Find and revise mistakes and errors in both in-text citations

and the reference list.

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
1.1 Overview of Speaking skills in language education:
Larsen-Freeman, Diane. (2001.) highlight the central role of speaking in
developing communicative competence, fostering confidence, and facilitating
social interaction. Brown (2007) underscores the impact of speaking skills on
academic and professional success, emphasizing its influence on securing
opportunities and earning higher wages.
Hyland (2006) recognizes the link between fluency and critical thinking,
arguing that fluent speaking allows individuals to articulate complex ideas
more effectively. Oxford & Shearin (1994) investigate the impact of cultural
context on speaking styles, urging consideration of different communication
norms across diverse settings.
Speaking skills encompass effectively using spoken English to
communicate meaning, engage an audience, and achieve intended goals in
diverse contexts. Syakur (1987, p.5) said that there were five components of
speaking: comprehension, grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and fluency.
1.1.1 Comprehension

Comprehension lies at the heart of effective communication, acting as

the essential bridge connecting speakers and listeners. As Cohen (2005:51)
points out, even in complex research scenarios involving uncertainty, shared
understanding ensures members are on the same page. This principle translates
directly to the English classroom, where successful conversations and
presentations hinge on the audience comprehending messages.
By prioritizing comprehension create a classroom environment where
communication thrives, collaboration flourishes, and learning accelerates. Each
student's voice is heard, ideas are exchanged meaningfully, and the journey of
shared understanding becomes the foundation for individual growth and
collective success.
 1.1.2 Grammar

Grammar is not just a set of rules, but a system that underpins

communication. By fostering a basic understanding of grammatical structures
within a fun and engaging environment, students to confidently express
themselves and embark on their journey of language acquisition.
Purpura (2004:6) defines grammar as the "principle of rule" that governs
well-formed sentences in a language. Building on this, Greenbaum and Nelson
(2002:1) view it as the glue uniting individual words into larger meaningful
units like sentences and paragraphs. While extensive grammar drills might not
be the focus in primary classrooms, a basic understanding of grammatical
structures is vital for young learners to effectively communicate and express
themselves.
1.1.3 Vocabulary

Vocabulary is a crucial element in learning any language, including

English. It serves as the foundation for understanding and expressing
information, enabling learners to communicate effectively and confidently.
According Nation (2001) emphasizes the importance of vocabulary, stating that
a large vocabulary is a prerequisite for language proficiency. Schmitt
(2000) analyzes the impact of vocabulary on reading comprehension, showing
that a strong vocabulary helps learners access and understand text content
effectively. Laufer & Hativa (1993) demonstrate the close relationship between
vocabulary and writing skills, arguing that a rich vocabulary helps learners
express ideas clearly and accurately.
Vocabulary plays a vital role in primary English learning. Developing
vocabulary for students should be prioritized through diverse, effective, and
age-appropriate learning methods.
1.1.4 Pronunciation

Pronunciation is one of the most important aspects of learning English.

It serves as the foundation for effective communication, enabling learners to
speak English confidently and intelligibly.
Kobilova, Nafisa Raimovna (2022) Accurate English pronunciation is vital for
effective communication. Even flawless grammar can be overshadowed by
poor pronunciation, impacting understanding and initial impressions.
Pronunciation isn't solely about knowledge; it requires consistent practice as a
physical skill.
Engaging in pronunciation practice resulted in enhanced listening
comprehension skills. The group that got pronunciation practice had superior
listening comprehension skills compared to the group that did not receive any
therapy. Prashant (2018) stated that mispronunciations might change word
meanings, impeding effective communication and resulting in unfavorable
assessments of one's education or ability.
1.1.5 Fluency

