GRADE 11 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2

MODULE 3: UNDERSTANDING DATA AND WAYS TO SYSTEMATICALLY COLLECT DATA

INTRODUCTION
Data are distinct pieces of information. While research data is data that is collected, observed, or
created, for purposes of analysis to produce original research results. Data collection on the other hand
is the systematic approach to gathering and measuring information from a variety of sources to get a
complete and accurate picture of an area of interest. Data collection enables a person or organization
to answer relevant questions, evaluate outcomes and make predictions about future probabilities and
trends. Accurate data collection is essential to maintaining the integrity of research.

DURATION
Weeks 9-12 (PREFINAL)

MOST ESSENTIAL COMPETENCIES USED

● Chooses appropriate quantitative research design Describes sampling procedures and the
sample.
● Constructs intervention
● Plans data collection procedure Plans data analysis using statistics and hypothesis
● Presents written research methodology
● Implements design principles to produce creative artwork of information.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
The following objectives are expected to be attained by the learners at the end of this module:
● describe adequately quantitative research designs, sample, instrument used, and intervention,
data collection, and analysis procedures;
● apply imaginatively art/design principles to create artwork; and
● gather and analyze data with intellectual honesty, using suitable techniques.

LESSON TOOLS
A. Handouts and PowerPoint presentation
B. Other Sources:
a. Apolinio, J. and Basilan, M.L.J., 2017. Practical Research 2 b.
Matira, M. and Revuelto, R. 2016. Practical Research, 33-47
c. https://www.enago.com/academy/write-irresistible-research-paper-title/
d. Photos from Google Images
WARM-UP ACTIVITY
Directions: Give the differences of Simple Random Sampling, Stratified Random Sampling and
Cluster Sampling. Write your answer in the space provided.
LESSON 1: CHOOSING A RESEARCH DESIGN
RESEARCH DESIGN
The design is the structure of any scientific work. It gives direction and systematizes the research. The
method you choose will affect your results and how you conclude the findings.

CHOOSING THE APPROPRIATE RESEARCH DESIGN

The study type, research question and hypotheses, independent and dependent variables, and data
collection methods are defined by the design of a study. It is easier to understand the different types of
quantitative research designs if you consider how the researcher designs for control of the variables in
the study.

Descriptive Design
Researchers use descriptive research designs to describe particular phenomena or relationships within
a single group sample. Descriptive designs are typically used as either pilot or preliminary studies and
generally, have rather basic statistical procedures. By nature, descriptive studies do not and cannot be
used to explain causation.
Descriptive research designs usually provide researchers with information about a group or
phenomenon about which there has been little research. However, descriptive studies lack
randomization and control and cannot be used to determine causation and other implications. In o
words, descriptive research designs can only be used to determine ``was and "what," not "why."

There are several types of descriptive design namely:

1. Descriptive-survey This type is appropriate wherever the subjects differ among themselves and
one is interested to know the scope to which different conditions and situations are obtained among
these subjects. The word survey indicates the gathering of data regarding current conditions. A survey
is valuable in: (1) providing the value of facts, and (2) focusing concentration on the most essential
things to be reported. In this type of survey, it is needed to establish the psychological and social
aspects of research by way of application or implementation of evidence to distinguish between facts
and influence.

Example: A researcher desires to find out the job-related problems and job-performance of security
employees in private and government offices in the City and Province of Cebu. He uses a questionnaire
as his research instrument and each item in the questionnaire for job-relate problems was rated using
the Likert scale. The subjects or respondent have to choose according to 4 levels of scales namely: 4-
very serious problem, 3 – serious problem, 2 –fairly serious problem, and 1- n a problem at all. From
the data collected, the researcher tabulate analyses, and interprets data. Then he proves the fact
gathered area of value to the researcher in particular and to the subjects in genera He should then
focus his attention to the most serious job-related problems met by the security employees.
1. Descriptive-normative survey - The term normative is often used because commonly made
to determine the normal or typical condition for practice, or to contrast local test results with a
stage surveys are or national norm. In the descriptive-normative surveys, the results/ findings of
the study should be evaluated with the norm.
Example: A researcher wishes to conduct a study on the English achievement of fourth year
secondary students at the state colleges and universities in NCR (National Capital Region. An
achievement test is the instrument used to gather the data. The results of the test are then compared
with the regional norm. If the achievement of the students is one standard deviation above (+1SD)
the mean, this indicates their achievement is very satisfactory. However, if within the mean stands
for satisfactory; and one standard deviation below (-1SD) the mean unsatisfactory and they
necessitate improvement.
 3. Descriptive-status - This approach to problem solving tries to answer questions to real facts
linking to existing conditions. This is a technique of quantitative description which establishes the
general condition in a group of cases selected for study. Several studies emphasize the prevailing
conditions with the assumption that things will vary. They envelop many traits or characteristics of
the group.
Example: A researcher desires to perform a study on the socio-economic status and performances
of instructors and professors c state universities and colleges in Metro Manila. He uses a questionnaire
as instrument to gather data and requests the subjects of the stud to answer it. Based on the responses,
the researcher can determine the socio-economic status and performance of SUC's universities am
professors in Metro Manila whether the higher the socio-economic status is, the higher the performance
will be; or the lower the socio-economic status is, the lower the performance will be.
4. Descriptive-analysis - This method establishes or explains the nature of an object by separating it
into its parts. Its purpose is to learn the nature of things. The researcher should verify the composition
structure, sub-structure that occurs as units with the larger structure.
Example: A researcher needs to carry out a study on the job analysis of security personnel in
government and private offices in Manila. devises a questionnaire to analyze the job of the subjects of
sim positions, functions and responsibilities and with the same salary.
5. Descriptive classification - This method is used in natural sciences subjects. The specimens
gathered are classified from phylum to species.

