is equal to P2 . When this happens, the
system 1 and 2 have a new set of coordinates in which Temperature remain constant for the
two systems but pressure and volume changed. Then we say that the state of system 1 and system
2 has changed.

1.7.1 Equation of State

This is the known relationship between the thermodynamic variables or properties. It is an equation
which provides a mathematical relationship between two or more state functions associated with
matter such as its temperature, pressure, volume, or internal energy.
Some examples of equation of state are:
Boyle’s law, Charles’ law, Dalton’s law of partial pressures.

1.7.2 The Ideal Gas

The equation of state for ideal gas is:
PV = nRT ,

where P is the pressure, V is the volume, R is the molar gas constant (R=8.314 JK-1mol-1), T is
temperature in Kelvin, and n is the number of mole of gas.

1.7.3 Van der Waals Equation of State

The equation of state for real gas also known as Van der Waals Equation is:

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 𝑎
(𝑃 + 𝑉 ) (𝑉𝑚 − 𝑏) = 𝑅𝑇 ,
𝑚

where quantities a and b are constants for a particular gas but differ for different gases. There are
many more equations of state besides these two given above.

1.8 Extensive and Intensive Properties

Thermodynamic properties of a system can be categorized into two namely:

Extensive properties: These are properties of system that depend on the mass of the system (e.g.
n, V and total energy U).
Intensive properties: These are properties of system that are independent of the mass of the
system (e.g. T, P and ρ).

1.9 Specific value and Molar value

Specific Value of an extensive property (for example Volume, V) is defined as the ratio of the
volume of the property to the mass of the system, or as volume per unit mass.
𝑉
Specific volume Vs is 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑚

Note that the specific volume is evidently the reciprocal of the density ρ, defined as the mass per
𝑚 1
unit volume: 𝜌= =𝑉
𝑉 𝑠

Molar Value of an extensive property (for example Volume, V) is defined as the ratio of the volume
of the property to the number of moles of the system, or as volume per unit mole.
𝑉
Molar volume 𝑉𝑚 = 𝑛

1.10. MACROSCOPIC AND MICROSCOPIC POINTS OF VIEW

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Thermodynamic studies are undertaken by the following two different approaches.
 Macroscopic approach—(Macro mean big or total)
 Microscopic approach—(Micro means small)

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CHAPTER 2: WORK AND HEAT TRANSFER

2.1 WORK

Whenever a system interacts with its surroundings, it can exchange energy in two ways- work and
heat. In mechanics, work is defined as the product of the force and the displacement in the direction
of the force.

Work done when a volume is increased or decreased or displacement work.

Consider a gas in a container with a movable piston on top. If the gas expands, the piston moves
out and work is done by the system on the surroundings. However, if the gas inside contracts, the
piston moves in and work is done by the surroundings on the system. Why would the gas inside
contract or expand?

It would if the external pressure, Pex, and the internal pressure, Pin, were different. To calculate
the work done in moving the piston, we know that the force = pressure times area and then work
equals pressure times area times distance or work equals pressure times the change in volume. So,
W = the integral of (Pex) dV.
The differential work done (dW) associated with a differential displacement (ds) is given by:
dW = F ds
For a piston cylinder assembly, dW = F ds = PA (ds) = P dV
If the gas is allowed to expand reversibly from the initial pressure P to final pressure P, then the
work done is given by W = ∫ p dV.

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 Fig: Displacement work.
The integral represents the area under the curve on a pressure versus volume diagram. Therefore
the work depends on the path followed and work is a path function and hence not a property of the
system. The above expression does not represent work in the case of an irreversible process.
The thermodynamic definition of work is “ Work is said to be done by a system on the surrounding
if the sole effect external to the system could be reduced to the raising of a mass through a
distance”.
Difference between Point function and Path function
When two properties locate a point on the graph (co-ordinate axes) then those properties are called
point function.
Examples: Pressure, temperature, volume etc.
𝑉2
∫𝑉1 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 (𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙)

However, there are certain quantities which cannot be located on a graph by a point but are given
by the area, on that graph. In that case, the area on the graph, pertaining to the particular process,
is a function of the path of the process. Such quantities are called path functions.
Examples: Heat, work etc.
Heat and work are inexact differentials. Their change cannot be written as difference between

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their initial and final states.
𝑄2
∫𝑄1 𝛿𝑄 ≠ 𝑄2 − 𝑄1 (Inexact differential)
𝑊2
Similarly, ∫𝑊1 𝛿𝑊 ≠ 𝑊2 − 𝑊1 (Inexact differential)

Note: The operator δ is used to denote inexact differentials and operator d is used to denote exact
differentials.

WORK DONE IN VARIOUS QUASI-STATIC PROCESSES.

During a free expansion, there is no work done because no force opposes the expansion.
i.e work W = 0 during free expansion.

a) Work done during an isobaric process (𝒅𝑷 = 𝟎)

If the pressure remains constant while the volume changes, the the work is 𝑊 = 𝑃(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )

Example 1:

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Solution:

Example 2:

Solution:

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b) Work done during isothermal process (𝒅𝑻 = 𝟎)

Let us consider an ideal gas kept at constant temperature T and undergoing an isothermal
expansion in which its volume changes from V1 to V2 . How much work is done?

𝑉2
From the formula of work 𝑊 = ∫𝑉1 𝑃𝑑𝑉 (*)

𝑛𝑅𝑇
For an ideal gas 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 and 𝑃 = (**)
𝑉

𝑉2 𝑑𝑉
Replacing equation (**) into equation (*), we get 𝑊 = ∫𝑉1 𝑛𝑅𝑇 .
𝑉

Integrating this equation gives the work which is equal to:

𝒗𝟐
𝑾 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻𝒍𝒏( )
𝒗𝟏

𝑉2 𝑃
For an isothermal process of an ideal gas 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 and = 𝑃1 . Now it means that the work
𝑉1 2

𝑷𝟏
can also be expressed as 𝑾 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻𝒍𝒏(𝑷𝟐)

In an expansion this work is positive since 𝑉2 > 𝑉1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃1 > 𝑃2 .

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Example

Solution:

c) Work done during an isochoric process (𝒅𝑽 = 𝟎)

When the system undergoes an isochoric process, there is a zero work done because there is no
chance in volume i.e 𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑉 = 0

d) Work done during an adiabatic process (𝒅𝑸 = 𝟎)

𝟏
The work done during an idiabatic process is given by 𝑾 = (𝟏−𝜸) [𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 ]

Where
𝛾 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, 𝑃1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉1 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦.

𝑃2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉2 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦

Note: The details of this formula will be discussed in chapter 5 of this module.

2.2 HEAT AND HEAT TRANSFER

Definition: Heat (Q) is a form of energy that is transferred from one part of a system to another or
to another system by virtue of a difference in temperature. Temperature gradient determines the
direction of heat flow.

The heat exchange takes place either between bodies or between parts of the same body heated at
different temperatures ( i.e. if there is a temperature gradient between these parts).

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 Heat exchange can be done by conduction, convection or radiation. Convection is the process
in which heat is carried from one place to another by the bulk movement of a fluid. When part of
a fluid is warmed, the volume of the fluid expands, and the density decreases. The cooler and
denser surrounding fluid exerts a buoyant force on the warmer fluid, and pushes it upward. The
fluid flow carries heat along and is called a convection current.

Conduction is the process whereby heat is transferred directly trough a material, any bulk motion
of the material playing no role in the transfer.

Radiation is the process in which energy is transferred by means of electromagnetic waves. By

radiation, the earth receives a large amount of energy from the sun.

In radiation, there is no direct contact between bodies exchanging energy


Unlike internal energy which is a function of state, the concepts of heat and work have a meaning
only in a process whereby the state of system changes. Heat and work are energetic characteristics
of a process.

As we will see later, to transfer a system from one state to another state (from state 1 to state 2) we
can use different paths.

Heat and work are functions of process, whereas internal energy is a function of state i.e. it depends
only on initial and final states but does not depend on the path followed from the initial state to the
final one. We say that, in a given state, a system possesses an internal energy but we cannot say
that it has a work or a heat amount.

2.2.1 Heat transfer mechanisms

a) Conduction
This is the process of heat transfer whereby heat energy is transferred directly through a material
without any bulk movement of the material.

 Conductors and Insulators

Materials can be divided into two groups based on their ability to conduct thermal energy namely;
thermal conductor and thermal insulator.

