Sports Biomechanics

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Force and velocity of impact during upper limb

strikes in combat sports: a systematic review and
meta-analysis

Václav Beránek , Petr Votápek & Petr Stastny

To cite this article: Václav Beránek , Petr Votápek & Petr Stastny (2020): Force and velocity of
impact during upper limb strikes in combat sports: a systematic review and meta-analysis, Sports
Biomechanics, DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2020.1778075

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SPORTS BIOMECHANICS
https://doi.org/10.1080/14763141.2020.1778075

Force and velocity of impact during upper limb strikes in

combat sports: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Václav Beráneka,b, Petr Votápekc and Petr Stastny a

a
Department of Sport Games, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Charles University, Prague, Czech
Republic; bDepartment of Rescue Services, Diagnostic Fields and Public Health, Faculty of Health Care
Studies, University of West Bohemia, Pilsen, Czech Republic; cDepartment of Machine Design, Faculty of
Mechanical Engineering, University of West Bohemia, Pilsen, Czech Republic

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Upper limb strikes are frequent movements in combat sports and Received 31 December 2019
self-defence systems, in which numerous types of strikes can be Accepted 29 May 2020
applied. Therefore, the aim of this systematic review and meta- KEYWORDS
analysis was to summarise and compare the mechanical conse­ Box; straight punch; side
quences of different types of upper limb strikes among various punch; low punch; mixed
sports disciplines. A literature search was conducted in Scopus martial arts
and Web of Science, with the following search formula: (impact
force) AND (strike) AND (taekwondo) OR (karate) OR (self-defence)
OR (combat sport) OR (boxing). The search resulted in 28 studies
describing 9 kinds of strikes, where straight punches and reverse
punches have larger mean impact forces than the kung fu punch
(p < 0.001) and that a palm strike had a lower strike velocity
(p < 0.001) than a reverse punch, straight punch, or junzuki
punch. The highest recorded mean force was found for a straight
punch (3427 N). Athletes in mixed martial arts, trainers of self-
defence or tactical coaches can expect that straight punches and
reverse punches should be performed at high speeds (over 10 m/s)
and provide similar or larger impacts than other upper limb strikes;
therefore, those punches should favour a combat athlete to win
a competition or succeed in self-defence.

Introduction
The systematic training of combat skills as a lifestyle is one of the oldest human
activities used to protect individuals or entire cohorts, whereas current combat systems
include martial arts, self-defence and combat sports (Culeddu, 2018). Athletes in
combat sports compete in technical and physical domains, which include changes in
opponent distance, attack movement combinations and defence movement combina­
tions. Due to the possibility of injury, decrease in cognitive function or perception and
consequently losing the ability to threaten the opponent, hitting the head scores points
in most combat sports. Therefore, many movement combinations are targeted to hit
the head area (Tong-Iam et al., 2017) and subsequently athletes in full-contact combat
sports prefer fast and strong strikes, kicks or blocks (Tsang et al., 2008; Zou et al.,

CONTACT Václav Beránek [email protected]

Supplemental data for this article can be accessed here.
© 2020 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 V. BERÁNEK ET AL.

2018), where the head and face have been found to be the most frequently injured body
area during Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) competitions (Lystad et al., 2014). As the hand
and fist strikes can score, improve striker tactical body position or cause physical
damage to opponents (Bingul et al., 2017), their combinations are more frequent
than kicks in kickboxing (Ouergui et al., 2013) and karate fights (24% kicks vs 76%
strikes) and are preferred for attack combinations (Chaabene et al., 2013). Moreover,
strikes are relatively frequent in different sports disciplines and easy to perform
accurately and powerfully without an enormous use of energy when attacking (El
Ashker, 2011); therefore, a detailed description of their mechanical consequences
would be beneficial.
In comparison to other combat actions (throws, take downs, etc.), strikes are relatively
fast to adopt due to their kinesiological and reflexional basis, where trajectory of upper
limbs strikes correspond to functional tasks based on their fundamental movement
patterns (Kabat, 1950). Other positive aspects of strikes are the high speed and variability
in their execution, which cause the impact to the opponent or increase tactical opportu­
nities for fighting athletes. In this consequence the impact is the force applied for
a certain (short) amount of time, where the area under the force–time curve is equal to
the change of linear momentum (1) and represents the energy transfer between striker
and opponent:
t1
ò t0 Fdt ¼ m � Δv (1)