Fluency transcends speaking or presenting without hesitation. It's about

students effortlessly conveying messages and information to their classmates in
English, creating a vibrant space for ideas to flow freely. As Harris and Hodges
(1995:14) aptly state, fluency is the ability to speak spontaneously and swiftly,
a hallmark of true language mastery.
In short, Speaking skills in English are not merely about grammatical
accuracy but encompass a spectrum of abilities enabling successful
communication. Recognizing the research-backed components and engaging in
continuous learning empowers individuals to navigate the vast landscape of
spoken English effectively. Besides, students' speaking skills are also affected
by factors such as:
 Interactive Learning: Speaking skills are closely tied to
interactive learning. Group discussions, role-plays, debates, and
conversational activities promote engagement, collaborative learning,
and applying language skills in real-life scenarios.
 Cultural Competence: Effective speaking involves
understanding cultural norms and appropriate language use. Language
learners gain insights into the cultural nuances of a language, enabling
them to communicate sensitively and adapt to different social contexts.
  Confidence Building: Regular practice of speaking skills boosts
learners' confidence in language use. Engaging in conversations and
expressing oneself without fear of errors is essential for language
learners' motivation and self-esteem.
 Assessment and Evaluation: Speaking skills assessments
provide insights into a learner's proficiency and progress. Oral exams,
presentations, and conversations with instructors or peers allow
educators to gauge learners' abilities and tailor instruction accordingly.
1.2 Frameworks for assessing speaking skills
Previous studies have examined the relationship between PBL and
improved speaking skills. PBL treatments have been shown in studies to
improve learners' speaking abilities by offering genuine situations for verbal
expression. According to research findings, PBL promotes higher fluency,
improved communication methods, and increased confidence in speaking
activities. These studies demonstrate the usefulness of PBL in developing
practical speaking abilities necessary for real-world communication. However,
more research is needed to understand how PBL pedagogies affect specific
language components and competence levels in various educational settings.
The American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL)
released the ACTFL Provisional competency Guidelines in November 1982.
These guidelines provide definitions of competency levels for speaking,
listening, reading, writing, and cultural understanding in a foreign language
(Liskin-Gasparro et al. (1984)).
1.3 Approaches to teaching speaking
Goh and Burns (2012) propose a holistic approach that considers
language, language learners, language learning, and speaking to address the
shortcomings of current methods. The authors' suggested framework has four
aspects, involving the interaction of instructors, learners, and materials. The
framework strives to help learners develop fluency, accuracy, and complexity
by providing them with the essential understanding of language and discourse,
fundamental speaking abilities, and communication techniques. Furthermore,
the focus is on developing metacognition to help learners effectively plan,
monitor, and assess their learning process. The learning activities are structured
based on task-based learning, part/whole practice, planning, and repetition
concepts.