Example: An investigator needs to do a taxonomic study of "butanding” or whale sharks in the waters
of Donsol, Sorsogon. He collects from different research stations and then identifies and classifies them
according to classes and species.
6. Descriptive-evaluative - This design is to appraise carefully the worthiness of the current study.
Example: The researcher wishes to conduct a study on evaluation of an implementation of WOW (War
on Wastes) in the Division of Iloilo He devises a questionnaire which evaluates the implementation of
WOW and requests the division and district supervisors, principals, head teachers, and teachers as
subjects of the study to respond on it
7. Descriptive-comparative - This is a design where the researcher uses two variables that are not
manipulated and sets up a prescribed procedure to compare and conclude that one is better than the
other if significant difference exists.
Example: A researcher wishes to conduct a study on the effectiveness of teaching English using
rhetoric and content-based approaches to Bachelor of Science in Human Resource and Operations
Management students at the Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila. He uses tests as research
instrument. All things are held constant, except on the approaches of teaching used. The two variables
are rhetoric and content-based approaches. The statistical tool used is the z-test. If significant
difference exists it means an approach is better than the other. With no significant difference, the two
approaches are almost similar.
8. Correlational survey - This is a design to find out the relationship of two variables (X and Y) whether
the relationship is perfect, very high, high, marked or moderate, slight or negligible. Perfect positive
correlation with a value of 1.0 seldom happens, just like with perfect negative correlation. In perfect
positive correlation, all the individual performances in X and Y have the same positions. If he tops in
test X he also tops in test Y; if he is lowest in test X he is most likely lowest in test Y. In perfect negative
correlation, all the individual performances in X and Y have the opposite positions. If he tops in test X,
he is lowest in test Y; if he is lowest in test X, he tops in test Y.
Example: The researcher wishes to correlate the performance between English (X) and Mathematics
(Y) of freshmen marketing students in the Career Development Program at De La Salle College of St.
Benilde, Manila. He uses tests as research instrument in gathering the data and scattergram as the
statistical tool used to determine the correlation between X and Y.
9. Longitudinal survey This design entails much time allotted to subjects of two or more points in time.
investigation of the same
Example: A researcher desires to discover a science achievement pattern to secondary students, from
ages 13 to 16. He takes a p group of thirteen-year-old boys and girls and records their science
achievement over regular intervals, in this case every grading period. The researcher follows up this
work until they reach 16 years old. Based on the data gathered, the researcher discovers the Science
achievement pattern from the same group of students studied over a long period of time.

Quasi-Experimental
Researchers use quasi-experimental research designs to identify differences between two or more
groups in an attempt to explain causation What keeps these types of experiments from being true
experiments is lack of randomization. For example, researchers cannot randomly assign gender to
participants. Therefore, any study in which researchers are investigating differences between genders
is inherently quasi-experimental.

Quasi-experimental designs allow researchers more control to make assumptions about causation and
implications of findings. Quasi experimental designs are also useful when researchers want to study
particular groups in which group members cannot be randomly assigned (like persons with depression,
single mothers, people from different races or ethnic groups, etc.). A major drawback to using quasi-
experimental designs is that these designs typically have less internal validity than do true experimental
designs.

