HUMAN BEHAVIOR

AND CRISIS
MANAGEMENT
I am Number Eight
What is Behavior?

Refers to the actions or reactions of an object or

organism, usually in relation to the environment.
Behavior can be conscious or subconscious, overt or
covert, and voluntary or involuntary.
Attributes of Behavior

 Overt behavior – behaviors that are observable.

 Covert behavior – those that are hidden from the
view of the observer

 Simple behavior – less number of neurons are

consumed in the process of behaving
 Complex behavior – combination of simple
behavior
 Rational behavior - acting with sanity or with
reasons
 Irrational behavior – acting without reason/
unaware

 Voluntary behavior – done with full volition of

will.
 Involuntary behavior – bodily processes that goes
on even when we are awake or asleep.
Aspects of Behaviors

 Intellectual Aspect – way of thinking, reasoning,

solving problem, processing info and coping with
the environment.
 Emotional Aspect – feelings, moods, temper, strong
motivational force with in the person.
 Social Aspect – people interaction or relationship
with other people.
 Moral Aspect – conscience, concept on what is
good or bad.
 Psychosexual Aspect – being a man or a woman
and the expression of love.
 Political Aspect – ideology towards
society/government
 Values/ Attitude – interest towards something, likes
and
Why do we need to study human behavior?

Modern Criminologists regard crime as social

phenomenon: meaning – an individual’s criminal
behavior could be attributed directly or indirectly
with his experiences and interactions to his social
environment.
What do we used to understand human
Behavior?

Psychology is an academic and applied discipline

involving the systematic, and often scientific, study
of human/animal mental functions and behavior.
Relationship of Human Behavior to Crime

 Committing crime is an extremely common human

behavior. Nearly everyone has broken the law and
committed a crime at some point.
 Considering physiological, psychological and
pharmacological factors, we explore the influences
of family, peers and the effects of alcohol and drugs
on the incidence of criminal behavior.
 And we examine how the urban and social
environment encourages (or inhibits) opportunities
to commit crime.
Goals and Objectives of Studying Human
Behavior

 To describe behavior whether normal and acceptable

norms or it is abnormal and a deviant behavior.
 To identify factors that can predict behavior, e.g.
depressed, unrealistic and unreasonable.
 To understand and explain by identifying causes that
bring about certain effects, assemble them which are
common facts or gather facts and define principles.
 To control and change behavior as a result of the
prediction.
Approaches in the Study of Human Behavior

 Neurological - emphasizes human actions in relation to

events taking place inside the body, especially the brain and
the nervous system.
 Behavioral - focuses on those external activities of the
organism that can be observed and measured. Ex: rewards
and punishments
 Cognitive - concerned with the way the brain processes and
transforms information in various ways.
 Psychoanalytical - emphasizes unconscious motives
stemming from repressed sexual and aggressive impulses in
childhood.
 Humanistic - focuses on the subject’s experience, freedom
of choice and motivation toward self-actualization.
The Two Basic Factors Affecting Behavior

 Heredity/Biological Factors (nature) - are those that

explained by heredity, the characteristics of a
person acquired from birth transferred from one
generation to another. It explains that certain
emotional aggression, our intelligence, ability and
potentials and our physical appearance are
inherited.
 Environmental Factors (nurture) – refers to anything
around the person that influences his actions.

1. Institutional influences such as: peer groups, mass

media, church and school, government institutions, NGO’s,
etc.
2. Socio-cultural factors such as war and violence,
group prejudice and discrimination, economic and
employment problems and other social changes.
3. Nutrition or the quality of food that a person intake is
also a factor that influence man to commit crime because
poverty is one of the many reasons to criminal behavior
OTHER DETERMINANTS OF BEHAVIOR

Needs, Drives and Motivations

 Needs are the triggering factor that drives or moves a person to act. It is
a psychological state of tissue deprivation.
 Drives are aroused state that results from some biological needs. The
aroused condition motivates the person to remedy the need.
 Motivation on the other hand refers to the causes and “why’s” of
behavior as required by a need.