(F = force, t = time, m = mass, v = object velocity). Therefore, quantification of the

striking action is typically based on measurement of inverse dynamics, strike impact
velocity, or both.
The different tactical opportunities in strikes include the various contact areas. For
example, strikes can be executed with different areas of the fist and palm, elbow or
other parts of the upper limb, and with positions, directions or areas initiated by the
target. This strike variation selection has become important in MMA, which is
described as a ‘decathlon’ of combat sports with its own specific culture. The MMA
competitors are obligated to be specialised and favour strikes that have high tactical
and impact potential, e.g., the spinning back fist or superman punch. Because there
are new trends in individual preferences and large variability in kinds of strikes, it is
useful to compare already known biomechanical characteristics of different strikes by
their velocity and impact.
Although athletes might use numerous variants of a given strike, they do not have
many opportunities to compare advantages of different strikes due to predefined
techniques in the rules of the specific combat sport. The only exception is in MMA
fights, where athletes can use almost any strike at its highest intensity (Miarka et al.,
2019). Therefore, an MMA fighter should investigate which kinds of strikes are the
most effective for winning a match, expecting those with the highest impact (Smith
et al., 2000). Elite boxers have demonstrated higher strike impacts represented by
higher mean Force (mean reactive force, Fmean) and maximum Force (Fmax) than
did beginners; and boxing match winners had higher Fmean than did their losing peers
(Pierce et al., 2006). Furthermore, Fmean has been identified as one of the parameters
which can determine winning the match (Bingul et al., 2017), being even more
 SPORTS BIOMECHANICS 3

important for success in combat sports than are speed (velocity) and accuracy of the
strike (Lenetsky et al., 2013; Pierce et al., 2006; Smith, 2006). On the other hand, the
upper limb strike might be performed at a velocity which is faster than opponent’s
protective reaction (0.2–0.4 s) (Wasik, 2009). Along with the knowledge that hand
velocity and impact characteristics correlated (Mack et al., 2010), we can expect the
hand impact velocity, Fmean and Fmax are potential parameters determining the
match result. However, an evidence-based comparison of different strikes in terms of
inverse dynamic or strike velocity is lacking in the current literature.
Previous studies investigated the Fmax, Fmean, speed and hand acceleration
during strikes that were selected for their preferred use in various sports disci­
plines (Cesari & Bertucco, 2008; Gianino, 2010; Neto et al., 2009; De Souza &
Marques, 2017; Walilko et al., 2005). Some studies compared the different kinds of
kicks in taekwondo, karate or kickboxing (Buśko et al., 2016; Gavagan & Sayers,
2017; Hachaj et al., 2017; Pędzich et al., 2006; Pieter & Pieter, 1995), and other
studies compared the biomechanics of kicks with those of upper limb strikes
(Olsen & Hopkins, 2003; Wąsik & Shan, 2015). Thus, there is a need for
a similar comparison among strikes to provide basic information about strike
characteristics for combat sport athletes and tactical coaches. Therefore, the aim
of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to summarise and compare the
mechanical consequences of different kinds of upper limb strikes among various
sports disciplines. The specific focus of the present study is on the values of the
strike velocities and Fmean, with the aim of creating a portfolio of strikes accord­
ing to selected mechanical properties, the potential of the strikes for use in
competition and self-defence, and the risk of injuring opponents. We hypothesised
that a straight punch can provide the highest Fmean, Fmax and strike velocities in
comparison to other strikes.

