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Climate is the long-term weather pattern in a region, typically averaged over 30 years.[1][2]
More rigorously, it is the mean and variability of meteorological variables over a time spanning
from months to millions of years. Some of the meteorological variables that are commonly
measured are temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, and precipitation. In a
broader sense, climate is the state of the components of the climate system, including the
atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere and biosphere and the interactions
between them.[1] The climate of a location is affected by its latitude, longitude, terrain, altitude,
land use and nearby water bodies and their currents.[3]

Climates can be classified according to the average and typical variables, most commonly
temperature and precipitation. The most widely used classification scheme was the Köppen
climate classification. The Thornthwaite system,[4] in use since 1948, incorporates
evapotranspiration along with temperature and precipitation information and is used in studying
biological diversity and how climate change affects it. The major classifications in
Thornthwaite's climate classification are microthermal, mesothermal, and megathermal.[5]
Finally, the Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic Classification systems focus on the origin of air
masses that define the climate of a region.

Paleoclimatology is the study of ancient climates. Paleoclimatologists seek to explain climate

variations for all parts of the Earth during any given geologic period, beginning with the time of
the Earth's formation.[6] Since very few direct observations of climate were available before the
19th century, paleoclimates are inferred from proxy variables. They include non-biotic evidence
—such as sediments found in lake beds and ice cores—and biotic evidence—such as tree
rings and coral. Climate models are mathematical models of past, present, and future climates.
Climate change may occur over long and short timescales due to various factors. Recent
warming is discussed in terms of global warming, which results in redistributions of biota. For
example, as climate scientist Lesley Ann Hughes has written: "a 3 °C [5 °F] change in mean
annual temperature corresponds to a shift in isotherms of approximately 300–400 km [190–
250 mi] in latitude (in the temperate zone) or 500 m [1,600 ft] in elevation. Therefore, species
are expected to move upwards in elevation or towards the poles in latitude in response to
shifting climate zones."[7][8]

Definition [ edit ]

Climate (from Ancient Greek κλίμα 'inclination') is commonly defined as the weather averaged
over a long period.[9] The standard averaging period is 30 years,[10] but other periods may be
used depending on the purpose. Climate also includes statistics other than the average, such
as the magnitudes of day-to-day or year-to-year variations. The Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) 2001 glossary definition is as follows:

"Climate in a narrow sense is usually defined as the "average weather", or more

rigorously, as the statistical description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant
quantities over a period ranging from months to thousands or millions of years. The
classical period is 30 years, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization
(WMO). These quantities are most often surface variables such as temperature,
precipitation, and wind. Climate in a wider sense is the state, including a statistical
description, of the climate system."[11]

The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) describes "climate normals" as "reference

points used by climatologists to compare current climatological trends to that of the past or
what is considered typical. A climate normal is defined as the arithmetic average of a climate
element (e.g. temperature) over a 30-year period. A 30-year period is used as it is long enough
to filter out any interannual variation or anomalies such as El Niño–Southern Oscillation, but
also short enough to be able to show longer climatic trends."[12]

The WMO originated from the International Meteorological Organization which set up a
technical commission for climatology in 1929. At its 1934 Wiesbaden meeting, the technical
commission designated the thirty-year period from 1901 to 1930 as the reference time frame
for climatological standard normals. In 1982, the WMO agreed to update climate normals, and
these were subsequently completed on the basis of climate data from 1 January 1961 to 31
December 1990.[13] The 1961–1990 climate normals serve as the baseline reference period.
The next set of climate normals to be published by WMO is from 1991 to 2010.[14] Aside from
collecting from the most common atmospheric variables (air temperature, pressure,
precipitation and wind), other variables such as humidity, visibility, cloud amount, solar
radiation, soil temperature, pan evaporation rate, days with thunder and days with hail are also
collected to measure change in climate conditions.[15]

