Int. J. Adv. Multidiscip. Res. (2022).

9(1): 46-67

International Journal of Advanced Multidisciplinary Research

ISSN: 2393-8870
www.ijarm.com
(A Peer Reviewed, Referred, Indexed and Open Access Journal)
DOI: 10.22192/ijamr Volume 9, Issue 1 -2022
Review Article DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.22192/ijamr.2022.09.01.004

The journey of Semiconductor Research: Study

Shivpal Yadav
University of Allahabad, India, Prayagraj, 211002.
E-mail: [email protected]
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5975-9674

Abstract
Keywords
Nowadays Human life is completely fulfilled by electronic gadgets. The Heart of
Semiconductor, electronic gadgets is a semiconductor. Semiconductor research started from
Vacuum tubes, VOLTA (inventor of the battery) and or FARADAY. Semiconductor research
Diodes, started in practical view or manufacturing, with Bose’s research (cat’s whisker) in
Transistors, the 1890s. Here, You can get information about the contribution of scientists in
LED, semiconductor research and also you can see how much development in
Laser, semiconductor research in 19th, 20th and 21st century. Remembered, the contribution
IC and Fairchild, of industries founded from the preliminary stages of semiconductor products to
Intel, modern and their great impact on the semiconductor industry/market and its
MOSFETs, growth. A brief historical journey of the creation of vacuum tube, diode, transistor,
FETs, IC, laser and LED is also mentioned here.
CMOS.

[In memories of first crush/love]