Methods
Experimental approach to the problem
This study is a systematic review with a meta-analysis that was performed according to
the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (Moher et al.,
2009). To identify potential articles, a computerised literature search was performed, and
then the title and abstract were screened according to the inclusion criteria. The articles
selected for the full-text review were screened for their methodological quality and the
exclusion criteria (Figure 1). Eligibility was assessed using the Strengthening the
Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) checklist (Von Elm
et al., 2007). The adopted STROBE checklist is provided in detail in Appendix Material
1, and the review protocol was registered in the International Prospective Register of
Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO, No. 143,228). The studies focused on any population
performing upper limb strikes, including elite athletes, individuals using self-defence
systems and military personnel.
4 V. BERÁNEK ET AL.

Figure 1. The PRISMA flowchart for article selection.

Literature search
The database search for strikes used in combat systems was conducted on 5 January 2019,
in the Scopus (950 to search date) and Web of Science (1101 to search date) databases and
in additional sources. A combination of the following search terms was used: TITLE-ABS-
KEY (impact AND force) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (strike) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (taek­
wondo) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY (karate) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY (self AND defense) OR
TITLE-ABS-KEY (combat AND sport) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY (boxing). Moreover,
a further, detailed search was performed in the retrieved review articles, in the reference
lists of the included articles and in other sources such as Google Scholar. The results of the
searches were recorded, and duplicates were filtered out (Figure 1).
 SPORTS BIOMECHANICS 5

Literature selection
The literature selection was accomplished in systematic steps, which are shown in
Figure 2. In the first step (Identification), articles from the databases were collected,
and duplicates were removed. After identifying potential articles, the titles and
abstracts were reviewed (Screening) by three independent reviewers (VB, PS, PV)
on the basis of the following inclusion criteria: 1) the title or the abstract of the study
must include analyses of any human striking movement of the upper limb, 2) the
study must focus on combat systems, 3) the study must evaluate the magnitude of
biomechanical properties, and 4) the study must be written in English. Full texts of
relevant articles were analysed for the final inclusion and eligibility assessment. Only
original, full-text articles were included.

Figure 2. Mean impact force reported for different strikes. Legend: m = study with mixed experience
values, ‡ larger value than both Kung fu punch by Tukey post hoc test, * larger than all other punch
values by Tukey post hoc test, ⁑ larger than Chadli et al. (2014) punch by Tukey post hoc test, † larger
than Loturco et al. (2016) punch by Tukey post hoc test, larger than straight punch by Buśko et al.
(2016) and Pierce et al. (2006) Tukey post hoc test, the diamond box represents the weighted mean for
the straight punch.

Methodological quality assessment

Full-text screening was performed by three independent reviewers for each article
(VB, PS, PV) according to the following exclusion criteria: 1) absence of
a measurement apparatus description, 2) absence of a participant’s description, 3)
absence of measurement results in appropriate units, 4) absence of a measurement
protocol, 5) absence of a description of the movement or action in the methods
section and 6) absence of results in numerical form in the results section (STROBE
5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 15 in Appendix Material 1 and 2). Other STROBE items were for
6 V. BERÁNEK ET AL.

informational purposes only, and their absence was not a reason for rejection of an
article. In cases of disagreements regarding articles inclusion, agreement was
reached by discussion among all reviewers.

Statistical analyses
The statistical analysis was performed for those studies in which a sufficient number
of values were reported to enable comparison of the same quantities of different
strikes; the reported values had to include the data distribution statistics (SD, CI, etc.).
All statistical analyses were performed with R software version 3.5 (R core team,
Vienna, Austria) at a statistical significance level of α = 0.05. The means and standard
deviations (SD) were compared with one-way ANOVA, followed by Tukey’s post hoc
test. The effect size estimation for unequal sample sizes by Hays, with ω2 < 0.09
considered to be significant, was used to show significant differences in the mean
force and velocity parameters (Hays, 1994).

Results
The database search resulted in 2086 articles after removing duplicates, and the
title and abstract screening resulted in 71 relevant articles that matched the
inclusion criteria (Figure 1). During the full-text screening, 43 articles were
excluded due to their general methodological quality according to the STROBE
guidelines. In total, 28 studies (Table 1, Appendix Material 1, 2) were considered
in the qualitative analyses only. Twelve articles were included in the quantitative
synthesis (Figures 2 and 3).