Drive and motivation covers all of psychology, they energizes behavior

and give its direction to man’s action. For example, a motivated individual
is engaged in a more active, more vigorous, and more effective that
unmotivated one, thus a hungry person directs him to look for food.
Types of Human Needs:
Human needs arise out of a person’s biological or psychological make up. They
can be biological (biogenic) needs which are the needs of the body which exist
for the maintenance of health and protection of the body against physical
injuries.
These include the need for:
 food – hunger: the body needs adequate supply of nutrients to function

efficiently. “An empty stomach sometimes drives a person to steal.”

 air – need of oxygen

 water - thirst

 rest – weary bodies needs this.

 sex – a powerful motivator but unlike food and water, sex is not vital for

survival but essential to the survival of the species.

 avoidance of pain – the need to avoid tissue damage is essential to the

survival of the organism. Pain will activate behavior to reduce discomfort.

 stimulus seeking curiosity – most people and animal is motivated to explore

the environment even when the activity satisfies no bodily needs.

FRUSTRATION, CONFLICT and HUMAN
VALUES

Frustration refers to the unpleasant feelings that

results from the blocking of motive satisfaction. It is
a form of stress, which results in tension. It is the
feeling that is experienced when something interferes
with our hopes, wishes, plans and expectations.
Common Sources of Frustration
 Physical Obstacles – are physical barriers or
circumstances that prevent a person from doing his
plan or fulfilling his wishes.
 Social Circumstances – are restrictions or
circumstances imposed by other people and the
customs and laws of social living.
 Personal shortcoming – such as being handicapped
by diseases, deafness, paralysis, etc. which serves as
a barrier to the things one ought to do.
 Conflicts between motives
Reactions to Frustrations
 by fighting the problem in a constructive and direct
way by breaking the obstacles barring him from his
goal, or by getting angry and become aggressive;
and/or
 by running away (flight) from the problem,
retreating, becoming indifferent, and by giving up
without a fight.
 These reactions to frustrations are sometimes called
fight-flight reactions.
Frustration-tolerance
Individuals also differ in their capacity to tolerate unadjusted states, or
frustration tolerance. Some people are able to withstand prolonged periods
of tension without showing signs of abnormality. Others become neurotic or
psychotic, or convert their frustrations into physical illness, while some act
out their frustrations by committing anti-social acts or becoming alcoholics
or drug addicts.

Most normal persons react to frustration in the following ways:

 direct approach

 detour

 substitution

 withdrawal or retreat

 developing feelings of inferiority

 aggression

 use of defense mechanism

What is a Defense Mechanism?

Defense mechanisms are the unconscious techniques

used to prevent a person’s self image from being
damage.
 Kinds of Defense Mechanism

 Denial of reality – protection of one self from unpleasant reality by refusal to

perceive or face it. Simply by avoiding something that is unpleasant. Or in
denial, the ego shuts itself off from certain realities.

 Fantasy – the gratification of frustration desires in imaginary achievement.

Paying attention not to what is going on around him but rather to what is
taking place on his thoughts.

 Projection – placing blame for difficulties upon others or attributing one’s

own unethical desires to others in an effort to prevent ourselves being blamed.

 Rationalization – the use of excuses an individual to him and to others.

Attempting to prove that one’s behavior is justifiable and thus worthy of self
and social approval. It is also an elaborate justification for what were
obviously illogical or immature actions.
 Reaction Formation – it occurs when someone tries to
prevent his submission to unacceptable impulses by
vigorously taking an opposite stand.

 Displacement – discharging pent-up emotion on objects less

dangerous than those that initially aroused the emotion.

 Regression – revert from a past behavior or retreating to

earlier developmental level involving less mature responses
and usually a lower level of aspiration. Example is falling
back to childish behavior patterns; some respond to stress by
overeating or by drinking too much.
 Sublimation – a process by which instinctual drives,
consciously unacceptable, are diverted into personally and
socially accepted channels. Example is gratification of
frustrated sexual desires in substitutive men sexual
activities.

 Identification – increasing feeling of worth by identifying

self with person or institution. The person can associate
himself with something or someone to elevate position. Or
it is a process whereby an individual without conscious
awareness, satisfied frustrated desires by psychologically
assuming the role or some of the traits of another person.
 Sympathism – striving to gain sympathy from others. The
person seeks to be praised by relating faults or problem.

 Introjection – incorporating external values and standards

into ego structures so individual is not at their mercy as
external threats. The acceptance of others’ values even they
are contrary to one’s own assumption.

 Undoing – Apologizing for wrongs, repentance, doing

penance and undergoing punishment to negate a disapproved
act
What is Conflict?

