UNIT 1

SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY

Objectives:
After studying this unit, we will be able to:
• understand and appreciate the role of chemistry in different spheres of life;
• explain the characteristics of three states of matter;
• classify different substances into elements, compounds and mixtures;
• explain various laws of chemical combination;
• appreciate significance of atomic mass, average atomic mass and molecular mass;
• describe the terms – mole and molar mass;
• calculate he mass percentage of different elements constituting a compound;
 determine empirical formula and molecular formula for a compound from the given
experimental data;
 perform the stoichiometric calculations

1.1 Introduction:
Chemistry: Chemistry is the branch of science that deals with the composition, structure and
properties of matter. Chemistry is called the science of atoms and molecules.

Branches of Chemistry

Organic Chemistry- This branch deals with study of carbon compounds especially
hydrocarbons and their derivatives.
Inorganic Chemistry-This branch deals with the study of compounds of all other elements
except carbon. It largely concerns itself with the study of minerals found in the Earth's crust.
Physical Chemistry-The explanation of fundamental principles governing various chemical
phenomena is the main concern of this branch. It is basically concerned with laws and theories
of the different branches of chemistry.
Industrial Chemistry-The chemistry involved in industrial processes is studied under this
branch.
Analytical Chemistry-This branch deals with the qualitative and quantitative analysis of various
substances.
Biochemistry-This branch deals with the chemical changes going on in the bodies of living
organisms; plants and animals.
Nuclear Chemistry-Nuclear reactions, such as nuclear fission, nuclear fusion, transmutation
processes etc. are studied under this branch.

1.2 Importance of Chemistry

Chemistry has a direct impact on our life and has wide range of applications in different fields. These
are given below:
(A) In Food and Agriculture:
(i) It has provided chemical fertilizers such as urea, calcium phosphate, sodium nitrate, ammonium
phosphate etc.
(ii) It has helped to protect the crops from insects and harmful bacteria, by the use of certain effective
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insecticides, fungicides and pesticides.
(iii) The use of preservatives has helped to preserve food products like jam, butter, pickles, squashes
etc. for longer periods.

(B) In Healthcare and Sanitation:

(i) It has provided us a large number of life-saving drugs. Today, dysentery and pneumonia are curable
due to discovery of sulpha drugs and penicillin life-saving drugs. Cisplatin and taxol have been found to
be very effective for cancer therapy and AZT (Azidothymidine) is used for AIDS victims.
(ii) Disinfectants such as phenol are used to kill the micro-organisms present in drains, toilet, floors etc.
(iii) A low concentration of chlorine i.e., 0.2 to 0.4 parts per million (ppm) is used for sterilization of
water to make it fit for drinking purposes.

(C) Saving the Environment:

The rapid industrialisation all over the world has resulted in lot of pollution.
Poisonous gases and chemicals released by the industries are polluting environment at an alarming
rate. Scientists are working day and night to develop substitutes which may cause lower pollution. For
example, CNG (Compressed Natural Gas), a substitute of petrol, is very effective in checking pollution
caused by automobiles.

(D) Application in Industry:

Chemistry has played an important role in manufacuring fertilizers, alkalis, acids, salts, dyes, polymers,
drugs, soaps, detergents, metal alloys and other inorganic and organic chemicals including new
materials contributing in a big way to the national economy.

1.3 Nature of Matter

Universe is classified in two types i.e. matter and energy.
Matter: Anything, which has mass and occupy space, is called matter.
Matter is classified under two categories:
(i) Physical Classification
(ii) Chemical Classification

Physical Classification:
Based on physical state under ordinary conditions of temperature and pressure, matter is classified
into following three types:
(a) Solid: A substance is said to be solid if it possesses a definite volume and a definite shape. E.g.
Sugar, Iron, Gold, Wood etc.
(b) Liquid: A substance is said to be liquid if it possesses a definite volume but not definite shape. They
take the shape of the vessel in which they are placed. E.g. Water, Milk, Oil, Mercury, Alcohol etc.
(c) Gas: A substance is said to be gas if it neither possesses a definite volume nor a definite shape. This
is because they completely occupy the whole vessel in which they are placed. E.g. Hydrogen(H2),
Oxygen(O2), Carbon dioxide(CO2) etc.