Figure 3. Mean velocities reported during different strikes. Legend: m = study with mixed experience
values, ‡ larger punch value than other authors without this mark by Tukey post hoc test, * lower than
all other punch values without this mark by Tukey post hoc test. The diamond box represents the
weighted mean for the straight punch.
Table 1. A summary of the included studies which reported the biomechanical characteristics of upper limb strikes.
Participants
n, (gender); age ± SD (y); height ± SD (m); BM ±
Author SD (kg); experiences; specificity Main aim Measured parameters Main result
De Souza & Marques, 8 (male); 20.25 ± 4.13; 1.74 ± 0.04; Analysed maximum impact force, relationship between Reverse punch (Gyaku Fmax 2314.5 N
2017 72.41 ± 9.62; professional; level of black anthropometric(age) and biomechanical variables with the Zuki) Fmean 1812.0 N
belts with expertise 7.64 ± 4.33 y maximum impact force.
Chiu & Shiang, 1999 12 (8 male, 4 female); (N/R); (N/R)1.69; (N/R) Analysed reaction time, attacking speed and punch force in karate Reverse punch (Gyaku vmean 14.7 m/s
64.40; (N/R); The ROC National Karate punch. Zuki) gmean 57.4 g
Team for the 1998 Bangkok Asian Games Straight punch vmean 10.6 m/s
(Oi Zuki) gmean 57.7 g
Gianino, 2010 High School students (N/R for all) Analysed the kinematics and dynamics of karate techniques Reverse punch (Gyaku amax 63.0 m/s/s
Zuki) vmax 13.0 m/s
Straight punch amax 49.0 m/s/s
(Oi Zuki) vmax 10.0 m/s
Daniel & Liviu- 10 (male); (N/R) 21–23; (N/R) 1.68 − 1.84; (N/ Analysed influences plantar pressure and the execution speed Reverse punch (Gyaku vmean 8.2 m/s
Razvan, 2014 R) 63–86; (N/R); Karate athletes Zuki) vmean 6.8 m/s
Kizame Zuki
Rinaldi et al., 2018 9 (7male, 2 female); 22.90 ± 8.90; Analysed kinematic, kinetic and electromyography characteristics Jun Zuki Fmean 181.2 N
1.72 ± 10.80; 64.50 ± 9.60; professional;
Karate athletes from the 2 to the 5 dan
Cesari & Bertucco, 12; 30.50 ± 6.0;(N/R); (N/R); mix; Karate Analysed the centre of pressure and kinematics of the upper limb for Tate Zuki vmax 7.8 m/s
2008 athletes 3 dan (n = 6) with years of different skill levels vmean 6.5 m/s
practice 21 ± 5; novice (n = 6)
Bolander et al., 2009 13 (10 male, 3 female); (N/R); (N/R); (N/R); (N/ Analysed the relationships between accelerations and force under Kungfu Punch Fmean 736.0 N
R); Moy Tung Ving Tsun martial artist different striking conditions.
Neto et al., 2009 13 (10 male, 3 female); (N/R); 1.69 ± 0.01; Compare force, precision and reaction time of two punches. Kungfu Punch Fmax 1226.0 N
68.40 ± 7.30; (N/R); Moy Tung Ving Tsun Palm strike Fmean 837.0 N
martial artist Fmax 1549.0 N
Fmean 930.0 N
Walilko et al., 2005 7 (male); (N/R); (N/R); (N/R) 48–109 kg; The biomechanics of the head for punches and the risk of head Straight punch (direct) Fmax 4741.0 N
professional; Olympic boxers injury. Fmean 3427.0 N
vmax 13.4 m/s
vmean 9.1 m/s
gmean 58.0 g
Tong-Iam et al., 2017 3 (male); (N/R) 22–24; 1.63 ± 7.00; Analysed the role of trunk rotation in straight punches. Straight punch (direct) Fmax 1605.0 N
SPORTS BIOMECHANICS