Conflict refers to the simultaneous arousal of two or more

incompatible motives resulting to unpleasant emotions. It
is a source of frustration because it is a threat to normal
behavior.
Types of Conflicts
 Double Approach Conflict – a person is motivated to
engage in two desirable activities that can not be
pursued simultaneously.
 Double Avoidance Conflict - a person faces two
undesirable situations in which the avoidance of one is
the exposure to the other resulting to an intense
 Approach-Avoidance Conflict – a person faces a
situation having both a desirable and undesirable
feature. It is sometimes called “dilemma”, because
some negative and some positive features must be
accepted regardless of which course of action is chosen.
 Multiple Approach- Avoidance Conflict – a situation in
which a choice must be made between two or more
alternatives each of which has both positive and
negative features. It is the most difficult to resolve
because the features of each portion are often difficult
to compare.
HUMAN VALUES

 Human values are relevant in understanding human

behavior. It is the standard which people uses to
cognize, express, and evaluates behavior as right or
wrong, just or unjust, appropriate or inappropriate.
Two General Classifications of Behaviors

 Normal Behavior – the standard behavior, the

socially accepted behavior because they follow the
standard norms of society.

 Abnormal behavior – behaviors that are deviant

from social expectations because they go against
the norms or standard behavior of society.
A normal person is characterized by the following criteria:

 Free expression of personality

 Ability to exercise voluntary control over his behavior
 Adequate security feeling
 Self-esteem and acceptance
 Efficient contact/perception of reality
 Adaptability to group norms or ability to form
affectionate relationship with others
 Emotional maturity
 Adequate self-knowledge
 Integrated and consistent personality
 Productivity
Abnormal Behavior

 Deviation from average (statistical norm)

 Deviation from the ideal (from social norms).
 Abnormality as a sense of subjective discomfort
(personal distress).
 Abnormality as the inability to function effectively
(maladaptive behavior).
Classifications or Patterns of Abnormal
Behaviors

 The Neurotic Behaviors

 The Psychopathic Behaviors
 The Psychotic Behaviors
What are Neurotic Behaviors?

 NEUROTIC BEHAVIORS - group of mild functional personality

disorders in which there is no gross personality disorganization
and the individual is not required for hospitalization.

People with neurotic behaviors are sometimes called

psychoneurotic. These are persons who are in the twilight zone
between normality and abnormality. They are not insane, but neither
are they normal. They are always tense, restless and anxious.
Frequently, they have obsessions, compulsions, phobias and in some
cases, amnesia. Anxiety is the dominant characteristics.
Neurotic Behaviors are composed of the following
disorders:

1. Anxiety disorders
2. Somatoform Disorders
3. Dissociative Disorders
4. Affective Disorders
Anxiety Disorders
- These are commonly known as “neurotic fear”.
When it is occasional but intense, it is called
“panic”. When it is mild but continuous, it is
called “worry”. They are considered as the
central feature of all neurotic patterns. They are
characterized by:
 mild depressions
 fear and tensions
 mild stresses
Anxiety disorders are grouped as:

 Obsessive-compulsive disorders

 Asthenic Disorders (Neurasthenia) - anxiety

disorder characterized by chronic mental and
physical fatigue and various aches and pains.

 Phobic Disorders – the persistent fear on some

objects or situation that present no actual danger to
the person.
Example of Phobias
 Acrophobia - high places
 Agoraphobia - open places
 Algophobia - pain
 Asthraphobia - storms, thunder, lightning
 Claustrophobia - closed places
 Hematophobia - blood
 Hydrophobia - water
 Mysophobia - contamination/germs
 Monophobia - being alone
 Nyctophobia - darkness
 Ocholophobia - crowds
2. Somatoform Disorders