Properties Solid Liquid Gas

1. volume Definite Definite Indefinite
2. Shape Definite Indefinite Indefinite
3. Inter molecular Very high Moderate Negligible / Very
force of attraction low
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 4. arrangement of Orderly arranged Free to move Free to move every
Molecules within the volume where
5. Inter molecular Very small Slightly greater Very great
Space
7. Compressibility Not compressible Not compressible Highly
compressible
8. Expansion on Very little Very little Highly expand
Heating
9. Rigidity Very rigid Not rigid knownas Not rigid and
Fluid known as fluid
9. Fluidity Can’t flow Can flow Can flow
10. Diffusion They can diffuse due to Can diffuse And rate of Can diffuse And rate of
kinetic energy of diffusion is very fast diffusion is very fast
liquid/gases

Chemical Classification:

Based on chemical composition, matter is classified into two types:

(a) Pure Substances (b) Mixtures
(a) Pure Substance: A material containing only one type of substance. Constituent
particles of pure substances have fixed composition. Pure substances
cannot be separated into simpler substance by physical method.
E.g.: Elements = Na, My, Ca ................ etc.
Compounds = HCl, H2O, CO2, HNO3 ... etc.
Pure substances are classified into two types:
(a) Elements (b) Compounds
(i) Elements: These are the pure substances containing only one kind of atoms.
E.g., Na, Cl, Au, etc.
Elements are further classified into 3 types depending on physical and
chemical properties:
(a) Metals - E.g., Zn, Cu, Sn, Al, etc.
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 (b) Non-metals – E.g., N2, O2, Cl2, Br2, etc.

(c) Metalloids - B, Si, As, Te, etc.

(ii) Compounds: It is defined as pure substances containing more than one kind of
elements or atoms which are combined together in a fixed proportion by weight
and which can be decomposed into simpler substances by the suitable chemical
methods. The properties of a compound are completely different from those
of its constituent elements.
E.g., HCl, H2O, H2SO4, HClO4, HNO3, etc.

(b) Mixtures: A mixture is a combination of two or more elements or compounds in any

proportion so that the components do not lose their identity. The properties of a
mixture are same as the property individual components. The components of a
mixture can be separated by simple physical methods.
Mixtures are classified into two types:
(i) Homogeneous mixtures: The mixtures in which all the components are present uniformly
are called as homogeneous mixtures. Components of a mixture are present in
single phase.
E.g. Water + Salt, Water + Sugar, Water + alcohol
(ii) Heterogeneous mixtures: The mixtures in which all the components are present non-
uniformly are called as heterogeneous mixture.
E.g. Water + Sand, Water + Oil, blood, petrol etc.

1.4 Properties of Matter and Their Measurement

Every substance has characteristic properties. These properties can be classified into two groups –
physical properties and chemical properties.

Physical properties are those properties which can be measured or observed without changing the
identity or the composition of the substance. E.g., colour, odour, melting point, boiling point,
density etc.
The measurement or observation of chemical properties requires a chemical change to occur. E.g.,
burning of Mg-ribbon in air.
Chemical properties are characteristic reactions of different substances. These include acidity or
basicity, combustibility etc.

Physical properties of matter such as length, area, volume, etc., are quantitative in nature.
Earlier, Metric System and Decimal system were being used for measurement. Metric system was
based on the decimal system.

Later, the International System of Units (abbreviated as SI) was established for the quantitative
measurement of properties. The SI system has seven base units (given in below table).

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Prefixes in SI system
The SI system recommends the multiples such as 103, 106, 109, etc. and fraction such as 10–3, 10–6,
10-9, etc., i.e. the powers are the multiples of 3. These are indicated by special prefixes. Some prefixes
that are used in the SI system are given below in table.

Mass and Weight—

Mass of a substance is the amount of matter present in it.
Weight is the force exerted by gravity on an object.
The mass of a substance is constant whereas its weight may vary from one place to another due to
change in gravity. The mass of a substance can be determined very accurately by using an analytical
balance.
Volume-- Volume has the units of (length)3. So, volume has units of m3 or cm3 or dm3. A common
unit, litre (L) is not an SI unit, is used for measurement of volume of liquids. 1 L = 1000 mL, 1000 cm3
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 = 1 dm3
Density: Density of a substance is its amount of mass per unit volume. SI unit of density = SI unit of
mass/SI unit of volume = kg/m3 or kg m–3. This unit is quite large and a chemist often expresses
density in g cm–3.
Temperature--There are three common scales to measure temperature. These are °C (degree
celsius), °F (degree Fahrenheit) and K (kelvin).