In 1883, Thomas Alva Edison discovered the
1. Introduction Edison effect and then Fleming applied it to
Many people believe that metals are classified create a vacuum tube diode. In the amplification
into conductor, semiconductor and insulator. and distribution of electrical energy, diodes and
Metals are classified into only two categories as triodes were instrumental. While vacuum tubes
conductor and insulator. Silicon is an insulator, were expensive, fragile and had high energy
but when it is mixed with impurities like oxide, consumption. Metal-semiconductor contacts date
sulphide, it behaves like a half/nearly-conductor, back to Braun's early work in 1874, who
which means its conductivity lies between a discovered the asymmetric nature of electrical
conductor and insulator. Semiconductor research conduction, such as copper iron and lead
has evolved around three products: vacuum tubes, sulphides, between metal contacts and
transistors and integrated circuits. Many geniuses semiconductors. This is the first report of
have contributed to semiconductor research. I will asymmetric conduction and divergence from the
try to collect all the experiments on them. law of Ohm.
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Selenium was the most important semiconductor speed circuits are now possible with IC that were
of the 19th century, Because of its photoelectric not practical with discrete circuits. In high-speed
properties, a large number of scientists, like computers, for example, the logic and memory
Smiths Adams and Day Fritts, were attracted to circuits can be placed very close to each other to
research. As a matter of the fact, the photoelectric minimize time delays. From 1961, mostly all
effects were first observed in the semiconductors semiconductor affiliated firms are produced
(as early as 1873). The first observation of integrated circuits with designs of equipment
photoelectric properties in metal came in 1887 by changed rapidly and ready to adopt new
Hertz. technology. Bipolar junction transistors and
digital integrated circuits were made first, but
Edison effect rectification in a vacuum tube was analogue integrated circuits, like large-scale
discovered in 1884, rectification at Electrode - integration (LSI) and very-large-scale integration
electrolyte contact was discovered sometime (VLSI) followed by the mid-1970s. VLSI consists
during the end of the century. This effect is the of thousands of circuits with on and off switches
basis of the basic and simplest electronic or gates between them on a single chip.
component the diode. By 1935, selenium Microcomputers, medical equipment, video
rectifiers and silicon point-contact diodes were cameras and communication satellites are the only
available for use as radio detectors. In 1942, example of devices made possible by IC.
Bethe developed the thermionic-emission theory,
according to which the current is determined by Practical MOS (metal-oxide-semiconductor)
the process of the emission of electrons into the transistors were then developed in the mid-1960s
metal rather than by drift or diffusion. With the and 1970s. The MOS technologies, especially
development of radar, the need for better and CMOS (complementary metal-oxide-
well-grounded detector diodes and mixers semiconductor), have become a major focus for
increased. Methods of performing high purity IC design and development. Silicon is the main
silicon and germanium were developed during semiconductor material, while gallium, arsenic
this time, and germanium diodes became a key and other compound semiconductor materials are
component in radar systems during World War II. used for optical devices and special applications
In 1947, John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and requiring very high-frequency devices.
William Shockley at Bell Telephone Laboratories
(BTL) developed the transistor, and they received Semiconductor devices can be classified into:
the Nobel Prize for their creation.
(I) TWO TERMINAL: Gun diode and Tunnel
The circuits at that time were discrete/ diode, Laser diode, LED, Photocell, Solar cell,
discontinuous in that each element had to be etc.
individually connected by wires to form the
circuit. In 1952, An idea of an integrated circuit (II) THREE TERMINAL: Bipolar Transistor,
was proposed by Geoffrey W. A. Dummer, a Darling ton Transistor, Field Effect Transistor,
British electronics expert in the Royal Radar Thyristor and Unijunction Transistor.
Establishment. Circuits consist of many active
devices (transistors, diodes, etc.) and passive (III) FOUR TERMINAL and
devices (capacitors, resistors, etc.) both can be MULTITERMINAL: RAM, ROM,
fabricated on a single unit of semiconductor Microprocessor and IC.
material. The first IC was fabricated in February
1959 by Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments. In July
1959, a planar version of the IC was
independently developed by Robert Noyce of
Fairchild. The time delay of signals between
devices is short, so that high frequency and high-
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2. Semiconductor research in 18th -19th extraordinary case of this kind, for electricity of
century [rectification, photovoltaic and low tension or that of the voltaic pile and which is
in direct contrast with the influence of heat upon
diodes]:
metallic bodies and described by Sir Humphry
Davy.”_ [2]
Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio VOLTA
(1745-1827) is famous as the inventor of the
Michael Faraday once a time served as Davy’s
battery, In1782, VOLTA published a paper in
assistance.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
of London. It was unclear, but in the English
The first observed off the semiconductor property
translation, a small passage can be found as
Faraday's 1833 report on the negative temperature
follows:
resistance coefficient of silver sulphide. For a
metal, with increasing temperature, the electrical
“The surface of those bodies does not contract
conductivity decreases. Thus Faraday’s effect or
any electricity or if the electricity adheres to
the semiconductor effect usually found that
them, it vanishes soon, on account of their semi-
semiconductor is opposite to metals in this
conducting nature; for which reason, they can’t
situation.
answer the office of an electrophorus and
therefore are more fit to be used as condensers
2.1. Photovoltaic effect: In 1839, A French
for electricity.’’[ULSI front-end technology]_[2]
scientist ALEXANDRE- EDMOND
BECQUEREL (1820-1891) discovered the
Thus, we can say that the term semiconductor was
photovoltaic effect. He was the father of HENRI
first used by VOLTA in 1782.
BECQUEREL, who was a winner of the 1903
NOBEL PRIZE for discovering radioactivity. He
HUMPHRY DAVY (1778-1829), discovered
(A.E. Becquerel) discovered the photovoltaic
Chlorine and Iodine. In 1821, Davy observed the
effect at a junction between a semiconductor and
effect of increasing temperature on the electrical
an electrolyte. Two metal electrodes are
conductivity of metals as follows.
connected to the electrolyte and semiconductor
respectively. In his experiment, AgCl coated a
“The most remarkable general result that I
platinum electrode was immersed in an aqueous
obtained by these researches, and which I shall
nitric acid electrolyte solution. Illumination of the
mention first, as it influences all others, was that
electrode generated photovoltaic. It produced a
the conducting power of metallic bodies varied
reductive photo-current at an electrode. Today’s
with the temperature and was lower in some
this type of device, known as photo-
inverse ratio as the temperature was higher.’’
electrochemical solar cell, for example,
[ULSI front-end technology]_ [2]
semiconductor liquid junction solar cell.
MICHAEL FARADAY (1791-1867) was a
WILLOUGHBY SMITH (1828-1891), an
British chemist and physicist, In 1833 he
electrical engineer, working on underwater
observed that the electrical conductivity of silver
telephone cable projects. In 1849, he supervised
sulphide increased (or resistance of silver
the manufacturing laying of 30 miles of
sulphide decreased) with increasing temperature
underwater telephone cable from Dover. In 1873,
as follows,
Smith reached the discovery of the photo-
conductivity of selenium by a beautiful
“The effect of heat in increasing the conducting
experimental story. Smith developed a system for
power of many substances, especially for
continuous underwater cable checking while it
electricity of high tension is well known. I have
was being laid down. Smith wanted a material
lately met with an extraordinary case of this kind,
with very high resistance, but not a complete
which is well known. I have lately met with an
insulator for his testing circuit. He preferred
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selenium rods that were appropriate for submarine most perfectly formed crystals that I could find as
telegraphy. Selenium showed some form of well as coarse samples, I discovered that their
unpredictable resistance, it turned out. Smith resistance varied with the direction, intensity and
noticed that the resistance of the selenium duration of the current. The differences amount
depended on light shining on it. The selenium was up to 30% of the total amount.”[ULSI front-end
loaded into a sliding cover container. With the Technology]_ [2]
cover closed, the resistance was top, but it
dropped when the cover was open such as the Braun’s work, the asymmetric current-voltage
light shining on the selenium. In 1873 in "issue of characteristic first reported by Braun in 1874
scientific journal nature," Smith published a papers, is so remarkable. Those materials that
paper on its title "Effect of light on selenium obey Ohm's law (conductor), has a current-
during the passing of an electrical current." voltage characteristic curve that is linear as well
as symmetric. For certain metallic sulphides
W.G. ADAMS (WILLIAM GRYLLS ADAMS (today's semiconductor), Braun thus stated that
1836-1915) and R.E.DAY(Richard Evans Day, the presence of non-linear and asymmetric
student of Adams) observed the photovoltaic current-voltage characteristics. For example, lead
effect in selenium without any liquid and sulphide (PdS) is a semiconductor with a band-
reported, their his observation in 1877. This gap of about 0.4electron-volt. Galena is a
selenium may be considered as the first naturally occurring mineral form of lead sulphide.
semiconductor solid-state electronics discovered The theory of asymmetric current-voltage
by mankind. In 1883, CHARLES EDGER characteristics was explained by German scientist
FRITTS built a selenium solar cell. Thin selenium WALTER SCHOTTKY.
wafers are known to be shielded by a very thin
semi-transparent gold wires and a protective layer In 1874, rectification was observed in a circuit
of glass. BUILTKURT LEHOVEC (1918-2012) made of copper wires linked by screws by Arthur
may be the first scientist who came up with an Schuster. Schuster’s discovery of rectification to
explanation of the solar cell effect. In 1948, he contacts between the tarnished and untarnished
published his theory in the US Journal of Physical copper wire. Schuster observed that only after the
Review. He is also known as the inventor of p-n circuit was not used for some even does the effect
junction isolation, which is most useful in appear. The rectification was gone as soon as he
integrated circuit technology. [2] cleaned the ends of the wires (that is, removed
copper oxide). This is how copper oxide was
2.2. Rectification:[one of the biggest discovery of discovered as a new semiconductor. That is Braun
19th century in semiconductor research]: KARL experimented on nearly all natural metallic
FERDINAND BRAUN (1850-1918), German sulphides and pyrites, like copper pyrite, iron
scientist, who shared 1909 NOBEL PRIZE with pyrite, galena and tetra-hedrite (copper antimony
Guglielmo Marconi in recognition of their sulphide). He continued his experiments until
contributions to the development of wireless 1883. The copper oxide coating on the
telegraphy. In 1874, Braun disclosed his untarnished wire probably acted as the
discovery of the rectification effect at the contact semiconductor in Schuster's experiment, giving a
between certain materials, especially natural rectification property to the touch. In 1929, the
crystals. He noticed that the resistance of the existence of a barrier in a metal-semiconductor
semiconductor, natural crystal (sulphide junction was confirmed experimentally by Walter
component) depends on the polarity and Schottky.
magnitude of the applied voltage as well as
surface conditions. From his 1874 papers, 2.3 Vacuum tube era: The discovery of
germanium element (Ge) is attributed to German
“With a large quantity of natural and artificial chemist CLEMENS ALEXANDER WINKLER
metallic sulphides and greatly varying pieces, the (1838-1904). Silicon was discovered before
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germanium. In 1824, Swedish chemist Jones, be better than a vacuum tube. In an old cat's
Jacob Berzelius (1779-1848) prepared amorphous whisker detector, the depletion region is very
silicon by heating the mixture of potassium and small and the transit time is therefore small. [8]
silicon tetrafluoride (SiF4). A German chemist
Friedrich Wohler (1800-1882) prepared the Thus, the semiconductor had not received any
silicon in crystalline form. Whittier Pickard device application for practical use until 1890.
(1847-1956) filed a patent for a silicon-based After Hertz demonstrated the existence of
radio detector. Primitive Si point contact detectors electromagnetic waves in 1888, scientists got
are no longer used for AM radio detectors, but interested in the discovery of electromagnetic
modern Si point contact detectors are still used at waves and then wireless telegraphy became
UHF (ultra-high frequencies) range (1-2 GHz) practicable. Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose – the
microwave frequencies. Primitive radio detectors pioneer of semiconductor device application was
were almost totally replaced by vacuum tube the first person who introduces semiconductors
diode detectors. Thomas Alva Edison (1847- for the reception, received to detect the wireless
1931) independently research the basic principle waves. He applied various metal-semiconductor
of operation of the vacuum tube diode in 1880 junctions linked to a strongly galvanic meter in
and 1883, Thomas Alva Edison discovered that series to collect radiation.
electrons will flow from one metal conductor to
another through the vacuum. This discovery of Bose disclosed the invention of this receiver
the conductor is known as the Edison effect. In (Bose’s spiral spring coherer) in 1897 at the
1897, Sir JOHN AMBROSE FLEMING (1849- Royal Society. This device was contained
1945) was a scientist, applied the Edison effect in thousands of steel springs (2 mm in diameter and
inverting a two-element electron tube called a 1 cm in length) that were placed side by side in a
diode, inventor of vacuum tube diodes and he got single layer in the rectangular depression on a
the US patent 803,684 in 1905 for this invention._ square piece of ebonite, ebonite. A glass slide in
[8] the front stopped the springs from falling. The
interactions between the springs acted as
Vacuum tube diode detectors can’t amplify junctions of the semiconductor. The
electrical signals. The situation was completely semiconductor is formed by the fine oxide layer
changed by the invention of vacuum tube triodes, in the spring. A voltaic cell and a deadbeat
tetrode and pentodes. In 1906, Lee de Forest galvanometer were connected in series to this
(1873-1967), invented vacuum tube triodes (He unit. As electric radiation was absorbed by the
utilized the Edison effect to invert a three-element sensitive contacts, and the galvanometer was
tube called the triode.) and he got patent 879,532 deflected, there was a sudden decrease in
in 1908 for this invention. Walter Schottky resistance. This detector is called a detector of
invented vacuum tube tetrode and he received a metal-semiconductor-metal (MSM). This detector
German patent of 300,617 in 1916. Benard D.H. was described as a space irradiated multi-contact
Tellegen invented the vacuum tube pentodes and semiconductor (using the natural oxide of
he got the US patent 1,945,640 in 1934. springs). Some pioneering solid-state
semiconductor receivers are the spiral spring
The vacuum tube diode detector has difficulty coherer, galena receiver and iron, mercury
operating at microwave frequencies. The need for coherer (detector) with a telephone. [7]
microwave radar for aircraft detection before and
during the second world war (WWII 1939-1945) Thus, this wonderful story is started from
gave new life for semiconductor diode detectors. Faraday’s silver sulphide in 1833 to Bose’s spiral
The size of an antenna required for radar can be spring detector in 1897.
decreased by using higher frequencies. At GHz
frequencies, the old cat's whisker detector, which
is a semiconductor diode detector, was found to
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3. Semiconductor research in 19th -20th both). This formed a junction with rectifying
century: property and by the shielding arrangement
suitable oxidized spots were found. [8]
In 1901, the very first semiconductor device,
called CAT WHISKERS, was patented by J.C. Germanium is less expensive. In addition, Si
Bose. Cat Whiskers was a point-contact retains its semiconducting properties at a higher
semiconductor rectifier used for detecting radio temperature than germanium. At temperatures up
waves. Sir J.C. Bose gets the first patent for the to degrees Celsius, silicon diodes can be operated
semiconductor diode detector, is the galena while Ge diodes can’t be operated above 85
detector which invented nearly 1894-98 and degrees Celsius. Another significant Si property
demonstrated in Royal Institution Discourse in was not realized at the time, but was necessary for
1900. This device could detect nearly all kinds of the production of the low-cost transistor and
radiation like light waves. He called his galena integrated circuits; Si, unlike Ge, forms a
point contact detector an artificial retina (because tenaciously adhering oxide film with excellent
only light waves could be detected by proper electrical insulating properties when it is heated to
arrangement), a universal radiometer or tejometer high temperature in the presence of oxygen. The
(Sanskrit tej means radiation). He invented this film is used as a mask to allow the desired
device for the reception of signals in wireless or impurities to be introduced into it during the
another telegraphy. From his patent application, manufacture of semiconductor devices that alter
the electrical properties of silicon. The mask
“A coherer or detector of electrical disturbances pattern, shaped by a photolithographic process,
Hertzian waves, light waves or other radiations, allows tiny transistors to be produced.
comprising contacting pieces of sensitive
substances has a characteristic curve (giving the 3.1. Point-contact rectifiers: In 1904, J.C. Bose
relation between an increasing electromotive obtained a patent for PbS point-contact rectifiers.
force and the resultant current passing through G.Pickard was the first to show that silicon point-
the sensitive substance), which is not straight but contact rectifiers were useful in the detection of
is either convex or concave to the axis of radio waves (patented in 1906). The selenium and
electromotive force and in which the return curve copper oxide rectifiers were developed,
with a decreasing electromotive force when taken respectively, in 1925 by E. Presser and 1926 by
slowly approximately coincides with the former L.O.Grondahl. Selenium rectifiers were used
curve, in combination with means for adjusting widely in military communications and radar
the force of contact between said contacting equipment during WWII. [7]
pieces.”[Asif][8]
3.2. Invention of p-n junction: Russell
The main difference between Bose’s detector and Shoemaker Ohl (1898-1987) and his colleagues at
early 1900 detectors is that Bose’s detector the Bell Laboratories succeeded in a reproducible
worked on millimetre waves range and his way in generating p-type silicon, n-type silicon.
detector junctions were directly illuminated by the He made the first p-n junction silicon as follows.
waves. In one limb there was a thin rod plunger Scaff and Ohl released a study on their attempt to
and on the other, there was a sensitive material create silicon microwave detectors in 1947.
with touches mercury barely. By adjusting the Morrison showed, through actual calculation, the
position, the plunger by a side arrangement, the superiority of silicon detectors relative to vacuum
pressure applied on the contact was adjusted. The tube detectors at microwave frequencies. Ohl
circuit was completed through the metal and worked with a silicon crystal sample in 1940 that
mercury. The detection of microwaves was had a crack in its centre. When he noticed that
possible due to the formation of an oxide film, when the sample was exposed to light, the current
either on the surface of mercury or on the iron (or flowing between the two sides of the crack