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i) Conductors: Materials that conduct heat well are called thermal conductors. Examples of
thermal conductors are metals (most metals are conductors) like aluminum, copper, silver, and
gold.
Why do conductors conduct? The behavior of conductors in terms of thermal conductivity can
be explained with two mechanisms namely; collision mechanism and free electrons in metals.

Molecular collision: Atoms and molecules in a hot part of the material vibrate or move with
greater velocity (i.e. higher kinetic energy) than those at the colder part. By means of collisions,
the more energetic molecules pass on a portion of their energy to their less energetic neighbors.
As the more energetic molecules collide with their less energetic neighbors they transfer some of
their energy to the neighbors. The collision mechanism does not depend on bulk movement of the
material.

Free electrons in metals: Good conductors of thermal energy, like metals, have pool of electrons
that are more or less free to wander through the volume of the metal. These free electrons are
capable of transporting energy round the whole volume of conductors. Free
electrons are also responsible for the excellent electrical conductivity in metals.

ii) Insulators
Materials that conduct heat poorly are called thermal insulators. Examples of thermal insulators
are wood, glass, and most plastics. These materials poorly conduct heat energy because the two
above discussed mechanisms for conduction are not possible with these materials (i.e. the
molecules of these materials are not free to move and or the material don’t contain free electrons).

 Conduction of Heat through a Material

Consider a bar of material of area A and thickness L, heat Q transfer through the material by
(𝑻𝟏 −𝑻𝟐 )
conduction is: 𝑸 = 𝑲𝑨 𝒕
𝑳

Where A is the cross sectional area of the object, L is the distance between the two ends which are
at the temperature 𝑻𝟏 and 𝑻𝟐 or is the thickness, K is the proportionality constant called the
thermal conductivity which is a characteristic of a material and t is the time of contact.

22
Fig: Heat conduction between areas at temperatures 𝑇1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑇2 . If 𝑇1 > 𝑇2 , the heat
flows to the right and it will flows to the left in the contrary case.
𝑸 (𝑻𝟏 −𝑻𝟐 )
From the equation we see that the rate of heat flow= = 𝑲𝑨
𝒕 𝑳
∆𝑇 𝑇1 −𝑇2
Where the quantity = 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡. Therefore, the rate of heat flow is
𝐿 𝐿

directly proportional to the temperature gradient. Its unit is J/s or Watt (W).

Example: A major source of heat loss from a house is through the windows. Calculate the rate of
heat flow through a glass window 2𝑚 × 1.5𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3.2𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘, if the temperature at the
inner and outer surfaces is 150C and 140C, respectively. K =0.84J/s m 0C
Solution: Here 𝐴 = 2 × 1.5 = 3𝑚2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿 = 3.2 × 10−3 𝑚; 𝑇1 = 150C and 𝑇2 = 140C.
𝑄 (𝑇1 −𝑇2 ) (15−14) 𝑱
Rate of heat flow = 𝐾𝐴 = 0.84 × 3 3.2×10−3 = 𝟕𝟗𝟎 𝒔
𝑡 𝐿

 Thermal Resistance to Conduction (R-Value)

There is a term similar to the electrical resistance R used for thermal resistance to conduction
called R-value. To differentiate this from R that we are familiar with, Rt is used here for thermal
resistance to conduction.
𝐿
Thermal resistance Rt of a slab of thickness L is defined as: 𝑅𝑡 = 𝐾

High value of Rt indicates a bad thermal conduction or a good thermal insulation.

Note: Rt is a property attributed to a slab of a specified thickness, and not to a material.

 Conduction of Heat through a Composite Material

Consider two materials of thickness L1 and L2 with different thermal conductivities k1 and k2
respectively as shown in figure below.

23
The outer surfaces of the slab are in thermal contact with hot reservoir at temperature TH and cold
reservoir at temperature TC. Assuming that the heat transfer through the slabs is a steady rate
process i.e. the temperature everywhere in the slab and the rate of energy transfer do not change
with time. Then, the conduction rate through the two slabs must be equal. Using the equation of
𝑸 ∆𝑻
the rate of the heat flow we find that: = 𝑲𝑨 (*)
𝒕 𝑳

Let TX be the temperature of the interface between the two materials, so:
(𝑻𝑯 −𝑻𝑿 ) (𝑻𝑿 −𝑻𝑪 )
Conduction rate = 𝑲𝟐 𝑨 = 𝑲𝟏 𝑨
𝑳𝟐 𝑳𝟏

𝑲𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑻𝑪 +𝑲𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑻𝑯
Solving for 𝑇𝑋 in equation above: 𝑻𝑿 =
𝑲𝟏 𝑳𝟐 +𝑲𝟐 𝑳𝟏
Insert the value of 𝑇𝑋 in equation (*) above we obtain:
𝑨(𝑻𝑯 −𝑻𝑿 )
Conduction rate = 𝑳 𝟏 𝑳𝟐 (**)
+
𝑲 𝟏 𝑲𝟐

If we apply this to any number n of materials, equation (**) becomes:

𝑨(𝑻𝑯 −𝑻𝑿 )
Conduction rate= 𝑳 for i = 2,…,n
∑𝒏 𝒊
𝟐 ( 𝑲 )
𝒊

24
 Fig: Heat transfer through a composite slab.

b) Convection
Convection is the process in which heat energy is transferred from place to place by the bulk
movement of a fluid. A good example of this process is convection current in liquid.
This bulk movement of a fluid can be explained in terms of buoyant force. When a portion of a
liquid, such as water, is warmed the volume of the liquid or fluid expands, and density decreases
𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉

From Archimedes’ principle, the surrounding cooler and denser fluid exerts a buoyant force on the
warmer fluid and thus pushes the warmer fluid upward. As the warmer fluid is pushed upward, the
surrounding cooler fluid moved downward to replace the warmer fluid. The cooler fluid, in turn,
is warmer and pushes upward. This cycle is continuously repeated and this is called convection
current. This phenomenon is called natural convection.
The phenomenon described above is called natural convection. Forced convection occurs if the
fluid is made to move in a similar way as natural convection by the action of a pump or a fan.
Consider a fluid in contact with a flat or curved wall which temperature is higher than that of the
main body of the fluid, the rate of heat transfer due to both conduction through the film and
𝑄
convection in fluid is: = ℎ𝐴∆𝑇
𝑡

where h is the convection coefficient and it includes the combined effect of conduction through
the film and the convection in the fluid, A is the area of the wall, and ∆T is the temperature
difference between the surface of the wall and the main body of the fluid.
Finding the value of h that is appropriate for a particular arrangement is problematic because h
depends on the following factors:
 whether the wall is flat or curved
 whether the wall is horizontal or vertical
 whether the fluid in contact with the wall is a gas or a liquid
 the density, viscosity, specific heat, and thermal conductivity of the fluid
 whether the velocity of the fluid is small enough to give rise to laminar flow or large enough
to cause turbulent flow

25
  whether evaporation, condensation, or formation of scale takes place.

c) Radiation
This is a process in which energy is transferred by means of electromagnetic waves. A good
example of this is the solar radiation from the sun traveling in all directions in space. Part of this
radiation is reaching the earth on daily basis and in actual sense; the bulk of energy on earth is
from the sun. All bodies, hot or cold, continuously radiate energy in form of electromagnetic
waves. But the amount of this radiation is proportional to the temperature of the body and the
nature of its surface.
 Absorption and Emission of Radiant Energy
The surface of an object is very important in the determination of the amount of radiant energy a
body or object can absorb or emit. An experiment set-up to justify this is shown in figure below.
This figure consists of two identical blocks, one coated in black and the other coated with silver.

Fig: Absorption and emission of radiant energy.

26
If a thermometer is inserted on each of the blocks and they are exposed to direct sunlight as shown
in the diagram, it will be observed that the temperature of the block coated in black will rise faster
than that of the one coated with silver. The reason for this is that the block coated in black absorbed
larger percentage of the solar radiation falling on it and thus rapid rise in temperature due to large
heat energy input.

Perfect Blackbody: This is a body that absorbs all the electromagnetic waves falling on it.
Generally, all objects can emit and also absorb electromagnetic waves. So when an object is in
thermal equilibrium with its surroundings, it implies that the amount of radiant energy the object
absorbs balances with the amount the object emits. However, if the absorption is greater than the
emission, the object will experience a net gain of radiant energy and thus the temperature will rise.
If the emission is greater than the absorption, the object will experience a net loss of radiant energy
and the temperature will fall. A good absorber is also a good emitter while a poor absorber is also
a poor emitter. Hence, a perfect black body is a perfect absorber and also a perfect emitter of
radiant energy.