K = °C + 273.15
Note—Temperature below 0 °C (i.e. negative values) are possible in Celsius scale but in Kelvin scale,
negative temperature is not possible.

Some Important Unit Conversions

1. Length: 1 mile = 1760 yards

1 yard = 3 feet
1 foot = 12 inches
1 inch = 2.54 cm
1 Å = 10-10 m = 10-8 cm

2. Mass: 1 Ton = 1000 kg

1 Quintal = 100 kg
1 kg= 2.205 Pounds (lb)
1 kg = 1000 g
1 g = 1000 mg
1 amu = 1.67 x 10-24g

3. Volume: 1 L = 1 dm3 = 10–3 m3 = 103 cm3 = 103 mL = 103 cc

1 mL = 1 cm3 = 10–6 m3 = 1 cc

4. Energy: 1 calorie = 4.184 joules ̴ 4.2 joules

1 joule = 107 ergs
1 litre atmosphere (L-atm) = 101.3 joule
1 electron volt (eV) = 1.602 × 10–19 joule

5. Pressure: 1 atmosphere (atm) = 760 torr

= 760 mm of Hg
= 76 cm of Hg
= 1.01325 × 105 pascal (Pa)
= 1.01325 × 105 N/m2
6. Temperature: °C + 273.15 = K

1.5 Scientific Notation

In scientific notation, any number can be represented in the form N × 10n (Where n is an exponent
having positive or negative values and N can vary between 1.000… and 9.999…).
E.g. We can write 245.968 as 2.45968 x102 in scientific notation. Similarly, 0.000018 can be written
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as 1.8 x 10–5.

Precision refers to the closeness of various measurements for the same quantity.
Accuracy is the agreement of a particular value to the true value of the result.

Significant Figures
The reliability of a measurement is indicated by the number of digits used to represent it. To express
it more accurately we express it with digits that are known with certainty. These are called as
Significant figures. They contain all the certain digits plus one doubtful digit in a number.

Rules for Determining the Number of Significant Figures

 All non-zero digits are significant. For example, 6.9 has two significant figures, while 2.16 has
three significant figures. The decimal place does not determine the number of significant
figures.
A zero becomes significant in case it comes in between non-zero numbers. For example,
2.003 has four significant figures, 4.02 has three significant figures.
Zeros at the beginning of a number are not significant. For example, 0.002 has one significant
figure while 0.0045has two significant figures.
All zeros placed to the right of a number are significant. For example, 16.0 has three
significant figures, while 16.00has four significant figures. Zeros at the end of a number
without decimal point are ambiguous.
In exponential notations, the numerical portion represents the number of significant figures.
For example, 0.00045 is expressed as 4.5 x t0-4 in terms of scientific notations. The number
of significant figures in this number is 2, while in Avogadro's number (6.023 x 1023), it is four.
The decimal point does not count towards the number of significant figures. For example,
the number 345600 has six significant figures but can be written in different ways, as
345.600 or 0.345600 or 3.45600 all having same number of significant figures.

Retention of Significant Figures - Rounding off Figures

The rounding off procedure is applied to retain the required number of significant figures.
1. If the digit coming after the desired number of significant figures happens to be more than
5, the preceding significant figure is increased by one, 4.317 is rounded off to 4.32.
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 2. If the digit involved is less than 5, it is neglected and the preceding significant figure remains
unchanged, 4.312 isrounded off to 4.31.
3. If the digit happens to be 5, the last mentioned or preceding significant figure is increased
by one only in case it happens to be odd. In case of even figure, the preceding digit remains
unchanged. 8.375 is rounded off to 8.38 while 8.365 is rounded off to 8.36.

Dimensional Analysis: During calculations generally there is a need to convert units from one
system to other. This is called factor label method or unit factor method or dimensional analysis.

For example- 5 feet and 2 inches (height of an Indian female) is to be converted in SI unit.
1 inch = 2.54 x t0-2 m

then, 5 feet and 2 inch = 62 inch

1.6 Laws of Chemical Combinations

Five basic laws govern the combination of elements to form compounds.