- Complains of bodily symptoms that suggest the

presence of physical problem but no organic basis
can be found. The individual is pre-occupied with his
state of health or diseases.
 Hypochondriasis – the excessive concern about

state of health or physical condition (multiplicity

about illness).A Hypochondriacally person tend to
seek medical advises, but their fears is not lessened
by their doctor’s reassurances, and they maybe
disappointed when no physical problem is found.
 Psychogenic Pain Disorder – characterized by the
report of severe and lasting pain. Either no physical
basis is apparent or the reaction is greatly in excess
of what would be expected form the physical
abnormality.
 Conversion Disorders (Hysteria) – a neurotic
pattern in which symptoms of some physical
malfunction or loss of control without any
underlying organic abnormality.
3. Dissociative Disorders
- A response to obvious stress characterized by:
 Amnesia – partial or total inability to recall or identify past
experiences.
 brain pathology amnesia – total loss of memory and it can not be
retrieved by simple means. It requires long period of medication.
 Psychogenic amnesia – failure to recall stored information and
still they are beneath the level of consciousness but “forgotten
material”.
 Multiple Personality – also called “dual personalities”. The
person manifests two or more symptoms of personality
usually dramatically different.
 Depersonalization – loss of sense of self or the so called out
of body experience.
4. Affective Disorders
- The affective disorders are “mood disorders”, in
which extreme or inappropriate levels of mood –
extreme elation or extreme depression.
What are Psychopathic Behaviors?

 The second groups of abnormal behaviors typically

stemmed from immature and distorted personality
development, resulting in persistent maladaptive
ways of perceiving and thinking.
 People with psychopathic behaviors are also called
sociopaths or psychopaths.
 These are persons who do not have any neurotic or
psychotic symptoms but are not able to conform to
prevailing customs and standards of conduct of his
social group.
Types of Psychopathic Behavior
 Personality Disorders – disorders of character, the
person is characterized as a “problematic” without
psychoses. This disorder is characterized by
disrupted personal relationship, dependent or
passive aggressive behavior.
 Criminal Behavior - The disorder used to describe
the behavior of a person who commits serious
crimes from individual to property crimes and the
disobedience of societal rules in general.
Types of Personality Disorders
 Paranoid Personality – characterized by suspiciousness,
rigidity, envy, hypersensitivity, excessive self-importance,
argumentativeness and tendency to blame others for one’s
own mistakes.
 Schizoid Personality – characterized by the inability to
form social relationship and lack interest in doing so. The
person seem to express their feelings, they lack social
skills. They are the so called “loners”.
 Schizotypal Personality – characterized by seclusiveness,
oversensitivity, avoidance of communication and
superstitious thinking is common.
 Narcissistic Personality – characterized by an exaggerated sense of self-
importance and pre-occupation with receiving attention. The person
usually expects and demands special treatment from others and
disregarding the rights and feeling of others.
 Borderline Personality – characterized by instability reflected in drastic
mood shifts and behavior problems. The person usually display intense
anger outburst with little provocation and he is impulsive, unpredictable,
and periodically unstable.
 Avoidant Personality – characterized by hypersensitivity to rejection and
apprehensive alertness to any sign of social derogation. Person is reluctant
to enter into social interaction.
 Dependent Personality – characterized by extreme dependence on other
people – there is acute discomfort and even panic to be alone. The person
lacks confidence and feels helpless.
What are Psychotic Behaviors?
 The group of disorders involving gross structural
defects in the brain tissue, severe disorientation of
the mind thus it involves loss of contact with reality.
 People suffering from psychotic behaviors
(psychosis) are also called psychotic. They are
regarded as the most severe type of mental disorder.
 A psychotic has tensions that disturb thinking,
feeling and sensing; the perception of reality is
distorted. He may have delusions and hallucinations.
Types of Psychotic Behaviors
 Organic Mental Disorders - this occurs when the normal brain has been
damage resulted from any interference of the functioning of the brain.
 Senile and Pre-senile Dementia
 Senile Dementia – mental disorder that accompanied by brain degeneration due to
old age.
 Pre-senile Dementia – mental disorder associated with earlier degeneration of the
brain.
 Mental Retardation - A mental disorder characterized by sub-average
general functioning existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive
behavior.
 Schizophrenia and Paranoia
 Schizophrenia – refers to the group of psychotic disorders characterized by gross
distortions of reality, withdrawal of social interaction, disorganization and
fragmentation of perception, thoughts and emotion.
 Paranoia – the same as “delusions”, “impaired contact with reality”. A psychotic
behavior characterized by delusion of apprehension following a failure or
frustration.
Other Groups of Human Disorders

 Addictive Groups of Disorders

 Substance Use
 Extreme obesity
 Pathological gambling
 Sexual Deviations– these are characterized by abnormal
sexual desires or acts which are also known as sexual
perversion. Examples of these are:
 Bestiality
 Homosexuality
 Lesbianism
 Pedophilia
 Sodomy
 Prostitution
POLICE CRISIS
MANAGEMENT