 Stefan-Boltzmann Law of Radiation

All matter constantly radiates energy in form of electromagnetic waves.
𝑸
= 𝝈𝜺𝑨𝑻𝟒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑓𝑎𝑛 − 𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
𝒕
𝑾
where 𝝈 = 𝟓. 𝟔𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝒎𝟐 𝑲𝟒 is known as Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 𝜺 is emissivity and it has

value between 0 and 1. For a perfect reflector, 𝜀 = 0 and for a black body 𝜀 = 1.
By definition emissivity 𝜺 is the ratio of radiant energy emitted by an object to the one it would
have emitted if it were to be a perfect black body.
Assuming that the radiation a body would emit if it were to be a perfect black body is represented
𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒅
by 𝐸𝐵𝐵 , then 𝜺 = 𝑬𝑩𝑩

Statement of the law: Stefan-Boltzmann law stated that the radiant energy, emitted in a time t by
an object that has a Kelvin temperature T, a surface area A, and an emissivity𝜺, is given by: 𝑸 =
𝝈𝜺𝑻𝟒 𝑨t

 Note again that a good emitter is also a good absorber.

27
Any object not only emits energy by radiation but also absorbs energy radiated by the other
bodies. If an object of emissivity 𝜀 and area A is at a temperature T, it radiates energy at a rate
𝜀𝜎𝐴𝑇1 4 . If the object is surrounded by an environment at temperature 𝑇2 , the rate at which the
surroundings radiate energy is proportional to 𝑇2 4 . The rate of radiant heat flow from the
∆𝑸
object is given by the equation = 𝜺𝝈𝑨(𝑻𝟏 𝟒 − 𝑻𝟐 𝟒 ).
∆𝒕

Where A is the surface area of the object, 𝑇1 is its temperature and 𝜀 its emissivity
(at temperature 𝑇1 ), and 𝑇2 is the temperature of the surroundings. Notice in this
equation that the rate of heat absorption by an object was taken to be 𝜀𝜎𝐴𝑇2 4 ; that
is the proportional constant is the same for both emission and absorption.

Example: An athlete is sitting unclothed in a locker room whose dark walls are at a
temperature of 150C. Estimate the rate of heat loss by radiation, assuming a skin temperature
of 340C and emissivity 𝜀 = 0.70. Take the surface area of the body not in contact with the
chair to be 1.5m2.

∆𝑸
Solution: Formula to be used is: = 𝜺𝝈𝑨(𝑻𝟏 𝟒 − 𝑻𝟐 𝟒 ).
∆𝒕

∆𝑸
And = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎 × 𝟓. 𝟔𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 × 𝟏. 𝟓 × [𝟑𝟎𝟕𝟒 − 𝟐𝟖𝟖𝟒 ] = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔
∆𝒕

28
CHAP III: FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS.

3.1 INTERNAL ENERGY

It is the heat energy stored in a gas. If a certain amount of heat is supplied to a gas the result is that
temperature of gas may increase or volume of gas may increase thereby doing some external work
or both temperature and volume may increase; but it will be decided by the conditions under which
the gas is supplied heat. If during heating of the gas the temperature increases its internal energy
will also increase.
Joule’s law of internal energy states that internal energy of a perfect gas is a function of
temperature only. In other words, internal energy of a gas is dependent on the temperature change
only and is not affected by the change in pressure and volume.
We do not know how to find the absolute quantity of internal energy in any substance; however,
what is needed in engineering is the change of internal energy (ΔU).

3.2 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

In the early part of nineteenth century the scientists developed the concept of energy and
hypothesis that it can be neither created nor destroyed; this came to be known as the law of the
conservation of energy. The first law of thermodynamics is merely one statement of this general
law/principle with particular reference to heat energy and mechanical energy i.e, work.

3.3 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

It is observed that when a system is made to undergo a complete cycle then net work is done on or
by the system. Consider a cycle in which net work is done by the system. Since energy cannot be
created, this mechanical energy must have been supplied from some source of energy. Now the
system has been returned to its initial state.
Therefore, its intrinsic energy is unchanged, and hence the mechanical energy has not been
provided by the system itself. The only other energy involved in the cycle is the heat which was
supplied and rejected in various processes. Hence, by the law of conservation of energy, the net
work done by the system is equal to the net heat supplied to the system. The First Law of
Thermodynamics can, therefore, be stated as follows:

29
“When a system undergoes a thermodynamic cycle then the net heat supplied to the system
from the surroundings is equal to net work done by the system on its surroundings.”
Or ∮ 𝑑𝑄 = ∮ 𝑑𝑊
Where the integrand represents the sum for a complete cycle.

The first law of Thermodynamics cannot be proved analytically, but experimental evidence has
repeatedly confirmed its validity, and since no phenomenon has been shown to contradict it, the
first law is accepted as a law of nature. It may be remarked that no restriction was imposed which
limited the application of first law to reversible energy transformation. Hence the first law applies
to reversible as well as irreversible transformations. For non-cyclic process, a more general
formulation of first law of thermodynamics is required. A new concept which involves a term
called internal energy fulfills this need.
The First Law of Thermodynamics may also be stated as follows:
“Heat and work are mutually convertible but since energy can neither be created nor
destroyed, the total energy associated with an energy conversion remains constant”.
Or
“No machine can produce energy without corresponding expenditure of energy, i.e., it is
impossible to construct a perpetual motion machine of first kind”.
Figure below shows the experiment for checking first law of thermodynamics.

Fig: Heat and work.

The work input to the paddle wheel is measured by the fall of weight, while the corresponding
temperature rise of liquid in the insulated container is measured by the thermometer. It is already

30
known to us from experiments on heat transfer that temperature rise can also be produced by heat
transfer. The experiments show:
(i) A definite quantity of work is always required to accomplish the same temperature rise obtained
with a unit amount of heat.
(ii) Regardless of whether the temperature of liquid is raised by work transfer or heat transfer, the
liquid can be returned by heat transfer in opposite direction to the identical state from which it
started. The above results lead to the inference that work and heat are different forms of something
more general, which is called energy.

3.4 APPLICATION OF FIRST LAW TO A PROCESS

When a process is executed by a system, the change in stored energy of the system is numerically
equal to the net heat interactions minus the net work interaction during the process.
∴ 𝐸2 – 𝐸1 = 𝑄 – 𝑊
∴ 𝛥𝐸 = 𝑄 – 𝑊 𝑜𝑟 𝑸 = 𝜟𝑬 + 𝑾
2
𝑂𝑟 ∫1 𝑑 (Q −W) = Δ E = E2 – E1

where E represents the total internal energy.

If the electric, magnetic and chemical energies are absent and changes in potential and kinetic
energy for a closed system are neglected, the above equation can be written as
2
∫1 𝑑 (Q −W) = Δ U= U2 – U1

Finally: 𝑄 – 𝑊 = 𝛥𝑈 = 𝑈2 – 𝑈1
Generally, when heat is added to a system its temperature rises and external work is performed
due to increase in volume of the system. The rise in temperature is an indication of increase of
internal energy. Heat added to the system will be considered as positive and the heat removed or
rejected, from the system, as negative.

3.5 ENERGY—A PROPERTY OF SYSTEM

31
Consider a system which changes its state from state 1 to state 2 by following the path L, and
returns from state 2 to state 1 by following the path M (Figure below). So the system undergoes a
cycle. Writing the first law for path L
𝑄𝐿 = 𝛥𝐸𝐿 + 𝑊𝐿 (*)
and for path M: 𝑄𝑀 = 𝛥 𝐸𝑀 + 𝑊𝑀 (**)
The processes L and M together constitute a cycle, for which
∮ 𝑑𝑊 = ∮ 𝑑𝑄
𝑊𝐿 + 𝑊𝑀 = 𝑄𝐿 + 𝑄𝑀
Or 𝑄𝐿 – 𝑊𝐿 = 𝑊𝑀 – 𝑄𝑀 (***)
From equations (**), and (***), it yields
𝛥 𝐸𝐿 = – 𝛥 𝐸𝑀 (1)
Similarly, had the system returned from state 2 to state 1 by following the path N instead of path
M
𝛥 𝐸𝐿 = – 𝛥 𝐸𝑁 (2)

From equation (1) and equation (2), we get: 𝜟 𝑬𝑴 = 𝜟 𝑬𝑵

Thus, it is seen that the change in energy between two states of a system is the same, whatever
path the system may follow in undergoing that change of state. If some arbitrary value of energy
is assigned to state 2, the value of energy at state 1 is fixed independent of the path the system
follows. Therefore, energy has a definite value for every state of the system. Hence, it is a point
function and a property of the system.