(a) Law of Conservation of Mass (Law of Indestructibility of Matter)

This law was given by Antoine Lavoisier in 1789.
It states that matter (mass) can neither be created nor be destroyed but is transformed from
one form to another.
If the reactants are completely converted into products, then the sum of the mass of reactants
is equal to the sum of the mass of products.

Total mass of reactants = Total mass of products

E.g.,

(b) Law of Definite Proportions or Law of Constant Composition:

This law was proposed by Louis Proust in 1799.

This law states that a chemical compound always consists of the same elements combined together
in the same ratio, irrespective of the method of preparation or the source from where it is taken.
E.g., Water can be obtained from different sources but the ratio of weight of H and O remains same.

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(c) Law of Multiple Proportions
Proposed by Dalton in 1803.
This law states that when two elements combine to form two or more compounds, then the
different masses of one element, which combine with a fixed mass of the other, bear a simple ratio
to one another.
E.g.,

(d) Gay Lussac’s Law of Gaseous Volumes

Given by Gay Lussac in 1808.
According to this law when gases combine or are produced in a chemical reaction they do so in a
simple ratio by volume provided all gases are at same temperature and pressure.
E.g.,

Here, the volumes of hydrogen and oxygen which combines (100 mL and 50 mL) bear a simple ratio
of 2:1.

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(e) Avogadro Law
Given by Avogadro in 1811.
According to this law, equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure should
contain equal number of molecules.
E.g.,

Dalton's Atomic Theory

 All substances are made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms.
 Atoms of the same element are identical in shape, size, mass and other properties.
 Atoms of different elements are different in all respects.
 Atom is the smallest unit that takes part in chemical combinations.
 Atoms combine with each other in simple whole number ratios to form compound atoms
called molecules.
 Atoms cannot be created, divided or destroyed during any chemical or physical change.

1.7 Atoms and Molecules

The smallest particle of an element, which may or may not have independent existence is called an
atom, while the smallest particle of a substance which is capable of independent existence is called
a molecule.
Molecules are classified as homoatomic and heteroatomic. Homoatomic molecules are made up of
the atoms of the same element and heteroatomic molecules are made up of the atoms of the
different element have different atomicity (number of atoms in a molecule of an element) like
monoatomic, diatomic, triatomic and polyatomic.

Atomic Mass Unit

One atomic mass unit is defined as a mass exactly equal to one twelfth the mass of one carbon -12
atom.
1 amu = 1.66056×10–24 g

Presently, ‘amu’ has been replaced by ‘u’ which is known as unified mass.

Atomic Mass
Atomic mass of an element is defined as the average relative mass of an atom of an element as
compared to the mass of an atom of carbon -12 taken as 12.

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Gram Atomic Mass

The quantity of an element whose mass in grams is numerically equal to its atomic mass. In simple
terms, atomic mass of an element expressed in grams is termed as gram atomic mass or gram atom.
For example, the atomic mass of oxygen = 16 amu. Therefore, gram atomic mass of oxygen = 16 g

Molecular Mass

Molecular mass of a substance is defined as the average relative mass of its molecule as compared
to the mass of an atom of C-12 taken as 12. It expresses as to how many times the molecule of a
substance is heavier than 1/12th of the mass of an atom of carbon.

For example, a molecule of carbon dioxide is 44 times heavier than 1/12th of the mass of an atom
of carbon. Therefore, the molecular mass of CO2 is 44 amu.
It is obtained by adding the atomic masses of all the atoms present in one molecule.

Gram Molecular Mass

A quantity of substance whose mass in grams is numerically equal to its molecular mass is called
gram molecular mass. In simple terms, molecular mass of a substance expressed in grams is called
gram molecular mass.
E.g., the molecular mass of oxygen = 32 amu
Therefore, gram molecular mass of oxygen = 32 g

Formula Mass-
Sum of atomic masses of the elements present in one formula unit of a compound. It is used for
the ionic compounds.

Atomicity –
Total number of atoms in a molecule of elementary substance is called as atomicity.

Vapour Density:
Vapour Density of a gas is the ratio of densities of gas and hydrogen at the same temperature and
pressure.