The following are some types of quasi-experimental designs:

1. One-group posttest-only design - A type of experimental study in which only one group receives
a treatment and is then measured in a post-test after treatment. In this design, there is no available
comparison group or pretest data or baseline condition to compare with. This design is best
implemented as an evaluation model.
2. Static group comparison design - This design attempts to make up for the lack of a control group
but falls short in relation to showing if a change has occurred. In the static group comparison study, two
groups are chosen, one of which receives the treatment and the other does not A posttest score is then
determined to measure the difference, after treatment, between the two groups. As you can see, this
study does not include any pre-testing and therefore any differences between the two groups prior to
the study are unknown.
3. Nonequivalent control group design - In the nonequivalent control design, a treatment group and
a comparison group are compared using pretest and posttest measures. However, these groups are
randomly selected because they constitute naturally assembled (such as classrooms). The assignment
of X (the treatment) to one group or the other is randomly selected by the researcher. For example,
four sections of a course are chosen to participate in a study of teaching methods. Half are randomly
assigned a new teaching method and half are not. All are given pretests at the beginning of the term
and all are given posttests at the end of the semester.
4. Time series design - A quasi-experimental research design in which periodic measurements are
made on a defined group of individuals both before and after implementation of an intervention. Time
series studies are often conducted for the purpose of determining the intervention or treatment effect.
For instance, to examine the effect of a new, government-funded nutrition program on school children
a nutritional scale is administered to a sample of school children receiving this program. The nutritional
scale is measured once before the program, and then 3 months after the program, and at the end of
one year following program implementation. The outcomes at different time points are compared to
assess the program effect.
5. Equivalent time-samples - This design involves periodic introduction of treatments followed by
measurements with the treatments varied consistently over time. For example, to study the effect on
student discussions of having an observer appear in a classroom. At time period one, an observer is
present and a measure of discussion level is made. At time two, no observer is present and a measure
of discussion level is made. At time three an observer is present; a measure is taken. At time four, an
observer is not present, a measure is taken.
6. Multiple time series design -A type of quasi-experimental design where a series of periodic
measurements is taken from two groups of test units (an experimental group and a control). The
experimental group is exposed to a treatment and then another series of periodic measure- groups.
7. Equivalent material design - This design involves giving equivalent samples of materials to
subjects, imparting interventions, and then making observations.
For example, subjects are asked to complete a survey instrument about their opinions related to current
events. The students are then split into two groups and given two different sets of (falsified) survey
results indicating how other students answered the survey. Both groups are then asked to complete
the survey again to observe how they respond.

Experimental
Experimental research designs have the most control, and, thus, allow researchers to explain
differences between groups. One of the key features of an experimental design is that participants are
randomly assigned to groups. Experimental designs can be used to test differences between groups
(such as treatment A group, treatment B group, and control group) or factorial differences within multiple
levels of each group (like a drug group of Imodium)
True experimental research designs are understood to be the gold standard of research because
experimental research designs are the best designs for researchers to predict causation. However, true
experimental designs often require more resources than do other research designs and will not work
with all research questions.
There are three types:
1. Independent measures / groups - Different participants are used in each condition of the
independent variable. For example, if the researcher is trying to discover if girls are less aggressive
than boys, then he obviously needs two separate groups, namely boys and girls.
2. Repeated measures - The same participants take part in each condition of the independent variable.
Suppose, for example, the researcher wants to find out if people react more quickly to an auditory
stimulus (like a bell) or to a visual stimulus (like a light). He can use the san participants and try them
out with both types of stimulus. This is called a repeated measures design and is often more accurate
than the independent measures design. However, it introduces other confounding variables which he
must be careful to control, namely practice effects or fatigue (these are called order effects).
3. Matched pairs. Each condition uses different participants, but they matched in terms of certain
characteristics. Participants can be matched on variables which are considered to be relevant to the
experiment question. For example, pairs of participants might be matched age, gender and their scores
from intelligence or personality tests

SAMPLE

The population in statistics includes all members of a defined group that researchers are studying or
collecting information on for data drive decisions. A part of the population is called a sample. The
sample is a proportion of the population, a slice of it, a part of it and all its characteristics; it is a subset
of a population that is used to represent the entire group. When doing research, it is often impractical
to survey every member of a particular population because the sheer number of people is simply too
large
When researching an aspect of the human mind or behavior, researchers simply cannot collect data
from every single individual in most cases. Instead, they choose a smaller sample of individuals that
represent the larger group. If the sample is truly representative of the population in question,
researchers can then take their results and generalize them to the larger group
Because sampling naturally cannot include every single individual in a population, errors can occur.
Differences between what is present in a population and what is present in a sample are known as
sampling errors.
In general, the larger the samples size the smaller the level of e This is simply because as the sample
becomes closer to reaching the same of the total population, the more likely it is to accurately capture
all of the characteristics of the population. The only way to completely eliminate sampling error is to
collect data from the entire population, which is often simply too cost-prohibitive and time-consuming.
Sampling errors can be minimized, however, by using randomized probability testing and a large
sample size.