3.6 PERPETUAL MOTION MACHINE OF THE FIRST KIND—PMM 1

The first law of thermodynamics states the general principle of the conservation of energy. Energy
is neither created nor destroyed, but only gets transformed from one form to another. There can be
no machine which would continuously supply mechanical work without some form of energy
disappearing simultaneously (Figure below).Such a fictitious machine is called a perpetual motion
machine of the first kind, or in brief, PMM 1. A PMM 1 is thus impossible.

32
 Fig: A PMM 1 Fig: The Converse of PMM 1
The converse of the above statement is also true, i.e., there can be no machine which would
continuously consume work without some other form of energy appearing simultaneously.

3.7 Ideal gas and Specific heat capacities

An ideal gas is one which follows the ideal gas equation of state, namely

𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 (Equation of state)

The universal gas constant R = 8.314 J/mol K or kJ/kmol K; n is the number of moles of the gas
and T is the temperature of the gas

The ideal gas equation of state can be derived from the kinetic theory of gases where the following
assumptions are made:

1. The molecules are independent of each other. In other words, there are no attractive forces
between the molecules.
2. The molecules do not occupy any volume. That is the volume occupied by the molecules
is quite negligible compared to the volume available for motion of the molecules.

33
The internal energy of an ideal gas is a function of temperature only and is independent of pressure
and volume. That is,

𝑈 = 𝑈(𝑇)

(𝜕𝑈/𝜕𝑃)𝑇 = 0, (𝜕𝑈 /𝜕𝑉)𝑇 = 0

The physical quantity 𝐻 = 𝑈 + 𝑃𝑉 is known as enthalpy of the thermodynamic system.

For an ideal gas 𝑈 = 𝑈(𝑇) only and 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 and hence 𝐻 = 𝐻(𝑇) only.

The specific heat at constant volume is defined as the amount of energy transferred as heat at
constant volume, per unit mass of a system to raise its temperature by one degree. That is,

𝐶𝑣 = (𝑑𝑄/𝑑𝑇)𝑣

The specific heat at constant pressure is defined as the energy transferred as heat at constant
pressure, per unit mass of a substance to raise its temperature by one degree. That is

𝐶𝑝 = (𝑑𝑄/𝑑𝑇)𝑃

For a constant pressure process 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉𝑑𝑃. (since

𝑑𝑃 = 0 for a constant pressure process.)

Or 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑑(𝑃𝑉) = 𝑑(𝑈 + 𝑃𝑉) = 𝑑𝐻

or 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝐻

𝐶𝑃 = (𝜕𝐻/𝜕𝑇)𝑃

The ratio of specific heat (γ) is given by:

𝐶𝑃
𝛾 = 𝐶𝑣
(Adiabatic constant)

34
For mono-atomic ideal gases γ = 1.67 and for diatomic gases γ= 1.4.

3.8 Relation between two specific heats.

The two specific heats are related to each other.

𝐻 = 𝑈 + 𝑃𝑉 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝐻 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑑(𝑃𝑉)

For an ideal gas, the above equation reduces to

𝑑𝐻 = 𝑑𝑊 + 𝑑(𝑅𝑇) = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑅𝑑𝑇

or

𝑑𝐻 𝑑𝑈
= + 𝑅
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇

or

𝐶𝑃 = 𝐶𝑣 + 𝑅

or 𝑪𝒑– 𝑪𝒗 = 𝑹 This is the relationship between CV and CP for an ideal gas

and this equation is known as Robert-Moyer equation .

𝐶𝑃
The ratio of specific heat capacities is called adiabatic constant 𝛾 = 𝐶𝑣

𝑅
In terms of adiabatic constant Robert-Moyer equation cane be written as 𝐶𝑃 = 𝛾−1

𝑅𝛾
Or 𝐶𝑣 = 𝛾−1

3.9 Joule’s law of internal energy.

Joule’s law states as follows:

“The internal energy of a perfect gas is a function of the absolute temperature only.” i.e., 𝑢 =
𝑓(𝑇)

35
To evaluate this function let 1 kg of a perfect gas be heated at constant volume. According to non-
flow energy equation,
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑑𝑊
𝑑𝑊 = 0, since volume remains constant
∴ 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈
At constant volume for a perfect gas, from the definition of specific heat capacity at constant
volume, for 1 kg
𝑑𝑄 = 𝐶𝑣𝑑𝑇
∴ 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 = 𝐶𝑣𝑑𝑇
and integrating 𝑈 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑇 + 𝐾, 𝐾 being constant.

According to Joule’s law 𝑈 = 𝑓(𝑇), which means that internal energy varies linearly with
absolute temperature. Internal energy can be made zero at any arbitrary reference temperature.
For a perfect gas it can be assumed that 𝑢 = 0 when 𝑇 = 0, hence constant 𝐾 is zero.
i.e., Internal energy, 𝑈 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑇 for a perfect gas.
For mass 𝑚, of a perfect gas: Internal energy, 𝑈 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣 𝑇.
For a perfect gas, in any process between states 1 and 2, we have:
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑈1 = 𝑚𝐶𝑉 𝑇1
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑈2 = 𝑚𝐶𝑉 𝑇2
And the gain in internal energy,
𝑈2 – 𝑈1 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 (𝑇2 – 𝑇1).
This equation gives the gains of internal energy for a perfect gas between two states for any
process, reversible or irreversible.

3.10. APPLICATION OF FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS TO NON-FLOW OR

CLOSED SYSTEM

 Reversible Constant Volume (or Isochoric) Process (v = constant) :

In a constant volume process the working substance is contained in a rigid vessel, hence the
boundaries of the system are immovable and no work can be done on or by the system, other than

36
paddle-wheel work input. It will be assumed that ‘constant volume’ implies zero work unless stated
otherwise.
Figure below shows the system and states before and after the heat addition at constant volume.

Fig: Reversible constant volume process.

Considering mass of the working substance unity and applying first law of thermodynamics to the
process
𝑄 = (𝑈2 – 𝑈1) + 𝑊
The work done 𝑊 = 𝑃𝑑𝑉

2
∫1 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 0 as 𝑑𝑣 = 0.
∴ 𝑄 = (𝑈2 – 𝑈1) = 𝐶𝑣(𝑇2 – 𝑇1) where Cv = Specific heat at constant volume.
For mass, m, of working substance
𝑄 = 𝑈2 – 𝑈1 = 𝑚𝐶𝑣(𝑇2 – 𝑇1)

 Reversible Constant Pressure (or Isobaric) Process (p = constant).

When the boundary of the system is inflexible as in a constant volume process, then the pressure
rises when heat is supplied. Hence for a constant pressure process, the boundary must move against
an external resistance as heat is supplied; for instance a gas [Figure below] in a cylinder behind a

37
piston can be made to undergo a constant pressure process. Since the piston is pushed through a
certain distance by the force exerted by the gas, then the work is done by the gas on its
surroundings.
Figure below shows the system and states before and after the heat addition at constant pressure.

Figure: Reversible constant pressure process.

Considering unit mass of working substance and applying first law of thermodynamics to
the process
𝑄 = (𝑈2 – 𝑈1) + 𝑊
The work done, 𝑊 = 𝑃𝑑𝑉

2
∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 𝑃(𝑉2 – 𝑉1)
1

∴ 𝑄 = (𝑈2 – 𝑈1) + 𝑃(𝑉2 – 𝑉1) = 𝑈2 – 𝑈1 + 𝑃𝑉2 – 𝑃𝑉1

= (𝑈2 + 𝑃𝑉2)– (𝑈1 + 𝑃𝑉1) = 𝐻2 – 𝐻1 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 [ 𝐻 = 𝑈 + 𝑃𝑉]
or 𝑄 = 𝐻2 – 𝐻1 = 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇2 – 𝑇1)
where H= Enthalpy , and Cp = Specific heat at constant pressure.
For mass, m, of working substance
𝑄 = 𝐻2 – 𝐻1 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 (𝑇2 – 𝑇1)
𝐻
Note that the specific enthalpy is ℎ =
𝑚

38
  Reversible Temperature (or Isothermal) Process (PV = constant,𝑇 = 𝐶𝑂𝑁𝑆𝐶𝑇𝐴𝑁𝑇)

A process at a constant temperature is called an isothermal process. When a working substance

in a cylinder behind a piston expands from a high pressure to a low pressure there is a tendency
for the temperature to fall. In an isothermal expansion heat must be added continuously in order to
keep the temperature at the initial value. Similarly in an isothermal compression heat must be
removed from the working substance continuously during the process.