Crisis and Emergency

Crisis came from the Greek word crisis, which means
separate.
As defined by Funk and Wagnalls, crisis is turning points in
the progress of an affair or a series of events.
Through crisis is often used interchanged with emergency
and crisis develop from an emergency and vice versa, these
term have certain degree of difference.
Emergency came from the Latin word “emergentia”
meaning a dipping.
Funk and Wagnall defined emergency as a sudden condition
or state of affair calling for immediate action.
Crisis
Crisis is a form of severe stress. It differs from stress in
that is time limited and is precipitated by new or sudden
situations.
Crisis usually stems from two major sources:
first, a stressful event involving a fundamental loss or
deprivation that is perceived as threatening to the
individuals self- concept and personal integrity, second,
a crushing threat, whether is real or imagined, to the
physical and or psychological well- being of the person.
Type of Crisis
Crisis emergencies are man-made or natural; categorized as
follow:
a. Man-Made Crisis/Emergencies
(1) Civil Disturbance
(a) Labor Strikers/demonstrations
(b) Riots
(c) Anarchy-lawless disorder in the country
(d) Welga ng Bayan (Transport, fuel, etc.)
(2) Revolt
(a) Mutiny
(b) Insurrection
(c) Coup d’etat
(3) Revolution
b. Natural Crisis/ Emergencies
(1) Fire
(2) Marine/Air Collapse
(3) Structural Collapse
(4) Hazardous Spills
(5) Utilities Failure (Power, Water, Telephone)
(6) Nuclear
(7) Food Scarcity/ Famine
(8) Fuel Shortage
(9) Pestilence/ Epidemic
(10) Floods
(11) Volcanic Eruption
(12) Earthquake
The 4P Crisis Management Model

is envisioned to address crisis situations in phases the Proactive and the Reactive
Phase in four stages:
Phases of Crisis Management
Crisis management is a continuing activity that has two distinct phases: The Pro-
Active and the Re-Active phases.
a. Pro-Active Phase
This phase is designed to predict or prevent the probability of occurrence of crisis at
the same time prepared to handle them when they occur. It compasses the first 3ps of
the 4P Crisis Management Model; prediction, prevention, preparation.
1. Prediction
This stage involves foretelling of the likelihood of crisis occurring either
natural or man-made through the continuous assessment of all possible threat and
threats groups as well as the analysis of developing or reported events and incidents.
Crisis incidents can be predicted through updated inputs from intelligence
reports as well as the continuous monitoring and analysis of the confluence of related
events.
 2. Prevention
With most man-made crisis/emergencies, this stage involves
the institution of passive and active security measures, as well as the
remedy or solution of establishing factors and or security flaws leading
to such crisis emergencies.
Prophylactic actions may well be applied to both natural
and man – made crisis emergencies to prevent them from developing to
uncontrollable proportions.

3. Prepare
Preparation for crisis emergencies entails planning,
organization, training and stockpiling of equipment and supplies
needed for such crisis emergencies.
b. The Reactive Phase – Performance
The objectives in this stage are to ensure a high probability
of success in neutralizing the perpetrators; to minimize, or
cushion the adverse effects of the crisis incidents and to ensure a
smooth and speedy rehabilitation or return to normalcy.
The performance of crisis management action for terrorist
– based crisis management is done in three sub – stage:
- Initial action
- Action
- Post action
 1. Initial action
All unit commanders are required to understand and acquaint themselves on crisis
management doctrine. As such, they will be held responsible for all their actions.
Any military police unit taking cognizance of a crisis incident shall immediately
undertake appropriate actions to contain the crisis situation and report the matter to the
cognizant agencies through channels, regardless whether such crisis situation is within or
beyond its capability to handle.
2. Action
The action phase begins as soon as the On-Scene Command Post (OSCP) is established
and the Tactical/ Intervention, service supports units, Negotiation Teams and the Public
Affairs personnel arrive and are deployed.
The On-Scene Commander (OSC) gradually relieves the initial action, unit commander
and complete staffing of the OSCP.
The OSC discusses the incident with the commanders and staff of the units and agencies
involved and plans what actions to take and establish positive contact with Crisis
Management Committee (CMC) to ensure that all his succeeding actions are cleared.
3. Post Action
This stage begins as soon as the perpetrators
surrender, or when they are captured or neutralized
and the crisis situation is deemed cleared.
The On-Scene Commander ensures that
necessary Post Action activities are undertaken to
restore normalcy and bring those responsible to court.
Threat Groups