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created a substantial jump, he used an ohmmeter Brattain and John Bardeen, who constructed the
to verify the electrical resistance of the sample. point-contact transistor, were two gold foil
The broken silicon specimen, however, was quite contacts sitting on a germanium crystal as
a curiosity. In the Bell laboratories, Ohl showed electrical current is applied to one contact, the
the sample to his colleagues and they together frequency of the current flowing through the other
deduced that the crack was a lucky mistake. When contact is increased by the germanium used by the
the molten silicon froze in the crucible, it marked physicists, a semiconductor with a spring-
the dividing line that had happened. Different mounted against it with two closely spaced gold
impurities or contaminants in the silicon had been contacts. The germanium chunk had an external
separated into various regions at that point, with layer with an overabundance of electrons and it
the crack separating them. As a result, there were inserted points without electrons as an electrical
extra electrons around them in the silicon atoms signal passed through the gold foil, creating a thin
in the area on one side of the fracture. The other layer with an electron deficiency. A modest
area was the opposite; there was a small shortage positive current placed on one of the two contacts
of electrons in its crystallised silicon. They named affected the current which passed between the
the two regions p and n, p stand for positive type other contact and the base where the Ge was
and n for negative type. The p-n junction was attached. The physicists saw a modest change in
considered the barrier between the impurities. The the first contact current triggered a greater shift
junction represents a barrier, preventing the the second contact current acting as an amplifier.
excess electrons in the n-region from travelling William Shockley enhanced their work by
over a top region that is short of electrons, creating a junction transistor with n and p-type
resulting in zero current. However, there is a flow germanium sandwiches. In 1952, the junction
of current when the sample is irradiated with transistors were first used as a hearing aid in a
light, resulting in a basic tool that can turn light commercial product. The first transistor radio,
into electrical energy. The silicon p-n junction Frequency Regency TR1, was produced in 1954.
solar cell was thus invented by Ohl; for this John Bardeen and Walter Brattain issued a patent
invention, he obtained the US patent 2,402,662 in for their transistor, while WILLIAM
1946. Unlike the earlier selenium solar cells, the SHOCKLEY applied for a transistor affect patent
silicon solar cells based on the p-n junction and a transistor amplifier. For their discovery of
converted sunlight much more effectively. the transistor effect, W.B.Shockley, John Bardeen
and Walter Houser Brattain were awarded the
The invention of semiconductor doping has been 1956 Nobel Prize in physics. [2][8]
credited quite often to JOHN ROBERT
WOODYARD (1904-1981). He got a patent on WILLIAM BRADFORD SHOCKLEY (1910-
the doping of Ge as US patent 2,530,110, which 1989) invented the junction transistor that led to
was filed in 1944 and awarded in 1950. power efficiency, readiability and compactness of
electronic circuits far beyond the limitations of
3.3. Journey of transistor: The point-contact vacuum tubes. It was JOHN ROBINSON
transistor was invented at the bell phone PIERCE who at the request of Brattain, came to
laboratories in Murray Hill, New Jersey after the name “transistor’’. At that time, Pierce was
WWII, by John Bardeen (1908-1991) and Walter the supervisor of the Bell Laboratories team.
Houser Brattain(1902-1987). To replace vacuum Actually, In 1945, William Shockley put forward
tubes as mechanical relays in a concept of a semiconductor amplifier operating
telecommunications, they examined the action of through the field-effect principle. The idea was
germanium crystals as semiconductors. The the application of a transverse electric field would
vacuum tubes used to amplify music and voice change the conductance of a semiconductor layer.
made long-distance calling possible, but the tubes Unfortunately, this effect was not observed
absorbed heat generated by electricity and burned experimentally.
out quickly, requiring high maintenance. Walter
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Moore and Robert Norton Noyce quitted joining remembered as the scientist who recognized the
Fairchild semiconductor. Jean Hoerni was known potential of semiconductors in III-V.
about the evolution of the planar structure.
Gordon Moore and Robert Noyce have been The first transistor made in the Bell laboratories
famous as two of the three founders of Intel was based on germanium. Ge has a small bandgap
(integrated electronics) company. of about 0.7eV. When the temperature increases,
leakage current increases exponentially. Silicon
Using a technique developed by Gordon K.Teal has a longer band-gap of about 1.1eV. It can be
and John B, the semiconductor material Bardeen easily seen that silicon transistors will have much
and Brattain worked with was prepared. Little better thermal stability compared to Ge
based on the Czochralski method. The crystal was transistors. Texas Instruments created the first
then purified using the zone refining method efficient Si transistors. Gordon Kidd Teal was the
proposed by William G. Pfann. Point-contact team leader responsible for this achievement.
transistors were the first to be produced, but they Before joining TI, he worked for Bell
were extremely unstable and the electrical Laboratories. Scientists working at the Bell
characteristics were hard to control. In 1952, the Laboratories have also managed to make silicon
first expanded junction transistors were transistors after TI's success in producing silicon
manufactured. When compared to their point- transistors. For example, Tanenbaum and Thomas
contact predecessor, they were much better, but published a paper “Diffused emitter and base
the production was much more difficult. As a silicon transistors” in 1959. Aschner published a
result of a complicated doping procedure, three paper, “A double diffused silicon high-frequency
regions forming an np-n structure consisted of the switching transistor produced by oxide masking
cultivated crystal. It had to be split into individual techniques” in 1959. Theuer et al., In1960, a
devices, and it was important to make contacts. renowned paper on "Bpitaxial diffused
The procedure was complex and could not be transistors" was published. For discrete silicon
easily automated. In addition, a significant transistors, the double diffused epitaxial transistor
amount of semiconductor material was lost. It was eventually becomes the standard structure. As
announced in 1952 that the alloyed transistor compared to the vacuum tubes, the transistor was
junction (Two pellets of Indium were alloyed on much more efficient, operated quicker and
the opposite sides of a slice of silicon). produced less heat. Thus, it was expected that
these devices could be used to build large
It is also known, in addition to US scientists, that systems.
two German physicists, Herbert Franz Matare and
Heinrich Welker, who worked in France after the 3.4. Journey of integrated circuit:
Second World War, invented something similar to
a transistor independently around 1948, Before the invention of the IC, different
approximately at the same time. Matare, in 1952, components (vacuum tubes or transistors, diodes,
co-founded the INTERMETAll Company to capacitors, resistors and inductors) were
manufacture diodes and transistors. Welker joined individuals bound together by electronic devices.
Siemens and eventually became its director of The common feature of these efforts was the
research. For conducting fundamental research on cabling discrete and separately packaged system
III-V semiconductors, he is also remembered. In components together.
1952, based on the elements contained in columns
III and V of the periodic table, he introduced In 1958, During the works at TEXAS
semiconductors as potentially useful for electronic INSTRUMENTS(TI), Jack Kilby (Jack st. Clair
devices. In the search for an effective Kilby, 1923-2005) demonstrated the first
communication laser, one of the gallium arsenide integrated circuit where several devices were
(GaAs) was to feature prominently. He is thus fabricated in one silicon substrate and connected
by means of wire bonding. Kilby realized that this
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would be a disadvantage therefore in his patent he processing and scientific calculations before the
proposed theformation of interconnecting means microprocessor arrived on site. The high demand
of deposition of aluminium on a layer of SiO2 produced by these initial applications for
covering the semiconductor material. This(its microprocessors led to high volume production
planar version) has been achieved independently and a significant cost reduction. This in turn
by Robert Noyce in 1959. Robert Norton Noyce promoted and uses of the devices in many other
(1927-90) also claimed to have invented the applications, for example, in household
integrated circuit. Actually, many years later, applications and automobiles. Continuous
Kilby published about the history of his invention. advances in IC technology have given rise to very
Therefore, In 2000, J.S.Kilby wins Nobel prize large-scale integration (VLSI), which has greatly
for his invention of integrated circuits (IC). increased microprocessor circuit density. [11]