60.57 ± 3.93; professional; Muai Thai Fmean 1323.3 N

champions vmax 6.6 m/s
vmean 6.3 m/s
7

(Continued)
 8

Table 1. (Continued).
Participants
n, (gender); age ± SD (y); height ± SD (m); BM ±
Author SD (kg); experiences; specificity Main aim Measured parameters Main result
Loturco et al., 2016 15 (9 male, 6 female); 25.9 ± 4.7; 1.72 ± 0.10; Analysed the relationship between punching impact and strength Straight punch (direct) Fmean 1152.2 N
64.56 ± 12.10; (N/R); Amateur boxers and power variables.
athletes
Chadli et al., 2014 11 (male); 23.50 ± 0.50; 1.79 ± 0.01; Present a punch analysis tool for boxers. Straight punch (direct) Fmax 1162.0 N
V. BERÁNEK ET AL.

77.36 ± 11.06; (N/R); Amateur box athletes Fmean 989.0 N

amax 296.0 m/s/s
amean 258.0 m/s/
s
gmean 30.2 g
Buśko et al., 2016 48 (21 male, 27 female); 17.30 ± 1.60; Analysed punching and kicking forces and reaction time. Straight punch (direct) Fmean 1592,5 N
1.72 ± 5.85; 66.10 ± 10.35; (N/R); Boxers
and taekwondo athletes;
Bružas et al., 8 (male); 22.30 ± 2.50; 1.79 ± 0.06; Analysed the effects of a 4 week cycle of plyometric training with Straight punch (direct) mmax 300.0 kg
2018 71.70 ± 9.60; (N/R); Amateur box athletes external weights on punching ability. Said punch mmax 300.0 kg
Low punch mmax 400.0 kg
Halperin et al., 2017 13 (male); 25.00 ± 5.00; (N/R);74.00 ± 10.00; Analysed whether giving the athlete a choice over the order of Straight punch (direct) Fmax 3000.0 N
(N/R); Elite and amateur kickbox athletes punches would affect punching velocity and impact force. vmax 14.0 m/s
Halperin et al., 2016 15 (7 male, 8 female); 26.00 ± 3.00 (N/R); Analysed the effects of different instruction on punching. Straight punch (direct) *2.5 N/kg
69.00 ± 9.00; mix; intermediate Side punch *3.1 N/kg
competitive boxers and kickboxers
House & Cowan, 2015 22 (17 male, 5 female); 23.55 ± 3.20; (N/R); Analysed factors that contribute to the impact force of punch. Straight punch (direct) Fmax 475.2 N
(N/R); novice; (N/R) Fmean 238.7 N
vmax 8.1 m/s
vmean 7.0 m/s
Dyson et al., 2005 6 (male); 24.60 ± 3.30; 1.82 ± 0.05; Analysed the punch force of straight punches. Straight punch (direct) Fmax 4236.0 N
73.30 ± 19.00; (N/R); competitive amateur
boxers
Cheraghi et al., 2014 8 (male); 20.40 ± 2.10; 1.77 ± 8.50; Analysed biomechanical parameters of head, upper and lower body Straight punch (direct) vmax 9.4 m/s
70.40 ± 16.80; professional; elite amateur extremities during a straight punch. vmean 7.8 m/s
boxers
Bingul et al., 2017 9 (male); 19.33 ± 2.11; 1.74 ± 3.79; Analysed the effects of impact force and kinematics indicators in Straight punch (direct) Fmean 1987.4 N
66.00 ± 6.62; professional; elite boxing boxing for different stance. amean 424.6 m/s/
athletes s
vmean 5.3 m/s
(Continued)
Table 1. (Continued).
Participants
n, (gender); age ± SD (y); height ± SD (m); BM ±
Author SD (kg); experiences; specificity Main aim Measured parameters Main result
Kimm & Thiel, 2015 16 (10 male, 6 female); (N/R) 27; 1.74 ± 24.00; Analysed hand speed during the direct punch. Straight punch (direct) vmean 8.1 m/s
(N/R); mix; boxers with varying levels of
experience
Pierce et al., 12 (male); (N/R) 18–36; (N/R); (N/R) Analysed punch force in professional boxing matches. Straight punch (direct) Fmax 5358.0 N
2006 59.0–99.8; professional; boxers Fmean 1149.0 N
Svoboda et al., 1 (male); (N/R); (N/R); (N/R); (N/R); Analysed impact force for straight punch. Straight punch (direct) Fmax 2292.0 N
2016 Taekwondo sportsman Fmean 2151.0 N
vmax 8.4 m/s
vmean 8.0 m/s
Smith, 1983 15 (male); 24.90 ± 6.40; 1.73 ± 7.75, To determine the comparative effects on fist velocity and resultant Straight punch (direct) vmean 11.5 m/s
72.85 ± 12.50; mix; 5 white belt, 5 green momentum of a heavy bag when punched by different skill level
belt, 5 black belt Karate athletes subjects wearing no glove and different type of gloves.
Atha et al., 1985 1 (male); (N/R); (N/R); (N/R); professional; Analysed velocity on impact and peak force for punch. Straight punch (direct) Fmax 4096.0 N
boxer athlete Franko Bruno amax 90.0 m/s/s
vmax 8.9 m/s
Čepulenas et al., 2011 10 (male); 22.50 ± 3.38; 1.79 ± 7.70; Analysed the impact of the physical training sessions on the changes Straight punch (direct) mmax 253.0 kg
71.87 ± 15.18; professional; elite boxers in the indices of athletes fitness. Side punch mmax 297.0 kg
athletes Low punch mmax 303.0 kg
Neto et al., 2012 7 (4 male, 3 female); 27.00 ± 6.00; (N/R); (N/ To investigate differences between dominant and non-dominant Palm strike Fmax 1883.6 N
R); (N/R); Kung fu martial artist palm strikes with different stance. Fmean 1706.1 N
vmax 5.8 m/s
vmean 5.5 m/s
Neto et al., 2008 13 (male); 23.50 ± 6.10; 1.71 ± 0.08; Analysed force, power and efficiency of palm strike by both Palm strike Fmean 355.0 N
67.80 ± 4.74; mix; Yau Man Kung fu practitioners.
athletes with different experiences
Fmean, mean force characterising impact measured during the strike; Fmax, peak force characterising impact during strike; vmean, mean impact velocity of the upper limb during the strike;
vmax, peak impact velocity of the upper limb during strike; amean, mean impact acceleration of the upper limb during the strike; amax, peak impact acceleration of the upper limb during
strike; gmean, mean gravity acceleration of the target/head form measured during the strike; mmax, effective mass of the upper limb measured during the strike; * mean normalised to body
weight impact force.
SPORTS BIOMECHANICS
9
10 V. BERÁNEK ET AL.