Figure below shows the system and states before and after the heat addition at constant
temperature. Considering unit mass of working substance and applying first law to the process

𝑄 = (𝑈2 – 𝑈1) + 𝑊
= 𝐶𝑣 (𝑇2 – 𝑇1) + 𝑊
= 0 + 𝑊 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑇2 = 𝑇1

𝑉2
Yet the work done, 𝑊 = ∫𝑉1 𝑃𝑑𝑉

Figure: Reversible isothermal process.

V2
From the integration, the total work done is: W  
V1
pdV

nRT
For an ideal gas: p
V

V2 dV
Since n, R, and T are constants, W  nRT 
V1 V

39
 V2
or W  nRT ln
V1

V2 p
In an expansion, V2  V1 and W is positive. At constant T , p1V1  p2V2 , or  1 , and the
V1 p2
isothermal work may be expressed also in the form

p1 𝑃
W  nRT ln or 𝑊 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑙𝑛 𝑃1
p2 2

 Reversible Adiabatic Process (𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = constant).

An adiabatic process is one in which no heat is transferred to or from the fluid during the process.
Such a process can be reversible or irreversible. The reversible adiabatic non-flow process will be
considered in this section.
For an adiabatic process, Q  0 and the first law becomes

U  W .

It is useful to have relations between volume and temperature, or volume and pressure, for an
adiabatic process. We consider first a small change of state in which the temperature changes by
dT and the volume by dV . Internal energy for any process for an ideal gas, adiabatic or not, is
dU  nCV dT . Also, the work done by the gas during the process is given by W  pdV . Then,
since dU  W for an adiabatic process, we have

nCV dT   pdV

To obtain a relation containing only variables T and V , we may eliminate p using the ideal gas

equation in the form p  nRT . Substituting for 𝑃 and rearranging, we obtain

V

dT R dV
  0,
T CV V

40
 R C p  CV  C p
Since   1   1 ,
CV CV CV

   1
dT dV
 0.
T V

This gives the relation between dT and dV for an infinitesimal adiabatic process. For finite change
we integrate both sides and obtain the following:

ln T    1 ln V  cons tan t ,
ln T  ln V  1  cons tan t ,
 
ln TV  1  cons tan t ,

and finally,

TV  1  cons tan t .

Thus for an initial state T1 ,V1  and a final state T2 ,V2  ,

T1V1 1  T2V2 1 .

This equation may also be converted into a relation between pressure and volume by eliminating

T , using the ideal gas equation in the form T  pV nR . Since n and R are constants, we obtain

 pV   1
 V  cons tan t , or, since n and R are constants,
 nR 

pV   cons tan t .

Thus for an initial state  p1 ,V1  and a final state  p2 ,V2  ,

p1V1  p 2V2 .
1
Example1: A gas is suddenly compressed to th of its original volume. Calculate the rise in
4
temperature, the original temperature being 27 0 C and   1.5 .

41
Solution: Let the initial volume, V1  V

V
Final volume V2 
4

Here, initial temperature, T1  27 0 C  273  27  300K and   1.5

Let T2 K be the final temperature after compression. Since the changes is adiabatic,

 T1V1 1  T2V2  2
1.51
V 
 1  V 
or T 2 T1  1   300 

 V2   V
 4

T2  300 4
1
2  300  2  600 K

T2  600  273  3270 C

 rise in temperature  T  327 0 C  27 0 C  3000 C or 300K

Example2:

42
 Expression for work W done during an adiabatic process
A reversible adiabatic process for a perfect gas is shown on a p-v diagram in figure below.

Figure: Reversible adiabatic process.

43
  Work done during a polytropic Reversible Process (𝑃𝑉 𝑛 = constant):

It is found that many processes in practice approximate to a reversible law of form 𝑃𝑉 𝑛 =

𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, where n is a constant. Both vapours and perfect gases obey this type of law closely in
many non-flow processes. Such processes are internally reversible. We know that for any
reversible process,

44
It is clear that a formula used to calculate the work is unchanged for any working substance
undergoing a reversible polytropic process. It follows also that for any polytropic process, we can
write:

The following relations can be derived (following the same procedure as was done under reversible
adiabatic process)

45
 EXERCISES
1. In an internal combustion engine, during the compression stroke the heat rejected to the cooling
water is 50 kJ/kg and the work input is 100 kJ/kg. Calculate the change in internal energy of the
working fluid stating whether it is a gain or loss.

46
2. In an air motor cylinder the compressed air has an internal energy of 450 kJ/kg at the beginning
of the expansion and an internal energy of 220 kJ/kg after expansion. If the work done by the air
during the expansion is 120 kJ/kg, calculate the heat flow to and from the cylinder.

3. 0.3 kg of nitrogen gas at 100 kPa and 40°C is contained in a cylinder. The piston is moved
compressing nitrogen until the pressure becomes 1 MPa and temperature becomes 160°C. The
work done during the process is 30 kJ. Calculate the heat transferred from the nitrogen to the
surroundings. Cv for nitrogen = 0.75 kJ/kg K.
Solution:

47
4. When a stationary mass of gas was compressed without friction at constant pressure its initial
state of 0.4 m3 and 0.105 MPa was found to change to final state of 0.20 m3 and 0.105 MPa. There
was a transfer of 42.5 kJ of heat from the gas during the process. How much did the internal energy
of the gas change?

48
49
5. A container is divided into compartments by a partition. The container is completely insulated
so that there is no heat transfer. One portion contains gas at temperature 𝑇1 and pressure 𝑃1 while
the other portion also has the same gas but at temperature T2 and pressure P2. How will the First
Law of Thermodynamics conclude the result if partition is removed?
SOLUTION:

50
6. Air enters a compressor at 105 Pa and 25°C having volume of 1.8 m3/kg and is compressed to
5 × 105 Pa isothermally. Determine:
(i) Work done;
(ii) Change in internal energy; and
(iii) Heat transferred.

51
8. When a system is taken from state l to state m, in Fig. 4.18, along path lqm, 168 kJ of heat flows
into the system, and the system does 64 kJ of work:
(i) How much will be the heat that flows into the system along path lnm if the work done is 21 kJ
?
(ii) When the system is returned from m to l along the curved path, the work done on the system
is 42 kJ. Does the system absorb or liberate heat, and how much of the heat is absorbed or liberated
?
(iii) If Ul = 0 and Un = 84 kJ, find the heat absorbed in the processes ln and nm.

SOLUTION:

52
9. A system receives 50 kJ of heat while expanding with volume change of 0.14 m3 against an
atmosphere of 1.2 × 105 N/m2. A mass of 90 kg in the surroundings is also lifted through a distance
of 5.5 metres.
(i) Find the change in energy of the system.
(ii) The system is returned to its initial volume by an adiabatic process which requires 110 kJ of
work. Find the change in energy of the system.
(iii) For the combined processes of (i) and (ii) determine the change in energy of the system.

53
10. The following equation gives the internal energy of a certain substance U = 3.64 PV+ 90 where
U is kJ/kg, P is in kPa and V is in m3/kg. A system composed of 3.5 kg of this substance expands
from an initial pressure of 500 kPa and a volume of 0.25 m3 to a final pressure 100 kPa in a process
in which pressure and volume are related by PV1.25 = constant.
(i) If the expansion is quasi-static, find Q, ΔU and W for the process.
(ii) In another process, the same system expands according to the same pressure-volume
relationship as in part (i), and from the same initial state to the same final state as in part (i), but
the heat transfer in this case is 32 kJ. Find the work transfer for this process.
(iii) Explain the difference in work transfer in parts (i) and (ii).

54
55
11. 90 kJ of heat are supplied to a system at a constant volume. The system rejects 95 kJ of heat at
constant pressure and 18 kJ of work is done on it. The system is brought to original state by
adiabatic process. Determine:
(i) The adiabatic work;
(ii) The values of internal energy at all end states if initial value is 105 kJ.