Typically, Kilby is credited with introducing the Cheap microprocessors had stimulated
idea of combining system and circuit components computerization of a huge variety of consumer
on a single silicon chip, while Noyce is credited products by the mid-1980s. By mid1986-memory
with creating the process for integrating the IC with a capacity of 262,144 bits(binary digits)
separate components. There is more than one were available. In fact, Gordon Moore, observed
transistor in an integrated circuit and thus device as early as 1965 that the complexity of IC was
isolation is necessary. 'Junction isolation' was approximately doubled every 18-24 months,
pioneered by Kurt Lehovec (1918-2012). For this, which was still the case in 2000. This is known as
he received US Patent 3,029,366. Jean Amedee ‘Moore’s law’ and is widely used in forecasting
Hoerni (1924-97) pioneered ‘planar technology’. the technological requirements for manufacturing
He obtained US patent 3,025,589 and US patent future of IC.
3,064,167.
An important advantage of IC is the result of
Early IC contained about 10 individual devices being fabricated very close to each other.
components on a silicon chip of 3mm(0.12inch) The time delay of signals between devices is
square. By 1970, at no increases in prices, the short, so that high frequency and high speed
number was up to 1000 on a chip of the same circuits are now possible with IC that we’re a not
scale. Late in the following year, the first practical with discrete circuits. In addition,
microprocessor was introduced. The device parasitic capacitance and inductance devices are
contained all the arithmetic, logic and control reduced, which also provides improvement in the
circuity required to perform the functions of a speed of the system.
computer’s central processing unit(CPU). A team
at INTEL Corporation, the same company that Integration scale’ is basically the number of
also introduced the memory IC in 1971, created component devices typically the transistors within
this type of large-scale IC. The stage has now an integrated circuit. Historically, it has been
been created for small electronic devices to be classified into ranges of integration (Di Giacomo
computerized. Computers were simply isolated 1989) and (Chang 2000) as a table;
pieces of equipment used mostly for data

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Integration scale Acronym Transistors per ic

Small scale SSI 10-1000
integration
Medium scale MSI 1000-10000
integration
Large scale LSI 10000-100000
integration
Very large scale VLSI 100000-1000000
integration
Ultra large scale ULSI 1000000-1000000000
integration
Giga scale GSI >1000000000
integration
[Robert Doering][11]