Table 2. The characteristics of the strikes by the upper limb used in selected studies.
Trajectory
Name of system Straight From side From below
Boxing Direct punch Side punch Low punch
Karate Gyaku Zuki
Oi Zuki
Kizame Zuki
Jun Zuki
Tate Zuki
Kung Fu Kung Fu punch
Hand rotation
Fist pronation before impact Partial rotation Without rotation
Boxing Direct punch Side punch
Low punch
Karate Gyaku Zuki Tate Zuki
Oi Zuki
Kizame Zuki
Jun Zuki
Kung Fu Kung Fu punch Palm strike
Striking area
Clenched fist (metacarpus) Open palm (carpus)
Boxing Direct punch
Side punch
Low punch
Karate Gyaku Zuki
Oi Zuki
Kizame Zuki
Jun Zuki
Tate Zuki
Kung Fu Kung Fu punch Palm strike
Type of stance
contralateral hands and legs ipsilateral hands and legs
Boxing Reverse punch Straight punch
Karate Gyaku Zuki Oi Zuki
Jun Zuki
Hand preference
Front hand Rear hand
Main hand The cross
The jab
Straight punch term was unified from different synonyms like ‘direct’, ‘punch’, ‘direct punch’, and ‘blow’. Side punch
term was unified from different synonyms like ‘hook’, ‘arc strike’. Low punch term was unified from different synonyms
like ‘uppercut’, ‘upward punch’.
Front hand term was unified from different synonyms like ‘main hand’, ‘The jab’. Rear hand term was unified from ‘The
cross’.
Zuki = strike, gyaku = reverse,