The difference between climate and weather is usefully summarized by the popular phrase
"Climate is what you expect, weather is what you get."[16] Over historical time spans, there are
a number of nearly constant variables that determine climate, including latitude, altitude,
proportion of land to water, and proximity to oceans and mountains. All of these variables
change only over periods of millions of years due to processes such as plate tectonics. Other
climate determinants are more dynamic: the thermohaline circulation of the ocean leads to a
5 °C (41 °F) warming of the northern Atlantic Ocean compared to other ocean basins.[17] Other
ocean currents redistribute heat between land and water on a more regional scale. The density
and type of vegetation coverage affects solar heat absorption,[18] water retention, and rainfall
on a regional level. Alterations in the quantity of atmospheric greenhouse gases (particularly
carbon dioxide and methane determines the amount of solar energy retained by the planet,
leading to global warming or global cooling. The variables which determine climate are
numerous and the interactions complex, but there is general agreement that the broad outlines
are understood, at least insofar as the determinants of historical climate change are
concerned.[19][20]

Climate classification [ edit ]

Main article: Climate classification

Climate classifications are systems that categorize the

world's climates. A climate classification may correlate
closely with a biome classification, as climate is a major
influence on life in a region. One of the most used is the
Köppen climate classification scheme first developed in
1899.[21]
 Worldwide Köppen climate
There are several ways to classify climates into similar classifications

regimes. Originally, climes were defined in Ancient Greece

to describe the weather depending upon a location's latitude. Modern climate classification
methods can be broadly divided into genetic methods, which focus on the causes of climate,
and empiric methods, which focus on the effects of climate. Examples of genetic classification
include methods based on the relative frequency of different air mass types or locations within
synoptic weather disturbances. Examples of empiric classifications include climate zones
defined by plant hardiness,[22] evapotranspiration,[23] or more generally the Köppen climate
classification which was originally designed to identify the climates associated with certain
biomes. A common shortcoming of these classification schemes is that they produce distinct
boundaries between the zones they define, rather than the gradual transition of climate
properties more common in nature.

Record [ edit ]

Paleoclimatology [ edit ]

Main article: Paleoclimatology

Paleoclimatology is the study of past climate over a great period of the Earth's history. It uses
evidence with different time scales (from decades to millennia) from ice sheets, tree rings,
sediments, pollen, coral, and rocks to determine the past state of the climate. It demonstrates
periods of stability and periods of change and can indicate whether changes follow patterns
such as regular cycles.[24]

Modern [ edit ]

See also: Instrumental temperature record and Satellite temperature measurements

Details of the modern climate record are known through the taking of measurements from such
weather instruments as thermometers, barometers, and anemometers during the past few
centuries. The instruments used to study weather over the modern time scale, their
observation frequency, their known error, their immediate environment, and their exposure
have changed over the years, which must be considered when studying the climate of
centuries past.[25] Long-term modern climate records skew towards population centres and
affluent countries.[26] Since the 1960s, the launch of satellites allow records to be gathered on
a global scale, including areas with little to no human presence, such as the Arctic region and
oceans.

Climate variability [ edit ]

 Main article: Climate variability and change

Climate variability is the term to describe variations in the mean state and other characteristics
of climate (such as chances or possibility of extreme weather, etc.) "on all spatial and temporal
scales beyond that of individual weather events."[27] Some of the variability does not appear to
be caused systematically and occurs at random times. Such variability is called random
variability or noise. On the other hand, periodic variability occurs relatively regularly and in
distinct modes of variability or climate patterns.[28]

There are close correlations between Earth's climate oscillations and astronomical factors
(barycenter changes, solar variation, cosmic ray flux, cloud albedo feedback, Milankovic
cycles), and modes of heat distribution between the ocean-atmosphere climate system. In
some cases, current, historical and paleoclimatological natural oscillations may be masked by
significant volcanic eruptions, impact events, irregularities in climate proxy data, positive
feedback processes or anthropogenic emissions of substances such as greenhouse gases.[29]

Over the years, the definitions of climate variability and the related term climate change have
shifted. While the term climate change now implies change that is both long-term and of
human causation, in the 1960s the word climate change was used for what we now describe
as climate variability, that is, climatic inconsistencies and anomalies.[28]

Climate change [ edit ]

Main article: Climate change

See also: Global temperature record, List of
weather records, and Extreme event
attribution

Climate change is the variation in global or

regional climates over time.[34] It reflects
changes in the variability or average state of
the atmosphere over time scales ranging from
decades to millions of years. These changes
can be caused by processes internal to the
Earth, external forces (e.g. variations in sunlight
intensity) or human activities, as found Surface air temperature change over the
past 50 years.[30]
recently.[35][36] Scientists have identified Earth's
Energy Imbalance (EEI) to be a fundamental
metric of the status of global change.[37]