Molecular mass of gas (M) = 2 X Vapour density

1.8 Mole Concept and Molar Masses

1 mole is defined as the amount of a substance, which contains the same number of chemical units
(atoms, molecules, ions or electrons) as there are atoms in exactly 12 grams of pure carbon-12.

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 A mole represents a collection of 6.022 x1023( Avogadro's number) chemical units.

Molar Mass: The mass of one mole of a substance in grams is called its molar mass.

Molar Volume: The volume occupied by one mole of any substance is called its molar volume. It is
denoted by Vm. One mole of all gaseous substances at 273 K and 1 atm pressure occupies a volume
equal to 22.4 litre or 22,400 mL. The unit of molar volume is litre per mol or millilitre per mol.

1.9 Percentage Composition

The mass percentage of each constituent element present in any compound is called its
percentage composition.
Mass % of the element=Mass of element in 1 molecule of the compound x 100
Molecular mass of the compound

Empirical Formula and Molecular Formula—

An empirical formula represents the simplest whole number ratio of various atoms present in a
compound. E.g. CH is the empirical formula of benzene.

The molecular formula shows the exact number of different types of atoms present in a molecule
of a compound. E.g. C6H6 is the molecular formula of benzene.

Relationship between empirical and molecular formulae

The two formulas are related as:

E.g.,

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Determination of Empirical Formula:
Following steps are involved to determine the empirical formula of the compounds –
(1) First of all find the % by weight of each element present in 1 molecule of the compound.
(2) The % by weight of each element is divided by its atomic weight. It gives atomic ratio of elements
present in the compounds.
(3) Atomic ratio of each element is divided by the minimum value of atomic ratio as to get simplest
ratio of atoms.
(4) If the value of simplest atomic ratio is fractional then raise the value to the nearest whole number.
or Multiply with suitable coefficient to convert it into nearest whole number.
(5) Write the empirical formula as we get the simplest ratio of atoms.

E.g.,

1.10 Stoichiometry and Stoichiometric Calculations

Chemical Equation-

Shorthand representation of a chemical change in terms of symbols and formulae of the substances
involved in the reaction is called chemical equation.

The substances that react among themselves to bring about the chemical changes are known as
reactants, whereas the substances that are produced as a result of the chemical change, are known
as products.

Limiting Reagent- The reactant which gets consumed first or limits the amount of product formed is
known as limiting reagent.

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Reactions in Solutions—
The concentration of a solution can be expressed in any of the following ways.

1. Mass Percent is the mass of the solute in grams per 100 grams of the solution.

A 5 % solution of potassium chloride means that 5 g of NaCl is present in 100g of the solution.

2. Volume percent is the number of units of volume of the solute per 100 units of the volume
of solution.

A 5 % (v/v) solution of ethyl alcohol contains 5 cm3 of alcohol in 100 cm3 of the solution

4. Molarity: It is defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved per litre (dm3) of the
solution. It is denoted by the symbol M.
Measurements in Molarity can change with the change in temperature because solutions
expand or contract accordingly.
Molarity of the solution = No. of moles of the solute =n
Volume of the solution in litre V
The Molarity of the solution can also be expressed in terms of mass and molar mass

Molarity of the solution = Mass of the solute

Molar mass of the solute X volume of the solution in liter

In terms of weight, molarity of the substance can be expressed as:

Molarity equation
To calculate the volume of a definite solution required to prepare solution of other molarity, the
following equation is used:
M1V1 = M2V2, where M1= initial molarity, M2= molarity of the new solution, V1= initial volume and
V2= volume of the new solution.

4. Molality- Molality is defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved per 1000 g (1kg)
of solvent. Molality is expressed as 'm'.

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5. Mole Fraction: It is the ratio of number of moles of one component to the total number of
moles (solute and solvents) present in the solution. It is expressed as 'x'.
Mole fraction of the solute = Moles of the solute
Moles of solute + Moles of solvent

Mole fraction of the solvent = Moles of the solvent

Moles of solute + Moles of solvent

Mole fraction of the solute + Mole fraction of solvent = 1

6.Normality: It is defined as the number of gram equivalents of solute dissolved per litre (dm3)
of the solution. It is denoted by the symbol N.

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Summary/ Mindmap

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