The results of the qualitative analysis are from a comparison of 28 studies (Table 1).
The included studies allowed us to compare 10 types of striking actions with regard to
different impact characteristics (Table 1, Appendix material 3). Striking actions are
referred to systems of combat sports (boxing, karate, and taekwondo) and systems of
martial arts (kung fu and kung fu style moy tung ving tsun) and in non-self-defence
(Table 2). Strike actions use two types of striking areas: the area of the metacarpals and
phalanges in a clenched fist and the area of the palm (including palm edge of little finger,
Table 2). Moreover, the studies described three different directions: straight, side and
below (Table 2).
For the quantitative synthesis, 16 studies without comparable quantitative values were
excluded. The 12 studies (De Souza & Marques, 2017; Bolander et al., 2009; Walilko et al.,
2005; Tong-Iam et al., 2017; Loturco et al., 2016; Chadli et al., 2014; Buśko et al., 2016;
 SPORTS BIOMECHANICS 11

Bingul et al., 2017; Pierce et al., 2006; Neto et al., 2012; Neto et al., 2009, 2008) with
numerical outcomes of different strikes (Table 1) were included in the statistical analyses
(Figures 2 and 3). The included studies were undertaken on highly advanced participants,
and three performed with a mix of novice and advanced participants (Cesary & Bertucco,
2008; Kimm & Thiel, 2015; Neto et. al., 2009).
The one-way ANOVA analyses showed differences among the mean force values of
different studies and different types of strikes (F10, 135 = 13, p < 0.001, ω2 = 0.44), and the
post hoc test showed that the kung fu punch resulted in the lowest values when compared
to most other types of strikes. Additionally, the straight punch values were different
among different studies; the Walilko study (Walilko et al., 2005) reported the greatest
straight punch mean force, and the study by Chadli et al. (2014) reported the lowest
values (Figure 3). The Fmean value of the palm strike (Neto et al., 2012) was higher than
the value of the straight punch in kung fu. The lowest value of all strikes was reported for
the kung fu punch (Neto et al., 2009). The next lowest values were for the kung fu straight
punch (Bolander et al., 2009), the boxing straight punch (Chadli et al., 2014; Pierce et al.,
2006; Loturco et al., 2016; Tong-Iam et al., 2017; Buśko et al., 2016) and the karate
straight punch (De Souza & Marques, 2017). The highest number of measured values was
reported for the straight punch in boxing with a weighted average value of 1659 N. The
lowest measured value and the third lowest measured value, the kung fu palm strike and
kung fu punch, respectively, were from studies with cohorts with mixed experience levels.
That is, they contained cohorts that consisted of both experts and novices.
Results of one-way ANOVAs showed differences among the mean strike velocity
values of different studies and different types of strikes (F7, 66 = 7.6, p < 0.001,
ω2 = 0.45), and the post hoc test showed that the palm strike and the straight punch
reported by Bingul et al. (2017) had the lowest values compared to all other strikes.
Additionally, the straight punch reported by Smith (1983), the reverse punch and the
jun-zuki values were faster than the other strikes (Figure 3). The average velocity of all
strike types was 8.8 m/s. The highest number of measured values included a direct strike.
The average velocity of the direct strike was 8.04 m/s. The fifth lowest measured value
and the seventh lowest measured value belonged to studies with mixed experience levels
participant’s.

Discussion and implication

The present study aimed to investigate the physical characteristics of upper limb strikes
in combat systems and how they compared with each other. This aim was accomplished,
as impact characteristics and speeds were found and used to evaluate the strikes’ potential
for use in competition and to assess the risk of injuring other athletes in combat systems.
The included studies (Table 1) reported the impact properties of strikes that were
designed for contact distance use in a straight or side direction. The most frequent
reports were of the straight punch in a karate style (oi-zuki, gyaku-zuki, tate-zuki) and
the straight punch in a boxing style. The straight punch had the highest Fmean (3.42 kN)
and Fmax value in the study by Walilko et al. (2005) (Figure 2, Table 1). Therefore, we
can confirm our hypotheses in the case of the straight punch, but not for strike velocity.
However, the straight punch velocity was not different than other strikes.
12 V. BERÁNEK ET AL.