Figure 2.1 A methodological framework for a holistic approach to teaching

speaking (Goh & Burns, 2012, p. 138)
In summary, PBL is an effective approach to teaching English-speaking
skills as it emphasizes active learning and problem-solving skills. The use of
PBL is supported by constructivist and social learning theories, and empirical
studies have shown its effectiveness. However, the implementation of PBL
may face challenges, such as a lack of support and training for teachers and
difficulty in assessing learning outcomes.
1.4 Theoretical Foundations of PBL
1.4.1 Definition of PBL
PBL stands out as an instructional methodology that structures learning
around authentic projects and tasks, challenging students to actively engage
and solve real-world problems. In creating a constructivist learning
environment, PBL marks a departure from traditional teaching methods, where
students are passive recipients expected to memorize information. Tan and
Chapman (2016) aptly described PBL as a symbol of transformation,
representing a shift from memorization to active learning—a student-driven,
teacher-facilitated approach to the teaching and learning processes.
Contrary to its perception as a modern educational trend, PBL has
historical roots dating back to the 20th century when Dewey introduced the
concept of integrating real-life problems into education (Evenson & Hmelo,
2000). This groundbreaking idea formalized in the 1970s within medical
education as problem-based learning (Maudsley, 1999) and later gained
popularity in engineering faculties and high schools (Boud & Feletti, 2003).
PBL's primary focus has consistently been on connecting content with practical
applications, encapsulating the essence of 'learning by doing.'
Grounded in Dewey's vision, PBL continues to champion a dynamic and
meaningful approach to learning, emphasizing active student participation and
the practical application of knowledge - an approach that resonates with the
evolving needs of education in the 21st century.
1.4.2 PBL in English Education: Theoretical Frameworks
PBL is grounded in constructivist theories of learning, emphasizing
active engagement, collaboration, and real-world application. Jonassen (2000)
asserts that learning is most effective when it occurs in authentic contexts,
aligning with the principles of PBL. As English language acquisition extends
beyond grammar rules and vocabulary, projects offer a means to contextualize
language skills, promoting deeper understanding and application (Thomas,
2000).
PBL finds its theoretical foundations in several educational frameworks,
notably constructivism, cognitive apprenticeship, and situated learning, each
contributing to its student-centric and authentic approach.
Interactions with their environment. In PBL, this theory comes to life as
students are presented with real-world challenges, compelling them to actively
participate in research, collaboration, and critical thinking to construct their
understanding and solutions.
Within PBL environments, teachers adopt the role of facilitators,
guiding and providing feedback to students engaged in their projects. This
supportive structure assists students in bridging prior knowledge with new
understandings, nurturing both confidence and competence.
Situated learning, another pivotal framework for PBL asserts that
learning is best cultivated within the context and culture of a particular
community. In PBL, students tackle real-world problems relevant to their lives,
fostering a meaningful context for learning. This immersion not only facilitates
a deeper understanding of the subject matter but also cultivates transferable
skills applicable beyond the classroom.
In essence, the theoretical framework of PBL champions student-
centered, active, and authentic learning experiences, fostering critical thinking,
problem-solving, communication, and collaboration. By embedding learning in
a context that is both meaningful and engaging, PBL goes beyond traditional
educational approaches, promoting a profound and lasting understanding and
retention of knowledge and skills. This approach positions students as active
participants in their learning journey, preparing them for success in a dynamic
and ever-evolving world.
1.4.3 Holistic Approaches to Language Education
Educational researchers, such as Cummins (2000), advocate for holistic
approaches to language education that go beyond linguistic competence.
Cummins introduces the concept of Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills
(BICS) and Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) to emphasize
the importance of integrating language learning with cognitive development,
aligning with the comprehensive approach taken by Le Loi High School.
1.4.4 Integration of PBL and Textbook Programs
Research by Barron and Darling-Hammond (2008) highlights the
complementary nature of PBL and traditional textbook programs. The synergy
between these two approaches creates a comprehensive learning experience,
addressing both theoretical knowledge and practical application. In the context
of English language education, Cummins (2007) argues that this dual approach
fosters language proficiency by providing students with a solid foundation
while also enabling them to use language authentically in meaningful projects.
1.4.5 Student-Centric Approaches and Motivation
An essential aspect of PBL is its intrinsic motivation potential. Helle,
Tynjälä, and Olkinuora (2006) discuss how project-based approaches empower
students by giving them a sense of ownership over their learning. This student-
centric model, as emphasized by Dörnyei and Ushioda (2017), aligns with
contemporary theories of language motivation, emphasizing the importance of
autonomy and relevance. In the context of Le Loi High School, understanding
how PBL aligns with these motivational theories provides insights into its
potential impact on student engagement and enthusiasm.
1.4.6 Practical Experience Activities: Augmenting PBL
Integrating hands-on activities into problem-based learning is consistent
with Kolb, D. A., Boyatzis, R. E., & Mainemelis, C.'s experiential learning
theory (2014). They contend that learning is most efficient when it includes a