Sample Size
There are various formulas for calculating the required sample size based upon whether the data
collected is to be of a categorical or quantitative nature.
A larger sample can yield more accurate results but excessive responses can be expensive.
Before you can calculate a sample size, you need to determine a few things about the target population
and the sample you need:
1. Population size - How many total people fit your demographic? For instance, if you want to know
about mothers living in the Philippines, your population size would be the total number of mothers living
in the Philippines. Don't worry if you are unsure about this number. It is common for the population to
be unknown or approximated.
2. Margin of error (confidence interval) - No sample will be perfect, so you need to decide how much
error to allow. It is the plus-or-minus figure usually reported in newspaper or television opinion poll
results. For example, if you use a confidence interval of 4 and 47% percent of your sample picks an
answer you can be "sure" that if you had asked the question of the entire relevant population between
43% (47-4) and 51% (47+4) would have picked that answer.
3. Confidence level - tells you how sure you can be. It is expressed as a percentage and represents
how often the true percentage of the population who would pick an answer lies within the confidence
interval. The 95% confidence level means you can be 95% certain; the 99% confidence level means
you can be 99% certain. Most researchers use the 95% confidence level.
4. Standard of deviation - How much variance do you expect in your responses? Since the actual
survey has not been administered yet the safe decision is to use .5 which is the most forgiving number
and ensures that your sample will be large enough.

Slovin's formula
If you take a population sample, you must use a formula to figure out how to determine the sample size.
You can use Slovin's formula to figure out what sample size you need to take. The formula is:

n=N/(1 + Ne2) where: n = Number of samples

N = Total population and
e = Error tolerance

With the use of technology particularly the Internet there are available sites that offer sample size
calculator. Here are some of those sites:
1. http://www.surveysystem.com/sscalc.htm
2. www.raosoft.com/samplesize.html
3. www.calculator.net > Math Calculators
4. www.nss.gov.au/nss/home.nsf/pages/Sample+size+calculator
5. fluidsurveys.com/survey-sample-size-calculator/

RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY

Reliability is the ability of separate researchers to come to similar conclusions produce the same
measurement. For example, a person who takes a risk toleration using the same experimental design
or participants in a study to survey will achieve the same score regardless of whether he or she takes
it in the consistently morning or evening, in January or July, etc.

Validity refers to the ability of an instrument to measure what it is supposed to measure. Il conducted
a survey to measure the degree of financial risk a person was willing to tolerate and the survey
measured the respondent's IQ instead, it would not be valid. Internal Validity refers to the veracity of
the study, how well it was constructed and run, accuracy of definitions and theories employed accurate
measurement and the researcher's degree of confidence that the change in the of variables, dependent
variable was affected by the independent variable.
External Validity is a study's ability to have the results generalized to the population. In quantitative
studies this is done by ensuring that sampling was done in an appropriate way, such as randomizing
selection so that every element in a population has a chance to participate or to use selective
techniques, such as stratified or snowball sampling, to ensure that various groups are adequately
represented. The elimination of extraneous variables as causative factors increases external validity.

SAMPLING PROCEDURES
The researcher has the burden of demonstrating in his report that his sample, regardless of how it was
chosen, represents the target population. As long as the researcher makes a convincing argument in
his methodology section that his sample adequately represents the target population, the researcher
really can use any available sampling procedure.

Sampling is a process or technique of choosing a subgroup from a population to participate in the study.
It is the process of selecting a number of individuals for a study in such a way that the individuals
selected represent the large group from which they were selected. There are two major sampling
procedures in research that have been developed to ensure that a sample adequately represents the
target population. These include probability and non-probability sampling. A few of the most common
are described below:

1. SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

A simple random sample is a sample selected in such a way that every sample of the same size is
equally likely to be chosen.
Drawing three names from a hat containing all the names of the students in the class is an example of
a simple random sample: any group of three names is as equally likely as picking any other group of
three names.

2. STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING

A stratified random sample is obtained by separating the population into mutually exclusive sets, or
strata, and then drawing simple random samples from stratum.

3. CLUSTER SAMPLING
A cluster sample is a simple random sample of groups or clusters of elements (vs. a simple random
sample of individual objects). This method is useful when it is difficult or costly to develop a complete
list of the population members or when the population elements are widely dispersed geographically
Cluster sampling may increase sampling error due to similarities among cluster members.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES
A. DIRECTIONS: Research Design (Choose among the given research designs in this chapter)

B. DIRECTIONS: Compute your sampling size using Slovin’s Formula.

C. DIRECTIONS: Discuss the sampling method that you used and justify.
D.