a. Political terrorist
These are ideologically-inspired individuals or groups.
They want prestige and power for a collective goal or higher cause. Many of
its members have intensive criminal backgrounds. They often recruit new
members from prisons, beginning their indoctrination and training while still
confined thereat.
b. Criminals
These are people who commit terrorist act for personal rather than
ideological gain. Some of their terroristic acts such as kidnapping or extortion
are planned. Others are not planned, but happen as a result of the
confrontation and encounter with the law enforcement agencies to an on-
going crime. For instance, a number of bank robberies have involved into
hostage-taking situations when policemen arrive in response to an alarm
while the robbery is still in progress.
c. Mentally – Deranged Individuals
These people commits terrorists acts during period of
psychiatric disturbance. This type maybe the most difficult terrorists to
deal with. Many of them are unpredictable.

d. Religious Extremists
mainly belonging to Southern Religious Fundamentals.
Intolerant of other faiths, they are apt to execute hostages belonging to
other religions.

e. Economically – motivated groups/individuals

mainly belonging to labor groups. Depending on their ideological
orientations, motivation and long –standing situation, recourse to
violence may be resorted to for many reasons favorable to them.
HOSTAGE NEGOTIATION

Hostage negotiation
A hostage negotiation happens when a criminal uses innocent people as
bargaining chips. This can happen in a range of circumstances, including:
- A desperate mother who barricades herself in with her own child.
- A bank robber who is disturbed on the job.
- Terrorists who take foreign nationals.

Negotiation has many advantages. During a threat situation, stress and

tension are built up at the onset.
Law enforcement officials are in a critical position, being under constant
public scrutiny.
Time used in negotiating allows the hostage-taker to reevaluate his position
and to consider alternatives to the present course of action.
Importance of TIME
Is an important factor working for the police. As a
general rule, Dr. Schlossberg notes:
“ The more time the felon spends in the
hostage, the less likely is to take the hostage’s life,
because they become acquainted and develops
feelings for one another.
FOUR VITAL STEPS

CONTAIN
ISOLATE
EVACUATE
NEGOTIATE
The eight-stage negotiation process

Prepare: Know what you want. Understand them.

Open: Put your case. Hear theirs.
Argue: Support your case. Expose theirs.
Explore: Seek understanding and possibility.
Signal: Indicate your readiness to work together.
Package: Assemble potential trades.
Close: Reach final agreement.
Sustain: Make sure what is agreed happens.
 Three-stage Negotiation

Open: Say what you want

Bargain: Hammer out the deal
Close: Agree and exchange
The Stockholm syndrome

also known as capture–bonding.

is a psychological phenomenon in which hostages express empathy and sympathy and
have positive feelings toward their captors, sometimes to the point of defending them.

The FBI's Hostage Barricade Database System shows that roughly 27% of victims show
evidence of Stockholm syndrome.
The Stockholm syndrome
it was named after the Norrmalmstorg robbery of Kreditbanken at
Norrmalmstorg in Stockholm, Sweden, in which several bank employees were held
hostage in a bank vault from August 23 to August 28, 1973.
During this situation, the victims became emotionally attached to their
captors, rejected assistance from government officials at one point and even defended
them after they were freed from their six-day ordeal.
The term “Stockholm syndrome” was coined by the criminologist and
psychiatrist Nils Bejerot, using the term in a news broadcast.
The Lima syndrome

An inverse of Stockholm syndrome. in which

abductors develop sympathy for their hostages.
It was named after an abduction at the Japanese
Embassy in Lima, Peru, in 1996, when members of
a militant movement took hostage hundreds of people
attending a party at the official residence of Japan’s
ambassador. Within a few hours, the abductors had
set free most of the hostages, including the most
valuable ones, owing to sympathy.
The London syndrome

This refers to a negative syndrome. may occurs during

hostage negotiation in which harmful and negative
feeling is developed by the hostage taker against the
hostage.

Therefore, there is a greater chance on the part of the

hostage taker of killing his/her hostages.