Lithography is also necessary that the component

devices have excellent and improved electronic A group directed by M.M.Atalla worked on the
performance as they are downscaled. A strategy quite unreliable problem of bi-polar transistors
called, ‘constant electric-field scaling’ was and found that a layer of silicon dioxide could be
proposed by Dennard as an approach to achieving the answer. During this work, a new concept of a
this for metal oxide, silicon field effect field-effect transistor(FET) was developed, and
transistors(MOSFETs), which largely replaced the actual device was manufactured. POUL
bipolar devices in most IC types during the 1970s WEIMER and TORKEL WALLMARK of RCA
and 1980s. worked on such devices several years before Bell
Laboratories proved on MOS Transistor. Weimer
3.5. Tunnel diode: Leo Esaki obtained the first developed Cadmium Sulphide and Cadmium
Ge tunnelling diode in 1957 and a silicon one in Selenide transistors. Steven Hofstein and Fredric
1958. Esaki’s presentation at the International Heiman published a year on a silicon MOSFET in
Conference of Solid state physics in electronics 1963. In the same year, the first CMOS circuit
and Telecommunications in 1958 was highly was proposed by FRANK WANLASS. The
appreciated by Shockley. Because conduction was concept of charge-coupled devices (CCD), a
not based on minority carriers or thermal effects, semiconductor equivalent to magnetic bubbles
the tunnel diode was exceptionally resistant to was introduced in 1970 by WILLARD BOYLE
environmental conditions. In addition, its and GEORGE SMITH. For their work on CCD,
switching times were much shorter than the both scientists were awarded the Nobel Prize in
transistor. Leo Esaki received a Nobel Prize in Physics in 2009.
physics in 1957 for his work on tunnelling and
super-lattices._ [7] Early MOSFETs had an aluminium gate,
development of a poly-Silicon gate led to a self-
3.6. Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field Effect aligned device, where the gate itself constitutes
Transistor (MOSFET): Julius Lilienfield the mask for source and drain diffusion. Parasitic
obtained patents for devices similar to today's gate-to-source and gate-to-drain capabilities
MESFET and MOSFET, respectively, in 1930 associated with gate overlap could be controlled
and 1933. In 1934, Oskar Heil applied for a patent in this way. Gates made of refractory metal
for his theoretical work on capacitive control FET silicide were suggested because polysilicon had
transistors. relatively high resistance.
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The reduction in the size of the device resulted in Telefoniya bez Provodov (wireless telegraphy and
the so-called short-channel effects (SCE) telephony). [5]
including the roll-off of the threshold voltage and
the reduction of the drain-induced barrier. A Losev set the current threshold for the onset of
reduction in the depth of a source and drain light emission from the point of contact between a
combined with efforts to prevent increased metal wire and a silicon carbide crystal in his first
resistance (e.g., lightly doped drain, elevated paper on the LED and recorded the spectrum of
source, drain) or possibly Schottky barriers this light. He also studied the temperature
Source/Drain. Short-channel effects when gate dependence of the emission down to the
oxide is thin are considerably reduced. As a result temperature of liquefied air (a predominantly
of decreased thickness, gate leakage current nitrogen-based mixture of gases used at the time)
grows, increasing power consumption of the and by applying an alternating current to the
entire chip, which is an undesirable effect for contact, the LED emission was modulated up to
battery-powered mobile systems. Apart from the frequency of 78.5 kHz. [5]
leakage current, the reduction of gate-oxide
thickness increases the susceptibility of the device 3.8. Solid state optoelectronics centenary: The
to boron penetration from the poly-Silicon gate story would not be complete without mentioning
into the channel. one other remarkable person who has enjoyed
better professional recognition Henry J.Round,
3.7. Journey of Light Emitted Diodes one of Marconi’s assistants in England and later
(LED): Semiconductors are widely used for chief of Marconi Research. In February 1907,
radiated emissions and detection. In 1907, the first Round published a 24-line note reporting a
report on light emitted from a semiconductor "bright glow" from a carborundum diode in the
appeared by J. Round. Fundamental work in this electrical world. No follow-up publication was
area was conducted, among others, by Losev. But published and Losev was not aware of this small
do we know, who invented the LED and when? note. As suggested by Egon Lner, it is not
The story is a tragic one about a young and highly appropriate to credit Round with the invention of
talented scientist who spent his working life in the LED, but he should be recognized as the
several Soviet Radio Laboratories as a technician, discoverer of the phenomenon of
eventually dying of hunger in 1942 at the age of electroluminescence. [4]
39 during the Leningrad blockade. His name was
OLEG Vladimirovich LOSEV. Losev received no 3.9. Journey Of Laser (Light Amplification
formal education, but he published 43 papers in Stimulated Emission Radiation): The early
leading Russian, British and German research microwave quantum electronics studies set the
journals during the period of his short research stage for extending the principles of quantum
career and was 16 patents were granted, of which electronics from the MASER to the LASER to the
he was the sole author. He made several major optical range. In 1964, Townes, Basov and
solid-state electronics discoveries, including Prokhorov are awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics
crystalline, the first solid-state semiconductor for their fundamental work in the field of
amplifier and generator. In the mid-1920s, when a quantum electronics, Which led to the
current passed through them, Losev observed construction based on the maser-laser principle
light emissions from zinc oxide and silicon of oscillators and amplifiers. First of all, this
carbide crystal rectifier diodes used in radio applies to three key components of the quantum
receivers. Losev's first paper on the emission of generators; the medium of matter gain with the
silicon carbide diodes, 'Luminous carborundum energy level structure in which radiation can be
[silicon carbide] detector and crystal generated in the desired frequency range,
detection,' was published in 1927 in Nizhniy population inversion methods, and the
Novgorod, Russia, in the journal Telegrafiya I electrodynamic system in which radiation
interacts with the medium of gain. Since 1939,
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V.A.Fabrikant points out in his thesis Doctor of (Schenectady, NY) in September 1962 and by
Science (Habilitation) that population inversion IBM and MIT (Massachusetts Institute of
should lend to Light wave amplification and Technology) groups reported success within
suggests the use of second-kind collisions to weeks of his results. Soon after, researchers
achieve such an inversion. In 1940, conditions for reported Lansing in a variety of materials, all
observing the adverse absorption in the discharge wavelengths in the Near-Infrared.
of gas were analyzed. [5]
Further research in this area went in two
Theodore H.Maiman, a physicist at Hughes directions, i.e. a wider range of materials to obtain
Research Laboraton's in Malibu, Calif, built the a wider range of wavelengths and new device
first laser on May 16, 1960, using a synthetic ruby structure concepts. In 1962, Herbert Kroemer and
cylinder measuring one centimetre in diameter Zhores Alferov came up with the idea of
and two centimetres long, with silver-coated ends semiconductor lasers independently. When the
to make them reflective and capable of serving as first report on semiconductor lasers appeared, he
a Febry-Perot Resonator. Maiman uses realized that double-heterostructure of the p-i-n-
photographic flashlamps as the laser pump source. type should be used in these devices. He obtained
As the laser pump source, Maiman utilizes the first practical heterostructure devices and the
photographic flashlamps. To obtain negative first hetero-structure laser.
temperatures, it is proposed to use the impurity
ionization mechanism, which operates at a low In 2000, Alferov and Kroemer received a Nobel
temperature in a semiconductor sample when an Prize in physics for their achievements in the area
electric field pulse is applied (the stimulated of semiconductor heterostructure used in high-
emission phenomena).[5] speed-and optoelectronic. Now, significant
progress in semiconductor lasers is associated
Mention that the first indication of the stimulated among others, with the use of quantum wells and
emission in the gates. P-N junction has been new materials, especially gallium nitride.
discovered earlier at the Ioffe Physical-Technical
Institute(Fiztekh). Robert N.Hall, a device now In 1963, from LEBEDEV Physics Institute
used in all compact disk players and laser printers (PhIAN), MOSOV, the visible, coherent light
and most optical fibre communication systems, emission was obtained from GaAsP, by Holonyak
invented the semiconductor injection laser in N. And Bevacqe S.F; This category includes
1962. The first report on laser action in a lasers for optical data storage used in devices such
semiconductor (GaAs) was published by Robert as CD players, disk mastering, magneto-optical,
Hall and his group at General Electric optical ROM, and holographic storage.[5]

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Table; Timeline of development of laser---

1. Idea of semiconductor lasers (electrical field ) Basov, Vul, Popov (1958)
2.Idea of junction lasers (injection, p-n junction): Basov, Krokhin, Popov
(1961)
3. First observation of the gain (GaAs): Fiztekh, Leningrad (1961)
4.Development of injection lasers (GaAs): USA(Hall, sept,1962),
USSR(Jan,1963)
5. Pumping by electron beam (CdS): PhIAN, Moscow (1964)
6. Optical pumping (GaAs): PhIAN (1965)
7. Injection under electric field: USA (1965)
8.Heterojection lasers (GaAs-AlGaAS): Alferov (1968)
9.Using of quaternary compounds (GaInAsP): GIRETMET, phIAn (1971)
10. Streamer Discharge laser (CdS): Nicoll, USA (1973)
11.Lasers with distributed feedback (DFB) and Bragg reflectors (DBR):
Fiztekh(1974)
12.Quantum-well laser (QW): Holonyak, USA (1978)
13.Lasers with vertical-cavity surface-emitting structures (VCSEL): Iga,
Japan (1979)
14. Lasers (Masers ) in crossed ‘curl of Eand H’ fields (p-Ge): Vorob’ev,
USSR (1982)
15. Lasers with n-i-p-i structure (GaAs): FRG (1985)
16. Quantum-wire lasers: USA, JAPAN (1989)
17. Asymmetric multiple-quantum-well heterostructure (AMQWH) lasers:
Shimizu, JAPAN (1989)
18. II-VI compound quantum-well heterostructure lasers (ZnSe): Haase,
USA (1991)
19.Quantum-dot lasers: JAPAN, USA, Germany, Fiztekh (1994)
20.Quantum Cascrde lasers (QC, Unipolar): Capasso, USA (1994)
21.GaN-based heterostructure lasers (blu): Nakamura, JAPAN (1995)
22.Organic semiconductor lasers (tetracene): Batlogg, USA (2000)
23. Terrahertz radiation emitting laser diodes: RUSSIA, USA, ITALY, UK,
SWITZERLAND (2002)
[V.K.Kononenko et al.][5]

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4. Semiconductor research in two Quantum –Dots Devices & Cellular Automata:

decade of 21st century:
The information is contained in the arrangement
The integrated circuit industry, is fast approaching of the charges, according to the quantum-dot array
challenges to continued device miniaturization. principle. This means that instead currents
As a result, both evolutionary and revolutionary flowing through wires, the devices interact via
approaches are being considered for replacing direct coulomb coupling. The quantum dot
conventional CMOS technology. The alternative cellular automata scheme involves placing each
of this technology is varied on Si- based dot at the corner of a square in a four-site cell.
MOSFETs (Silicon-on-insulator: SOI) and FETs. Each cell has two more mobile electrons that can
The source and drain regions of SOI devices are tunnel between the cell's four different sites.
grown onto an insulating layer, resulting in a Tunneling mobile electrons must be localised
significantly lower parasitic capacitance, better within each cell, according to the assumption that
device isolation, and excellent radiation immunity the spatial separation between each cell is
compared to conventional CMOS devices. [25] sufficiently large. [25]