sequence of concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract
conceptualization, and active experimentation. Research indicates that
engaging in these activities helps improve practical language abilities and
increases the transferability of knowledge.
1.4.7 Challenges and Considerations in Implementing PBL
The advantages of Problem-Based Learning (PBL) are clear, but the
literature recognizes obstacles in its execution. Most individuals appreciated
PBL for its encouragement of active learning, relevance to science, diverse
learning methods, and facilitation of group work. Karen Goodnough and Marie
Cashion (2006) emphasize the importance of meticulous preparation,
scaffolding, and continuous teacher assistance to guarantee effective PBL
experiences. Understanding the problems in Le Loi High School is essential for
customizing strategies to optimize the benefits of PBL while reducing potential
barriers.
1.4.8 Benefits of Project-Based English Teaching
Research suggests that project-based English teaching enhances not only
language skills but also critical thinking, problem-solving, and communication
skills (Thomas, 2000; Krajcik et al., 1998). Additionally, it fosters a sense of
ownership and engagement among students, as they take on active roles in their
learning process (Blumenfeld et al., 1991).
In 2006, Cicmil et al. embarked on a study aimed at discerning the
knowledge and skills essential for project managers. Their findings challenged
the conventional wisdom, suggesting that the acquisition and mastery of project
management skills must extend beyond the confines of traditional literature.
Building on this premise, Ojiako et al. (2011a, 2011b) advocated for a
paradigm shift in teaching methodologies, not only in curriculum design but
also in delivery. They emphasized the necessity for students to cultivate
transferable skills applicable across diverse domains and industries.
The call for innovation in teaching methods was underscored by the
assertion that pedagogy, the foundational aspect of education, requires
realignment to meet the evolving demands of project management education.
Pedagogy serves as the linchpin connecting teaching and learning, with
teaching being the impartation of information and learning being the
assimilation of that information. Loughran (2013) elucidates the multifaceted
nature of pedagogy, which has been defined and interpreted in various ways.
Samuelowicz and Bain (2001) further contributed to the discourse by
highlighting the interdependence of teaching and learning on the academic's
'teaching-centered and learning-centered orientations.' This distinction
underscores the importance of aligning pedagogy with the dynamic needs of
project management education, urging educators to adopt an approach that not
only imparts information but also fosters an environment conducive to effective
learning and the development of practical, transferable skills.
Enhanced Language Proficiency: Research indicates that PBL positively
influences language proficiency by providing authentic contexts for language
use (Thomas, 2000). Students at Le Loi Secondary & High School engaging in
projects alongside textbook programs are likely to experience a more
comprehensive and nuanced development of language skills.
 Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving: PBL is known to cultivate
critical thinking skills and problem-solving abilities (Blumenfeld et al., 1991).
Through hands-on projects, students at Le Loi Secondary & High School are
not only acquiring linguistic competence but also developing the cognitive
skills necessary for effective communication in real-world scenarios.
Increased Motivation: Studies suggest that PBL enhances student
motivation and engagement (Strobel & van Barneveld, 2009). By incorporating
practical experience activities, Le Loi Secondary & High School endeavors to
create an environment where students are intrinsically motivated to explore and
apply English language skills.
PBL is an innovative educational method that imparts a variety of
essential methods for success in the modern day. Students engage in inquiry-
based learning and collaborate to study and produce projects that demonstrate
their understanding. Students gain from this instructional method by acquiring
new, practical technological skills, improving communication proficiency, and
enhancing problem-solving abilities.
1.4.9 Critical thinking
Michael Scriven and Richard Paul (1987) define critical thinking as a
methodical and skillful intellectual process of actively conceptualizing,
applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating information obtained from
observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication to guide
beliefs and actions.
It differs from passive information acceptance by actively engaging with it.
Critical thinking demands various mental tools like understanding, applying,
analyzing, and evaluating to make sense of the world around us. This process
informs our beliefs and actions in a thoughtful and reasoned way.
The ability to think critically, sometimes called critical reasoning, allows
individuals to analyze situations from various viewpoints before forming an
opinion or accepting another's perspective. This skill has a long history, dating
back over 2,500 years to the Greek philosophers Socrates and Plato. However,
only recently, in the 19th century, has critical thinking become incorporated
into education systems as a way to develop learners' thinking, judgment, and
problem-solving abilities ([Paul et al., 1997]).
In today's information-rich world, critical thinking is essential. It
empowers individuals to make well-informed, logical choices and
communicate their ideas in a persuasive and engaging way. It's crucial to
understand that critical thinking isn't synonymous with negativity or constant
criticism. It involves objectivity, open-mindedness, and curiosity. By analyzing
problems based on evidence rather than biases or personal opinions, individuals
can gain a deeper understanding of situations and make sound decisions and
solve problems more effectively ([Forbes, 2020]).

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