In recent usage, especially in the context of

environmental policy, the term "climate change"
often refers only to changes in modern climate,
including the rise in average surface
temperature known as global warming. In some
cases, the term is also used with a presumption
of human causation, as in the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change Observed temperature from NASA[31] vs the
(UNFCCC). The UNFCCC uses "climate 1850–1900 average used by the IPCC as a
variability" for non-human caused variations.[38] pre-industrial baseline.[32] The primary driver
for increased global temperatures in the
Earth has undergone periodic climate shifts in industrial era is human activity, with natural
forces adding variability.[33]
the past, including four major ice ages. These
consist of glacial periods where conditions are
colder than normal, separated by interglacial periods. The accumulation of snow and ice during
a glacial period increases the surface albedo, reflecting more of the Sun's energy into space
and maintaining a lower atmospheric temperature. Increases in greenhouse gases, such as by
volcanic activity, can increase the global temperature and produce an interglacial period.
Suggested causes of ice age periods include the positions of the continents, variations in the
Earth's orbit, changes in the solar output, and volcanism.[39] However, these naturally caused
changes in climate occur on a much slower time scale than the present rate of change which is
caused by the emission of greenhouse gases by human activities.[40]

According to the EU's Copernicus Climate Change Service, average global air temperature
has passed 1.5C of warming the period from February 2023 to January 2024.[41]

Climate models [ edit ]

Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions and transfer of radiative
energy between the atmosphere,[42] oceans, land surface and ice through a series of physics
equations. They are used for a variety of purposes, from the study of the dynamics of the
weather and climate system to projections of future climate. All climate models balance, or very
nearly balance, incoming energy as short wave (including visible) electromagnetic radiation to
the Earth with outgoing energy as long wave (infrared) electromagnetic radiation from the
Earth. Any imbalance results in a change in the average temperature of the Earth.

Climate models are available on different resolutions ranging from >100 km to 1 km. High
resolutions in global climate models require significant computational resources, and so only a
few global datasets exist. Global climate models can be dynamically or statistically downscaled
to regional climate models to analyze impacts of climate change on a local scale. Examples
are ICON[43] or mechanistically downscaled data such as CHELSA (Climatologies at high
resolution for the earth's land surface areas).[44][45]
The most talked-about applications of these models in recent years have been their use to
infer the consequences of increasing greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, primarily carbon
dioxide (see greenhouse gas). These models predict an upward trend in the global mean
surface temperature, with the most rapid increase in temperature being projected for the higher
latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere.

Models can range from relatively simple to quite complex. Simple radiant heat transfer models
treat the Earth as a single point and average outgoing energy. This can be expanded vertically
(as in radiative-convective models), or horizontally. Finally, more complex (coupled)
atmosphere–ocean–sea ice global climate models discretise and solve the full equations for
mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange.[46]

See also [ edit ]

Climate inertia
Climate Prediction Center
Climatic map
Climograph
Ecosystem
Effect of Sun angle on climate
Greenhouse effect
List of climate scientists
List of weather records
Microclimate
National Climatic Data Center
Outline of meteorology
Tectonic–climatic interaction

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Further reading [ edit ]

Buchan, Alexander (1878). "Climate" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. VI (9th ed.). pp. 1–
7.
 Reumert, Johannes: "Vahls climatic divisions. An explanation" (Geografisk Tidsskrift,
Band 48; 1946)
The Study of Climate on Alien Worlds; Characterizing atmospheres beyond our Solar
System is now within our reach Kevin Heng July–August 2012 American Scientist

External links [ edit ]

NOAA Climate Services Portal Wikimedia Commons has

NOAA State of the Climate media related to Climate.

NASA's Climate change and global warming portal Wikisource has the text
Climate Prediction Project of the 1905 New
International
Climate index and mode information Archived Encyclopedia article
2016-11-19 at the Wayback Machine – Arctic "Climate".

Climate: Data and charts for world and US locations

IPCC Data Distribution Centre Archived 2016-05-19 at the Wayback Machine –
Climate data and guidance on use.
HistoricalClimatology.com – Past, present and future climates – 2013.
Globalclimatemonitor – Contains climatic information from 1901.
ClimateCharts – Webapplication to generate climate charts for recent and historical data.
International Disaster Database
Paris Climate Conference

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