In FETs, when the channel width becomes on the The quantum-dot logic functions can be used to
order of sub-10nm (small nanoscale), create conventional AND and OR gates. As a
performance affected due to quantum result, quantum-dot cellular automata can perform
confinement effects. To solve this problem, use all important logical operations (QCA).
the vertical dimension to your advantage and
fabricate a fin-like conduction channel wrapped in 4.1. Two decade of 21st Century of
oxides and gate electronics, resulting in a FinFET Semiconductor: “Equivalent Scaling Era”
configuration with a smaller device, footprint,
higher gate efficiency, and lower power With the introduction of strained Silicon into the
consumption. For instance, a 2D MoS2 planar CMOS manufacturing process in 2003, the first
FET with a single carbon nanotube (CNT) gate success was achieved. In 2007, a revolutionary
was demonstrated, allowing FET gate lengths to new dielectric, based on hafnium, was introduced
be reduced to sub-1nm. CNT can also be used as to the market. It has a dielectric constant that is 3-
an ultra-narrow conducting channel in 5 times that of its predecessor (depending on
conjunction with graphene sources and drains. For details of process implementation and film
developing novel FinFETs, a few-layered composition). The introduction of "Tri-gate"
semiconductor MoS2 as well as CNT films were transistors into manufacturing in 2011 was the
used to replace the traditional Si channel. [24] equivalent scaling era's third major success. The
industry's determination to achieve these levels of
The increase of the subthreshold leakage in miniaturisation in the manufacturing environment
advanced nano scale devices lead to a dramatic has been demonstrated by advancements in
enhancement of the power consumption. To solve lithographic techniques.[21]
this, we need such MOSFET devices which have
a minimum value of subthreshold swing “S”, 4.2. Future in 21st century:
which we get by using fully depleted channels. In
1985, simulation demonstrated the first fully 1. Flexible Electronics/Organic Electronics:
depleted SOI MOSFET with an ideal swing of Flexible electronics is a semiconductor industry
about 60mV/decade. In 1987, the first volume revolution fueled by the mechanical
inverted multi-gate MOSFET was characteristics of the material rather than its
demonstrated.[23] electronic properties. With a wide range of
applications, such as flexible displays, medical
image sensors, and smart wearables, mounting
semiconductors (functional component) onto a
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flexible substrate has many advantages, such as techniques for the production of junction
being bendable, scalable, portable, and transistors and silicon bonding techniques are no
lightweight. In the next generation of deformable longer just an industry but an economic and
electronics, plastic inorganic materials hold a lot cultural phenomenon. [1]
of promise. [26]
The early years of the IC, from the 256 bits to the
2. Molecular Computing: Molecules have been 4M DRAM are then reviewed, building on Bob
proposed as candidates for nanometer-scale Dennard’s one transistor cell structure and
hardware. Molecular electronics have the associated scaling methodology. The remarkably
potential to enable ultra-compact computing (i.e., prescient assessment by Gordon Moore of the
a microprocessor in a pinhead). Molecular devices number of memory bits would double per year
offer a revolutionary trend in electronics: highly (now taken as about 18 months), enshrined as
miniaturised, low-power devices that are Moore's law became the productivity criterion by
relatively inexpensive to fabricate and mass which the IC industry grew at a compound annual
produce, when combined with their expected growth rate of about 25 per cent, as shown in the
lower power consumption.[25] International Semiconductor Technology
Roadmap (ITRS). However, more than just
Novel materials and innovative device monitoring productivity is required, whether by
architectures, such as 2D layers, 1D structures, staying on the productivity curve or increasing
hetero-structures, and quantum wells, are production efficiency.
promising solutions for future high-performance
devices. 5.1. Silicon crystal growth / Crystal growth
technology:
5. Fabrication of semiconductor devices:
In 1916, when he accidentally dipped his pen into
Experimentally observed transistor action in n- a crucible of molten tin rather than his inkwell,
type polycrystalline germanium on December 16, JAN CZOCHRALSKI (1885-1953) discovered
1947, by John Bardeen and Walter Brattain. the Czochralski method. He pulled his pen out
Starting in 1951, the Western Electric Division of immediately to find that a thin thread of solidified
AT &T manufactured the point-contact transistor metal was hanging from his pen's nib. The nib
for ten years. With the implementation of single was replaced with a capillary and Czochralski
crystalline semiconductor materials in the early verified that a single crystal was the crystallized
1950s, however, p- n junction(bulk) transistors metal. The experiments of Czochralski produced
began replacing the point-contact transistor, single crystals that were a millimetre in diameter
silicon began to replace Ge and the transfer of and up to 150 cm long. Czochralski technique is
transistor technology from the laboratories to the currently the principal technology to grow large
fabrication accelerated. Si and Ge single crystal. Czochralski Si wafers
are usually contaminated by oxygen. However,
The Si-SiO2 diffusion technology transferred to oxygen contamination is not so bad. It affects the
Schockley Semiconductor from AT&T's Bell mechanical strength of the Si. It can also help to
Telephone Laboratories (BTL) and thus to the better impurities. During crystal growth or
Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation, led to the subsequent process, silicon may be contaminated
Silicon Valley phenomenon and the creation of by various impurities. “Gathering” of impurities
the IC industry. Indeed, Gordon Moore pointed can be important._ [15]
out that the critical role of John Moll's BTL
laboratory in 1954 and the development of In 1950, Gordon K. Teal and John B. Little,
oxidation, diffusion, lithography, aluminium scientists working in the Bell Telephone
metallization and thermo-compression bonding Laboratory, grew Si single crystals. Subsequently,
Teal left Bell Laboratories to join Texas
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Instruments. In TI, Teal developed the first This technique is based on the variation of the
workable Si transistors. Teal believed that the incorporation of the acceptor or donor impurities
fundamental property of a crystalline into the solidifying Ge semiconductor with the
semiconductor, which would result in its crystal growth rate. In conjunction with
technological significance, was the concentration, SAWYER and PHILIP FOY, the silicon devices
type and mobility of free carriers that were easily first reported by GERALD PEARSON in 1952
controllable and spatially variable, which was used the technique to produce Si diode rectifiers
indeed found to be the case. Teal's fundamental via an aluminium-doped (p-type) wire alloyed
focus on the planning and portrayal of single- with an n-type Si material. [1] [2]
crystal material, nonetheless, encouraged test
check of various quantum hypothetical concepts 5.2.1. Alloy bipolar transistors and grown-
produced for electrons and holes in crystalline junction transistors: John Saby and J. Trevor
semiconductors, such as powerful mass float and Law developed the alloy transistor in 1952.
portability of conductivity, transporter lifetime Crystal dissolution and regrowth or local liquid
and burrowing and explanation of various marvels phase epitaxy (LPE) on Si or Ge surfaces has
in p-n junctions and fact, displayed significantly been described as the alloying process.
improved characteristics contrasted with There is a fundamental difference between the
polycrystalline samples. Teal also reported alloy and grown-junction transistors in the
injecting carrier lifetimes greater than 200 emitter-base and base-collector junctions. While
microseconds in single-crystal germanium as the grown junctions are graded, the alloy
compared to significantly lower carrier lifetimes junctions are abrupt (of the 'step' type).
of 1-5 microseconds in polycrystalline Ge. By Consequently, due to the emitter-base step
early 1950, all investigators of the junction, the alloy transistor showed a higher
semiconducting properties and p-n junction alpha cut-off frequency range (5-10 MHz) than
studies of germanium and silicon preferred to use the grown-junction transistor (1-10MHz),
pulled single crystals. Teal filed for a p-n junction although the abrupt base-collector junction of the
patent in single-crystal Ge in 1950 and the first alloy transistor resulted in a higher capacitance
bipolar junction transistor (np-n) was achieved in per unit area, tending to restrict the high-
single-crystal Ge (grown-junction technique) by frequency response. An alternative method of
Shockley, Morgan sparks and Teal in 1951. transistor production, identified as a surface
barrier alloy transistor, was able to achieve cut off
The description of dopant distribution during frequencies of up to 50 MHz using an
single crystal growth by normal freezing was electrochemical manufacturing technique. Using a
described by William Pfann, via the related zone- jet etching technique, Philco pioneered the
refining techniques. approach, where the Ge is etched by the
electronically controlled jet of the electrolyte.
5.2. Bipolar transistor fabrication/ grown Subsequent alloy contacts on each side of the
junction bipolar transistors: The role of thinned base material resulted in a higher cut off
impurities of groups III and V was deduced in frequency, due to the factor ten smaller base
silicon as p and n-type dopants, respectively. width, compared to the grown-junction transistor.
Greiner's X-ray studies of the variation of the [1]
lattice constant proved the n and p-type impurity
dopants like phosphorus and boron. This led, 5.2.2. Diffused bipolar transistors: In practice,
based on the "double-doping technique" in 1951, the double doping and rate-growth methods were
to the first developed junction n-p-n transistors. crucial to proving the theory of the junction
Only one slice of np-n Ge junction transistors transistor. This situation was corrected by the
could be fabricated by this technique, which was introduction of solid-state diffusion procedures,
subsequently superseded by ROBERT HALL’s with a key patent granted to Scaff and Henry
"RATE-GROWTH" technique in 1952. Theurer in 1951 (filed in 1947) and implemented
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by PEARSON and CALVIN FULLER, through transistor structures solid-state diffusion processes
the in-diffusion of impurities over the entire slice in a mesa structure was facilitated by
of the semiconductor in a controlled environment. improvements in semiconductor processes. [1]
To ensure a controlled dopant concentration at the
semiconductor surface, the technique involved LEE fabricated a p-n-p Ge mesa transistor in
exposure of the semiconductor slice to a vapour 1954 with a base width of 1 micrometre by a
containing sufficient dopant concentration to the diffused arsenic base and alloyed Al emitter. The
carrier gas, and to a sufficiently high temperature current amplification factor and cut-off
for diffusion rates to be generated to ensure frequencies are 0.98 and 500 MHz, respectively.
accurate control of the dopant penetration depth in Ge mesa transistors were manufactured with base
the semiconductor. Diffuse layers of 10-20 widths of 0.2 micrometres in 1959 and Si with
micrometres have been obtained. [1] cut-off frequencies approaching 1000 MHz were
manufactured with double-diffused planar
Fuller published the initial study of diffusion epitaxial structures in the early sixties.
donors and acceptors in Ge, followed by the study TANNENBAUM and THOMAS fabricated a
of silicon diffusion by Fuller and Ditzenberger. diffused base and emitter n-p-n mesa Si transistor
With peak reverse voltages of 400V and current with a base width of 2 micrometres in 1956 with a
ratings of 400 mA, Prince described the silicon current amplification factor and cut-off frequency
diffused junction rectifier in 1956. By the mid- of 0.97 and 120 MHz respectively.
1950, the manufacture of both n-p-n and p-n-p