56
12. A movable frictionless piston closes a fully insulated cylinder on one side and offers a constant
resistance during its motion. A paddle work is drawn into the cylinder and does work on the
system. Prove that the paddle work is equal to change in enthalpy.
Solution:

57
13. 0.2 m3 of air at 4 bar and 130°C is contained in a system. A reversible adiabatic expansion
takes place till the pressure falls to 1.02 bar. The gas is then heated at constant pressure till enthalpy
increases by 72.5 kJ. Calculate:
(i) The work done;
(ii) The index of expansion, if the above processes are replaced by a single reversible polytropic
process giving the same work between the same initial and final states. Take Cp = 1 kJ/kg K,
Cv = 0.714 kJ/kg K.

SOLUTION:

58
59
14. A cylinder contains 0.45 m3 of a gas at 1 × 105 N/m2 and 80°C. The gas is compressed to a
volume of 0.13 m3, the final pressure being 5 × 105 N/m2. Determine:
(i) The mass of gas;
(ii) The value of index ‘n’ for compression;
(iii) The increase in internal energy of the gas;
(iv) The heat received or rejected by the gas during compression. Take γ = 1.4, R = 294.2 J/kg°C.

60
61
15. Air at 1.02 bar, 22°C, initially occupying a cylinder volume of 0.015 m3, is compressed
reversibly and adiabatically by a piston to a pressure of 6.8 bar. Calculate:
(i) The final temperature;
(ii) The final volume;
(iii) The work done.

62
CHAPTER IV: SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

4.1Introduction

In the preceding lectures, we applied the first law of thermodynamics, or the conservation of energy
principle, to processes involving closed systems. Energy is a conserved property, and no process
is known to have taken place in violation of the first law of thermodynamics. Therefore, it is
reasonable to conclude that a process must satisfy the first law to occur. However, as explained
below, satisfying the first law alone does not ensure that the process will actually take place.
It is common experience that a cup of hot coffee left in a cooler room eventually cools off.

63
This process satisfies the first law of thermodynamics since the amount of energy lost by the coffee
is equal to the amount gained by the surrounding air. Now let us consider the reverse process-the
hot coffee getting even hotter in a cooler room as a result of heat transfer from the room air. We
all know that this process never takes place. Yet, doing so would not violate the first law as long
as the amount of energy lost by the air is equal to the amount gained by the coffee.
It is clear from the above that processes proceed in a certain direction and not in the reverse
direction. The first law places no restriction on the direction of a process, but satisfying the first
law does not ensure that that process will actually occur. This inadequacy of the first law to identify
whether a process can take place is remedied by introducing another general principle, the second
law of thermodynamics.
A process will not occur unless it satisfies both the first and the second laws of thermodynamics.

4.2 STATEMENT OF THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The second law has been stated in several ways.

 The principle of Thomson (Lord Kelvin) states: “It is impossible by a cyclic process to
take heat from a reservoir and to convert it into work without simultaneously
transferring heat from a hot to a cold reservoir”
 The principle of Clausius states: “It is impossible to devise an engine which, working in
a cycle, shall produce no effect other than the transfer of heat from a colder to a hotter
body.” A good example of this principle is the operation of a refrigerator.

64
  Kelvin-Planck statement: “It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to
receive heat from a single reservoir and produce a net amount of work.”

The Kelvin-Planck statement can also be expressed as follows: “No heat engine can have a
thermal efficiency of 100 percent, or for a power plant to operate, the working fluid must
exchange heat with the environment as well as the furnace.”

These statements of the second law are related to equilibrium, i.e. work can be obtained from a
system only when the system is not already at equilibrium. If a system is at equilibrium, no
spontaneous process occurs and no work is produced. Evidently, Kelvin's principle indicates that
the spontaneous process is the heat flow from a higher to a lower temperature, and that only from
such a spontaneous process can work be obtained.
The second law is not a deduction from the first law but a separate law of nature, referring to an
aspect of nature different from that contemplated by the first law. The first law denies the
possibility of creating or destroying energy, whereas the second law denies the possibility of
utilizing energy in a particular way. The continuous operation of a machine that creates its own
energy and thus violates the first law is called perpetual motion of the first kind.

A cyclic device which would continuously absorb heat from a single reservoir and convert that
heat completely to mechanical work is called a perpetual-motion machine of the second kind.
Such a machine would not violate the first law (the principle of conservation of energy), since it
would not create energy, but economically it would be just as valuable as if it did so. Hence, the
second law is sometimes stated as follows: “A perpetual motion machine of the second kind is
impossible.”

65
4.3 QUALITATIVE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HEAT AND WORK

The first law of thermodynamics states that a certain energy balance will hold when a system
undergoes a change of state or a process but it doesn’t give any information on whether that change
of state or the process is at all feasible or not.

Joule’s experiment demonstrates that energy, when supplied to a system in the form of work, can
be completely converted into heat but the complete conversion of heat into work in a cycle is not
possible. So heat and work are not completely interchangeable forms of energy.
Work → Internal energy → Heat (100% conversion)

Heat can’t be converted completely and continuously into work in a cycle. Some heat has to be
rejected without conversion. The conversion of low grade of energy (heat) into high grade of
energy (work) in a cycle is impossible.
Heat → Work (100% conversion impossible)

66
4.4 ENERGY RESERVOIRS

A thermal energy reservoir (TER) is defined as a large body of infinite heat capacity, which is
capable of absorbing or rejecting an unlimited quantity of heat without suffering appreciable
changes in its thermodynamic properties. For example: River, Sea, Atmosphere etc.

A body does not actually have to be very large to be considered a reservoir. Any physical body
whose thermal energy capacity is large relative to the amount of energy it supplies or absorbs can
be modeled as one. The air in a room, for example, can be treated as a reservoir in the analysis of
the heat dissipation from a TV set in the room, since the amount of heat transfer from the TV set
to the room air is not large enough to have a noticeable effect on the room air temperature.
A reservoir that supplies energy in the form of heat is called a source, and one that absorbs energy
in the form of heat is called a sink. Thermal energy reservoirs are often referred to as heat
reservoirs since they supply or absorb energy in the form of heat.

4.5 CYCLIC HEAT ENGINE

A heat engine cycle is a thermodynamic cycle in which there is a net heat transfer to the system
and a net work transfer from the system. The device which executes a heat engine cycle is called
a heat engine. This device takes heat as input and converts into work as output.

The cycles have a common feature; they operate between two limiting temperatures. The higher
temperature results from the combustion process in the steam generator or within the cylinder. The
low temperature results from the cooling process. The characteristics of these two temperature
cycles are shown from the general viewpoint as a high temperature heat transfer reservoir or source
(hot reservoir) at TH and a low temperature heat transfer reservoir or sink (cold reservoir) at T L.
The cycle operating between these two temperatures is arbitrary. The general power cycle or
engine is shown schematically in figure below.

67
Heat engines differ considerably from one another, but all can be characterized by the following:
 They receive heat from a high-temperature source (solar energy, oil furnace, nuclear
reactor, etc.).
 They convert part of this heat to work (usually in the form of a rotating shaft).
 They reject the remaining waste heat to a low-temperature sink (the atmosphere, rivers,
etc.).
 They operate on a cycle
Heat engines and other cyclic devices usually involve a fluid to and from which heat is transferred
while undergoing a cycle. This fluid is called the working fluid.

Note: The term heat engine is often used in a broader sense to include work producing devices
that do not operate in a thermodynamic cycle. Engines that involve internal combustion such as
gas turbines and car engines fall into this category. These devices operate in a mechanical cycle

68
but not in a thermodynamic cycle since the working fluid (the combustion gases) does not undergo
a complete cycle. Instead of being cooled to the initial temperature, the exhaust gases are purged
and replaced by fresh air and fuel mixture at the end of the cycle.