Table: Technology evolution for controlled base width transistors;

TECHNOLOGY: APPROXIMATE YEAR: AUTHOR/ INVENTOR:
1. Alloy Hall 1950
2. Double- doping Teal 1951
3.Rate-grown Hall 1952
4.Electrochemical thinned base Tiley and Williams 1953
5. P-N-Ep(N-P-I-N) Tarly 1954
6. Diffused base Pearson and Fuller 1954
7.Planar process Hoerni 1960
8.Epitaxy Teal,Sangster,Mark, Thewreer 1954,1957-1960
[Howard R. Huff et al.][1]

5.2.3. Mosfet transistor fabrication: the heated tungsten aluminium evaporation

filament, was mobile under voltage stress, caused
For the successful commercialization of the device risk of experiencing to drift under
MOSFET and implementation of the DRAM operating bias, and increased operating
memory era in 1970, the description of the temperature was amplified. The Fairchild team
oxidation process and methodologies for also observed that electron-beam evaporation did
controlling the electrical properties of the Si and not introduce sodium by developing sodium
SiO2 interface in late 1950 were essential. Device control techniques and, in addition, developed a
reliability studies by Ed Snow. At Fairchild comprehensive understanding of the phenomena
Semiconductor, Grove, Deal and Sah identified that are fundamental to all modern MOSFET
that sodium contamination in SiO2, introduced by systems in the metal oxide silicon system.
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In terms of 17 types of charge mechanisms, Deal interconnect the components within the chip. A
described the stability of the silicon, silicon few weeks later, a flip-flop circuit was made and
dioxide electrical interface and the associated a patent application covering both Ge and Si was
effects of silicon dioxide. [1] prepared and filed (February 6, 1959). The first
commercially available ICs to be produced in
Techniques were developed for the passivation of silicon for binary counter, flip-flop, or shift
surface states introduced during thermal register applications were announced by Texas
processing at the Si, SiO2 interface. In 1965, the Instruments in March 1960. With the subsequent
significance of a post-SiO2 anneal in an ambient planar process patent submission by Hoerni of
hydrogen bearing and nitrogen anneal to stabilize Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation on May 1,
the Si-SiO2 interface and lower the fixed charge 1959, and due to how the interconnection was
was described by Pieter Balk in the case of the described in Kilby’s patent compared to Noyce’s
Al-SiO2-Si system, Qf. Kooi from Philips IC patent application, filed on July 30, 1959.
Research Labs of Eindhoven confirmed Balk's Noyce was awarded a patent before Kilby’s (April
research. [1] 25, 1961, compared to June 23, 1961).

5.3. Integrated circuit fabrication: Even though the bipolar transistor showed better
execution features such as switching speed, the
Nevertheless, Kilby, who worked at Texas MOSFET transistor, the simplicity of the process
Instruments Incorporated and filed a patent and smaller IC chip size of the last settled on it as
application on February 6, 1959, explicitly the favoured decision for driving edge design rule
"described a concept that allowed the manufacture applications to be actualized. INTEL's 3-transistor
of all the necessary components of the desired silicon-entryway PMOS, 1K measure reported in
active and passive circuits in a simple piece of 1970, was the first mass-created business MOS
semiconductor and their in situ interconnection, measure design. Preceding 1972, Terman and
using relatively simple steps." Kilby's initial proof Hodges surveyed some of these memory
of concept was a phase shift oscillator, built with developments, regularly alluded to as the period
about ten components, in Ge for expediency on of small-scale integration (SSI).
September 12, 1958. Wire binding was utilised to

Table: Dram process and ic evoluation (circa 1992)

Parameter Units ULSI VLSI LSI MSI
Bits/chip number 107-109 105-107 103-105 102-103
Design rule micrometre <1 1-3 3-5 5-10
Power-delay PJ <10-2 10-2- 1 1- 10 10-100
Product
Mask-levels number 15-20 8-15 6-10 5-6
2
Chip area mm 50-280 25-50 10-25 10
Junction depth micrometre 0.04 – 0.2 0.2 – 0.5 0.5 – 1.2 1.2 -2
Storage cell Nano meter 3.5 – 12.5 12.5 -40 40 -90 90 -120
capacitor
equivalent
oxide
thickness
[Howard R. Huff et al.][1]
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Fairchild announced a 64 bit SRAM (six- diffusion, which became known as the merged
transistor cell design), enhancement Mode-p one-transistor DRAM cell; and an overlapping
channel MOSFET in 1964, followed by RCA’s double polysilicon gate, one for the source-less
announcement and production of an enhanced transistor (the pass gate) and the second for the
mode n-channel MOSFET in 1964, also based on storage capacitor, thereby forming the merged
Hofstein and Heiman’s research. In comparison to one-transistor DRAM cell. [1]
milliwatts of standby power for the equivalent
bipolar and PMOS gates, Frank Wanlass initial 7. Journey of semiconductor physics:
demonstration circuit, a two-transistor inventor,
consumed a few nanowatts of standby power. Edwin Herbert Hall, who discovered the Hall
Interestingly, to achieve a n-channel enhancement effect, was an American physicist (1855-1938).
mode device to work in conjunction with the Above all, the findings before the electron's
conventional PMOS enhancement-mode discovery. Eventually, a British physicist, Sir
transistor, Wanlass used Heiman's back bias Joseph John Thomson, discovered the electron in
methodology.[1] 1897. However, it was an Irish physicist, George
Johnstone Stoney, who coined the term electron.
MOSTEK Incorporated, set up in 1968, was the In addition, the first theory of electronic
first semiconductor organisation solely devoted to conduction was proposed by PAUL DRUDE, a
MOSFET IC assembling. Shortly thereafter, prominent German scientist, resulting in Drude's
Texas Instruments introduced the 256 and 1K model. Drude’s model was later refined by
DRAM MOSFET IC in 1970 and 1972, Arnold Sommerfield and Hans Bethe. Erwin
respectively. INTEL introduced the 1K Schrodinger is famous for his Schrodinger
PMOSFET DRAM in 1970. Indeed, Intel’s 1K p- equations, which are important for solving
channel (PMOS) DRAM (polysilicon gate), based problems in quantum electronics. The theory of
on a 3-transistor cell design, initiated the electrons in crystal lattices, which is the basis for
beginning of the MOS memory take-over of the the quantum theory of electrical conduction, was
ferrite core memory market through its provided by Felix Bloch, a PhD student of Werner
implementation at computer maker Honeywell Heisenberg, in his PhD dissertation. According to
Incorporation. [1] Bloch, the electrons can move without scattering
if the crystal lattice is perfect and there is no
The MOSFET IC revolution exploded when IBM lattice vibration. The significance of Bloch’s work
closed the n-channel silicon MOSFET (NMOS), is that electrons in silicon can be modelled as
instead of the slower p-channel Si MOSFET, for Bloch waves. He recognised the distinction
its mainframe memory computer (IBM-370,158) between conductors and insulators in 1930;
that was delivered in 1973. Intel and MOSTEK conductors have only partially filled upper energy
were early suppliers, followed by Texas bands for electrons to acquire kinetic theory in
Instruments in 1974. TI and MOSKET utilised a this band; the upper energy band is filled with an
single-metal-word-line, single-diffused-bit line, insulator. [2]
where the metal was Al and the source and drain
were formed by diffusion. TI utilised POCl3 to Sir Alan Herries Wilson was a British physicist in
form the diffused source and drain. A single-poly- charge of the modern theory of bands. The
word-line, single-metal (Al)-bit line was the 4K existence of impurities in a semiconductor leads
NMOS DRAM cell built by Intel. In 1976, the electrons to the vacant upper energy band. While
16K DRAM was announced, with three major Bloch modelled electrons as waves, Wilson
modifications made compared to the 4K DRAM, explained the distinction between metals,
noted by Sah. These were a reduction of the semiconductors and insulators using band theory.
design rules from the 7-8 micrometre regime for The valence band and the conduction band of Si
the 4K DRAM to about the 5-micrometre range are quite frequently represented by an E-K
for the 16K DRAM; the removal of the source
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 Int. J. Adv. Multidiscip. Res. (2022). 9(1): 46-67

diagram where the energy E, is plotted against the developed in 1928 by Ferdinand Bloch. Bernhard
wave vector k. In 2005, to praise Wilson, CAHN Gudden reported in 1930 that the observed
published a short article. For semiconductors, properties of semiconductors were solely due to
Tamm is famous for Tamm surface states. the presence of impurities and that there were no
FRENKEL is well-known for the POOLE- chemically pure semiconductors. [6]
FRENKEL effect, which is used to model
insulator leakage current. BERTRAM NEVILLE Rudolf Peierls introduced the concept of
BROCKHOUSE developed the neutron scattering forbidden gaps in 1930, which BRILLOUIN
technique used to measure the E-K diagram for applied to realistic solids the same year. Kronig
phonons in Si. CLIFFORD GHENWOOD and Penney also developed, in 1930, a simple,
SHULL, who also worked on neutron scattering, analytical model of the periodic potential. ALAN
shared the 1994 Nobel Prize in physics. [2] WILSON developed the band theory of solids in
1931, based on the concept of vacant and packed
Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics were named after energy bands. Wilson has also confirmed the
James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) and also after conductivity of semiconductors as being due to
Lading Boltzmann (1844-1906). Maxwell is impurities. Models of the potential barrier and
famous for Maxwell’s Equations in current flow through a metal-semiconductor
electromagnetism. The constant of Boltzmann is junction were independently developed in 1938
frequently used in semiconductor textbooks. It is by WALTER SCHOTTKY and NEVILLE F.
a great tragedy that he hanged himself in 1906. MOTT (Nobel Prize in 1977). Schottky enhanced
Although Boltzmann first associated entropy and his model a year later, including the presence of
probability in 1877, until Max Planck (1858- space charges. A copper-oxide rectifier theory,
1947) first introduced k and gave it an accurate including the presence of a p-n junction in the
value, the relationship was never expressed with a oxide, excess carriers and recombination, was
particular constant in his derivation of the law of presented by Boris Davydov in 1938. He
black body radiation in 1900. Thus, Boltzmann understood the significance of surface states as
did not create the Boltzmann constant, but Max well. Hans Bethe developed the thermionic
Planck named it after him. [2] emission theory in 1942 (Nobel Prize in
1967). [6]
Edwin Herbert Hall discovered in 1878 that
charge carriers are deflected in the magnetic field 8. Conclusion
in solids (Hall effect). To study the properties of
semiconductors, this phenomenon was later used. Silicon may be viewed as the information carrier
Shortly after the electron was discovered by J.J. of our time. The global amount of information is
Thomson, Several researchers suggested theories currently doubling every year. Without silicone
of electron-based conduction in metals by microelectronics, many of the things we take for
Thomson. The theory of Eduard Riecke (1899) is granted (such as computers, the Internet and
particularly interesting because it assumes that mobile phones) would not be possible. In
negative and positive charge carriers with vehicles, home appliances, machinery, etc.,
different concentrations and motions are both electronic circuits are also present. Optoelectronic
negative and positive. The dependence of the devices are equally important in everyday life,
conductivity of copper iodide on stoichiometry e.g., fibre optics communications for data
was observed by Karl Baedeker around 1908. He transfer, data storage (CD and DVD recorders),
also measured the Hall effect in this material, digital cameras, etc.
which indicted carriers with a positive charge. In
1914, JOHN KOENIGSBERGER divided solid- If we had lost geniuses like Losev, Boltzmann,
state materials into three groups concerning their and many more, who lost their lives via suicide
conductivity: metals, insulators, and variable and other ways before time, we could have solved
conductors. The theory of electrons in lattices was
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 Int. J. Adv. Multidiscip. Res. (2022). 9(1): 46-67

the problems and invented new things. The future [4] Nikolay Zheludev, “The life and times of
still holds a few surprises, we are pretty sure. the LED-a-100-year history”,
Extensive studies on graphene, multi-gates, naturephotonics|VOL 1|April 2007|
organic electronics, quantum devices, www.nature.com/naturephotonics/.
microsystems, silicon integration with other [5] V.K.Kononenko, “History and
materials and many other issues are being developments of Semiconductor Lasers”,
conductor. stepanov institute of physics, Belarus.
[6] Lidia Lukasiak and Andrzej Jakubowski,
Acknowledgments “History of Semiconductors”, Journal of
This is my first research paper, inspired by the Telecommunications and information
many professors who met me during my summer Technology 1/2010.
research training, many conferences, and also [7] Donald A. Neamen 4th edition books,
during my internship program. So this manuscript “Semiconductor Physics and Devices”,
is dedicated to all my inspirational people. The McGraw Hill companies.
[8] Asif I. Khan, “Pre-1900 Semiconductor
Appendix: Research and Semiconductor Device
Applications”
A. Intel: Integrated Electronics, company. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
B. AgCl: Silver Chloride. 266863177/.
C.FET: Field Effect Transistor. [9] www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/
D. GaAs: Gallium Arsenides [10] www.Azonano.com/article.aspx? ArticleID
E. BTL: Bell Telephone Laboratories. =4222
F. eV: Electron-volt(unit). [11] Robert Doering, “Physics-to-Technology
G. Khz: Kilo-Hertz. partnerships in the semiconductor
H. PbS: Lead Sulphide. industry”,2020.
I. FET: Field Effect Transistor https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/97801908
J. CNT: Carbon Nano Tube 71994.013.27
K. 2D & 1D: two Dimensional & one dimensional [12] www.Semiconductormuseum.com/
L. nm & mm : nanometre & millimetre [13] www.Britannica.com/technology/electronics
/the-semiconductor-revolution
References [14] Tudor Jenkins, “A brief history of....
[1] Howard R.Huff, “From the Lab to the semiconductors”, IOP publishing-physics
Fab: Transistors to Integrated education,40(50) 430-439.
Circuits”,AIP conference proceedings [15] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/dan-czochra
683,3(2003),https://doi.org/10.1063/1.162 lski/
2451/. [16] https://www.thoughtco.com/the-history-of-
[2] ULSI Front-End Technology, the-transistor-1992547
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Semiconductors”, History_of_the_Laser_1960_-
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0.1142/9789813222168_0001/, pp. 1-43 [18] Heyang Chen|Tian-Ran Wei|Kunpeng
(2017) Zhao | Pengfei Qiu | Lidong Chen | Jian
[3] Daniel Holbrook, W.M.Cohen, He \ Zun Shi, “Room-temperature plastic
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[19] Hiroyuki Kabasawa, “MR Imaging in the devices”, 978-1-5090-6625-

21st century: Technical innovation over 4/17/$31.00©2017 IEEE p1049-1052.
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high performance nanoelectronic

Introduction of Author: I am Shivpal Yadav. I completed my M.Sc in physics (electronics

specialized)(2019-2021) from the University of Allahabad, India. I have completed my
Bachelor/B.Sc. (2016-19) from the University of Allabad. I completed the SUMMER RESEARCH
TRAINING PROGRAM 2020 ONLINE at CSIR-NEIST, INDIA. I have also completed my
internship. My first work paper, titled "Application of the Internet of Things [IoT] in Education", is
published in the book titled "Contemporary Research in Multidisciplinary Studies: Volume 3" with
ISBN 979-8491606825.
https://sites.google.com/view/shivpalyadav/home

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How to cite this article:

Shivpal Yadav. (2022). The journey of Semiconductor Research: Study. Int. J. Adv. Multidiscip.
Res. 9(1): 46-67.
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.22192/ijamr.2022.09.01.004

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