The work-producing device that best fits into the definition of a heat engine is the steam power
plant, which is an external-combustion engine. That is, the combustion process takes place
outside the engine, and the thermal energy released during this process is transferred to the steam
as heat. The schematic of a basic steam power plant is shown below:

Figure: Schematic diagram of a basic steam power plant

The various quantities shown on this figure are as follows; Qin = amount of heat supplied to steam
in boiler from a high temperature source (furnace).
Qout = amount of heat rejected from steam in condenser to a low temperature sink (the atmosphere,
a river, etc.)
Wout = amount of work delivered by steam as it expands in turbine
Win = amount of work required to compress water to boiler pressure

69
The above quantities are indicated with in and out, and they are all positive. The net work output
of this power plant is simply the difference between the total work output of the plant and the total
work input.
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡 – 𝑊 𝑖𝑛

The net work can also be determined from the heat transfer data alone. For a closed system
undergoing a cycle, the change in internal energy ΔU is zero, and therefore the net work output

of the system is also equal to the net heat transfer to the system:

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 – 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡

4.6 THERMAL EFFICIENCY OF A HEAT ENGINE.

Thermal efficiency of a heat engine is defined as:

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑄𝑖𝑛 – 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡

𝜂 = =
𝑄𝑖𝑛 𝑄𝑖𝑛
and therefore thermal efficiency is calculated as 𝜼 = 𝟏 − 𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝑸𝒊𝒏
where 𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒓𝒆𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 to a cold reservoir and 𝑸𝒊𝒏 is the heat from a hot reservoir.

4.7 REFRIGERATORS

We can think of a refrigerator as a heat engine operating in reverse. A heat engine takes heat from
a hot place and gives off heat to a colder place. A refrigerator does the opposite; it takes heat from
colder place (the inside of the refrigerator) and gives it off to a warmer place (usually the air in the
room where the refrigerator is located). A heat engine has a net output of mechanical work. Using
the sign conventions for a refrigerator 𝑄𝐶 is positive but both 𝑊 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄𝐻 are negative.The figure
below shows an energy flow diagram for a refrigerator.

70
 Figure: Schematic energy flow diagram for a refrigerator.

From the first law for a cyclic process 𝑄𝐻 + 𝑄𝐶 − 𝑊 = 0 𝑜𝑟 − 𝑄𝐻 = 𝑄𝐶 − 𝑊

Or, because both 𝑄𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑊 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒, |𝑄𝐻 | = 𝑄𝐶 + |𝑊 |.
Thus as the diagram shows, the heat |𝑄𝐻 | leaving the working substance and given to the hot
reservoir is always greater than the heat |𝑄𝐶 | taken from the cold reservoir. Note that the absolute
value relationship |𝑄𝐻 | = |𝑄𝐶 | + |𝑊| is valid for both heat engines and refrigerators.
The quality of a refrigerator is evaluated by means of a quantity called coefficient of performance,
denoted by K.

|𝑸𝑪 | |𝑸𝑪 |
Coefficient of performance of a refrigerator is calculated as 𝑲= |𝑾|
= |𝑸
𝑯 |−|𝑸𝑪 |

As always, we measure 𝑄𝐻 , 𝑄𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑊 all in the same energy units, K is then a dimensionless
number.

PRACTICAL REFRIGERATORS
The principles of common refrigeration cycle are shown schematically in figure (a) below.

71
Figure: (a) Principle of the mechanical refrigeration cycle. (b) How the key elements are arranged
in the practical refrigerator.

The fluid circuit contains a refrigerant fluid (the working substance). The left side of the circuit
(including the cooling coils inside the refrigerator) is at low temperature and low pressure; the
right side (including the condenser coils outside the refrigerator) is at high temperature and high
pressure. Ordinarily, both sides contain liquid and vapor in phase equilibrium.

The compressor takes in fluid, compresses it adiabatically, and delivers it to the condenser coil at
high pressure. The fluid temperature is then higher than that of the air surrounding the condenser,
so the refrigerant gives off heat |𝑄𝐻 | and partially condenses to fluid. The fluid expands
adiabatically into the evaporator at a rate controlled by the expansion valve. As the fluid expands,
it cools considerably, enough that the fluid in the evaporator coil is colder than its surroundings. It
absorbs heat |𝑄𝐶 | from its surrounding, cooling them and partially vaporizing. The fluid then
enters the compressor to begin another cycle. The compressor, usually driven by an electric motor
(figure b), requires energy input and does work |𝑊| on the working substance during each cycle.

72
DOMESTIC REFRIGERATOR
Refrigerators, these days, are becoming the common item for house hold use, vendor’s shop,
hotels, motels, offices, laboratories, hospitals, chemists and druggists shops, studios etc.
They are manufactured in different size to meet the needs of various groups of people. They are
usually rated with internal gross volume and the freezer volume. The freezer space is meant to
preserve perishable products at a temperature much below 0°C such as fish, meat, chicken etc. and
to produce ice and icecream as well. The refrigerators in India are available in different sizes of
various makes, i.e., 90, 100, 140, 160, 200, 250, 380 liters of gross volume. The freezers are usually
provided at top portion of the refrigerator space occupying around one-tenth to one-third of the
refrigerator volume. In some refrigerators, freezers are provided at the bottom.

A domestic refrigerator consists of the following two main parts :

 The refrigeration system.
 The insulated cabinet.
Figure below shows a flow diagram of a typical refrigeration system used in a domestic
refrigerator.
A simple domestic refrigerator consists of a hermetic compressor placed in the cabinet base.
The condenser is installed at the back and the evaporator is placed inside the cabinet at the top.

Figure: Domestic Refrigerator

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The working of the refrigerator is as follows:
 The low pressure and low temperature refrigerant vapour (usually R12) is drawn through
the suction line to the compressor. The accumulator provided between the suction line and
the evaporator collects liquid refrigerant coming out of the evaporator due to incomplete
evaporation, if any, prevents it from entering the compressor. The compressor then
compresses the refrigerant vapour to a high pressure and high temperature. The compressed
vapour flows through the discharge line into condenser (vertical natural draft, wire-tube
type).
 In the condenser the vapour refrigerant at high pressure and at high temperature is
condensed to the liquid refrigerant at high pressure and low temperature.
 The high pressure liquid refrigerant then flows through the filter and then enters the
capillary tube (expansion device). The capillary tube is attached to the suction line as
shown in figure above. The warm refrigerant passing through the capillary tube gives some
of its heat to cold suction line vapour. This increases the heat absorbing quality of the liquid
refrigerant slightly and increases the superheat of vapour entering the compressor. The
capillary tube expands the liquid refrigerant at high pressure to the liquid refrigerant at low
pressure so that a measured quantity of liquid refrigerant is passed into the evaporator.
 In the evaporator the liquid refrigerant gets evaporated by absorbing heat from the
container/articles placed in the evaporative chamber and is sucked back into the
compressor and the cycle is repeated.

4.8 HEAT PUMP

Another device that transfers heat from a low-temperature medium to a high-temperature one is
the heat pump. Refrigerators and heat pumps operate on the same cycle but differ in their
objectives. The objective of a refrigerator is to maintain the refrigerated space at a low temperature
by removing heat from it. Discharging this heat to a higher-temperature medium is merely a
necessary part of the operation, not the purpose. The objective of a heat pump, however, is to
maintain a heated space at a high temperature. This is accomplished by absorbing heat from a low-

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temperature source, such as well water or cold outside air in winter, and supplying this heat to the
high-temperature medium such as a house.

An ordinary refrigerator that is placed in the window of a house with its door open to the cold
outside air in winter will function as a heat pump since it will try to cool the outside by absorbing
heat from it and rejecting this heat into the house through the coils behind it.
The measure of performance of a heat pump is also expressed in terms of the coefficient of
performance COPHP, defined as

The relation implies that the coefficient of performance of a heat pump is always greater than unity
since COPR is a positive quantity. That is, a heat pump will function, at worst, as a resistance
heater, supplying as much energy to the house as it consumes. In reality, however, part of QH is
lost to the outside air through piping and other devices, and COPHP may drop below unity when
the outside air temperature is too low. When this happens, the system usually switches to a
resistance heating mode. Most heat pumps in operation today have seasonally averaged COP of 2
to 3.

4.9 GAS POWER ENGINE CYCLES

4.9.1 CARNOT ENGINE CYCLE

This cycle has the highest possible efficiency and consists of four simple operations namely,
(a) Isothermal expansion
(b) Adiabatic expansion
(c) Isothermal compression
(d) Adiabatic compression.
The condition of the Carnot cycle may be imagined to occur in the following way:

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One kg of air is enclosed in the cylinder which (except at the end) is made of perfect non
conducting material. A source of heat ‘H’ is supposed to provide unlimited quantity of heat, non
conducting cover ‘C’ and a sump ‘S’ which is of infinite capacity so that its temperature remains
unchanged irrespective of the fact how much heat is supplied to it. The temperature of source H
is T1 and the same is of the working substance. The working substance while rejecting heat to
sump ‘S’ has the temperature. T2 i.e., the same as that of sump S.
Following are the four stages of the Carnot cycle. Refer to the figure below:

Stage (1). Line 1-2 [Fig.below] represents the isothermal expansion which takes place at
temperature T1 when source of heat H is applied to the end of cylinder. Heat supplied in this case
is given by RT1 loge r and where r is the ratio of expansion.

Stage (2). Line 2-3 represents the application of non-conducting cover to the end of the cylinder.
This is followed by the adiabatic expansion and the temperature falls from T1 to T2.
Stage (3). Line 3-4 represents the isothermal compression which takes place when sump ‘S’ is
applied to the end of cylinder. Heat is rejected during this operation whose value is given by:
RT2 loge r where r is the ratio of compression.

Stage (4). Line 4-1 represents repeated application of non-conducting cover and adiabatic
compression due to which temperature increases from T2 to T1.

Figure: Four stages of Carnot engine

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It may be noted that ratio of expansion during isotherm 1-2 and ratio of compression during
isotherm 3-4 must be equal to get a closed cycle.
Now according to law of conservation of energy,
Heat supplied = Work done + Heat rejected and then Work done = Heat supplied – Heat rejected

From this equation, it is quite obvious that if temperature T2 decreases efficiency increases and it
becomes 100% if T2 becomes absolute zero which, of course is impossible to attain. Furthermore
it is not possible to produce an engine that should work on Carnot’s cycle as it would necessitate
the piston to travel very slowly during first portion of the forward stroke (isothermal expansion)
and to travel more quickly during the remainder of the stroke (adiabatic expansion) which
however is not practicable.
Examples:
1. A Carnot engine working between 400°C and 40°C produces 130 kJ of work. Determine:
(i) The engine thermal efficiency.
(ii) The heat added.
(iii) The entropy changes during heat rejection process.

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2. 0.5 kg of air (ideal gas) executes a Carnot power cycle having a thermal efficiency of 50 per
cent. The heat transfer to the air during the isothermal expansion is 40 kJ. At the beginning of the
isothermal expansion the pressure is 7 bar and the volume is 0.12 m3.
Determine:
(i) The maximum and minimum temperatures for the cycle in K;
(ii) The volume at the end of isothermal expansion in m3;

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(iii) The heat transfer for each of the four processes in kJ.
For air Cv = 0.721 kJ/kg K, and Cp = 1.008 kJ/kg K.

(ii) The volume at the end of isothermal expansion, V2:

Heat transferred during isothermal expansion:

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4.9.2. CONSTANT VOLUME OR OTTO ENGINE CYCLE

This cycle is so named as it was conceived by ‘Otto’. On this cycle, petrol, gas and many types
of oil engines work. It is the standard of comparison for internal combustion engines.
Figure below shows the theoretical P-V diagram of this cycle.
The point 1 represents that cylinder is full of air with volume V1, pressure P1 and absolute
temperature T1.
 Line 1-2 represents the adiabatic compression of air due to which p1, V1 and T1 change
to P2, V2 and T2, respectively.
 Line 2-3 shows the supply of heat to the air at constant volume so that p2 and T2 change
to P3 and T3 (V3 being the same as V2).
 Line 3-4 represents the adiabatic expansion of the air. During expansion P3, V3 and T3
change to a final value of p4, V4 or V1 and T4, respectively.
 Line 4-1 shows the rejection of heat by air at constant volume till original state (point 1)
reaches.

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This expression is known as the air standard efficiency of the Otto cycle.
It is clear from the above expression that efficiency increases with the increase in the value of r,
which means we can have maximum efficiency by increasing r to a considerable extent, but due
to practical difficulties its value is limited to about 8. The net work done per kg in the Otto cycle
can also be expressed in terms of P, V. If P is expressed in bar i.e., 105 N/m2, then work done

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Example 1: The efficiency of an Otto cycle is 60% and γ = 1.5. What is the compression ratio?
Solution. Efficiency of Otto cycle, η = 60%
Ratio of specific heats, γ = 1.5
Compression ratio, r = ?
Efficiency of Otto cycle is given by,

Example 2. An engine of 250 mm bore and 375 mm stroke works on Otto cycle. The clearance
volume is 0.00263 m3. The initial pressure and temperature are 1 bar and 50°C. If the maximum
pressure is limited to 25 bar, find the following :
(i) The air standard efficiency of the cycle.
(ii) The mean effective pressure for the cycle.
Assume the ideal conditions.
Solution. Bore of the engine, D = 250 mm = 0.25 m
Stroke of the engine, L = 375 mm = 0.375 m
Clearance volume, Vc = 0.00263 m3
Initial pressure, P1 = 1 bar
Initial temperature, T1 = 50 + 273 = 323 K

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Example 3. An engine working on Otto cycle has a volume of 0.45 m3, pressure 1 bar and
temperature 30°C at the beginning of compression stroke. At the end of compression stroke, the
pressure is 11 bar. 210 kJ of heat is added at constant volume. Determine:

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(i) Pressures, temperatures and volumes at salient points in the cycle.
(ii) Percentage clearance.
(iii) Efficiency.
(iv) Net work per cycle.
(v) Mean effective pressure.
(vi) Ideal power developed by the engine if the number of working cycles per minute is 210.
Assume the cycle is reversible.
Solution.
Volume, V1 = 0.45 m3
Initial pressure, P1 = 1 bar
Initial temperature, T1 = 30 + 273 = 303 K
Pressure at the end of compression stroke, P2 = 11 bar
Heat added at constant volume = 210 kJ
Number of working cycles/min. = 210.
(i) Pressures, temperatures and volumes at salient points:
For adiabatic compression 1-2
P1V1γ = P2V2γ

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4.93. CONSTANT PRESSURE OR DIESEL ENGINE CYCLE
This cycle was introduced by Dr. R. Diesel in 1897. It differs from Otto cycle in that heat is
supplied at constant pressure instead of at constant volume. Figure below shows the P-V diagram
of this cycle.
This cycle comprises of the following operations:
(i) 1-2......Adiabatic compression.

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(ii) 2-3......Addition of heat at constant pressure.
(iii) 3-4......Adiabatic expansion.
(iv) 4-1......Rejection of heat at constant volume.
Point 1 represents that the cylinder is full of air. Let P1, V1 and T1 be the corresponding pressure,
volume and absolute temperature. The piston then compresses the air adiabatically (i.e., PVγ =
constant) till the values become P2, V2 and T2 respectively (at the end of the stroke) at point 2.
Heat is then added from a hot body at a constant pressure.

Figure: P-V diagram for Diesel Engine cycle

During this addition of heat let volume increases from V2 to V3 and temperature T2 to T3,
corresponding to point 3. This point (3) is called the point of cut-off. The air then expands
adiabatically to the conditions P4, V4 and T4 respectively corresponding to point 4. Finally, the
air rejects the heat to the cold body at constant volume till the point 1 where it returns to its
original state. Consider 1 kg of air.

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90
Example 1. A diesel engine has a compression ratio of 15 and heat addition at constant pressure
takes place at 6% of stroke. Find the air standard efficiency of the engine. Take γ for air as 1.4.
Solution. Refer Figure below.

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Example 2. The stroke and cylinder diameter of a compression ignition engine are 250 mm and
150 mm respectively. If the clearance volume is 0.0004 m3 and fuel injection takes place at
constant pressure for 5 per cent of the stroke determine the efficiency of the engine. Assume the
engine working on the diesel cycle.

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 REFERENCES
Adrian Dejan. (1988), Advanced Engineering Thermodynamics, Jon Willey.

Arora C. (1988),Thermodynamics,Tata Mc Graw-Hill, New Delhi.

Collen H.B. (1960), Thermodynamics, New York.

Eastop and Mc Conkey. (1993), Applied Thermodynamics for Engineering Technology, 5th ed, Longman
group UK Limited.

Nag P K. (2008), Engineering Thermodynamics, 4th ed, New Delhi.

Moran J, Howard N. Shapiro. (2008), Fundamental of Engineering Thermodynamics,6th ed,United State
of America.

Kenneth Work.( 1985), Thermodynamics, 4th ed. Mc Graw hill,New York.

Richard E.Sonntog and Claus Borgnakke. (2007), Introduction to Engineering Thermodynamics 2nd
ed,USA.

Rogers G.F.C. and Y.R. Mayhew. (1995), Thermodynamic and Transport properties of fluids,5th ed
Blackwell publishing Ltd.

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