Although empirical experiences of previous studies highlight the usefulness of inverse

dynamics, there is a question of whether the Fmean or other factors are the main reasons
for combat competition success. Undoubtedly, it is advantageous for a combat athlete to
have fast, high-impact strikes, especially in the MMA system where victory can be
achieved tactically or by moments of sudden highly aggressive attacks. Moreover, straight
punches are also the most frequent type of strike in combat sports, such as kickboxing,
karate, and MMA (El Ashker, 2011; Del Vecchio et al., 2011; Gianino, 2010; Ouergui
et al., 2013; Vences Brito et al., 2011). Therefore, it can be stated that straight punches are
one of the key components of combat sports (Tong-Iam et al., 2017), and their mastery is
recommended to win a combat competition. This is in contradiction to a study per­
formed in boxing (Davis et al., 2015), where the side punch (Hook), distinguishes
between a winner and a loser during the semi-finals and finals of a boxing championship.
Moreover, the side punch (Hook) provides increased magnitudes of opponent head
rotational acceleration causing brain trauma in all regions of the brain (Cournoyer &
Hoshizaki, 2019). Based on this research discrepancy it is beneficial to elaborate sepa­
rately on specifics of different strikes, approaches to measurements, strike Fmean,
velocity, vectors, and their relation to injury, along with their use in combat disciplines.

Approaches to strike measurement

It can be stated that reports focusing on comparing impact for different types of strikes from
different combat systems, with or without gloves, are missing (Appendix material 4). Such
knowledge is important because straight punch techniques are also present in other, non
sporting systems, e.g., self-defence systems that may include any strikes that are applied
without technical limits and protection (Farkash et al., 2017). Using gloves or other protective
equipment brings one more difficulty into the measurement, since such optimal measurement
should include the attenuation of those devices. On the other hand, the measurements by
inverse dynamics reflect the overall energy transfer to the object of a strike. Most athletes in
studies that reported the Fmax used boxing gloves during the measurement (Atha et al., 1985;
Buśko et al., 2016; Dyson et al., 2005; Cheraghi et al., 2014; Chadli et al., 2014; House & Cowan,
2015; Halperin et al., 2017; Loturco et al., 2016; Pierce et al., 2006; Smith, 1983; Walilko et al.,
2005). Pierce et al. (2006), who reported the greatest magnitude of impact force (5.4 kN),
measured athletes during real boxing matches, and Walilko et al. (2005), Atha et al. (1985),
and Dyson et al. (2005) used boxing gloves in laboratory conditions. It can be assumed that
gloves dampen the impact on the target because they are designed to reduce the impact and
thus reduce the risk of injury (Smith, 1983). However, the included studies do not comment
on the possible bias of the results due to the loss of force measured from the glove cushioning.
The reason may be that boxing gloves are commonly considered a natural part of the
performance of an athlete, and may explain why only one study (Loturco et al., 2016)
estimated the absorption effect of some protective equipment to be 3%.
Our included studies reported the Fmax and Fmean (N), speed (m/s), acceleration (m/s/
s), gravitational acceleration (g) and weight (kg), where the measuring instruments con­
sisted of accelerometers (Buśko et al., 2016; Chiu & Shiang, 1999; Kimm & Thiel, 2015),
high-speed cameras (Bingul et al., 2017; Cheraghi et al., 2014; Neto et al., 2008; Smith, 1983)
a combination of both accelerometers and high-speed cameras (Bolander et al., 2009;
Walilko et al., 2005), a force plate with a high-speed camera (Cesari & Bertucco, 2008;
 SPORTS BIOMECHANICS 13

Tong-Iam et al., 2017) or strain gauges with high-speed cameras (Chadli et al., 2014; Neto
et al., 2009; De Souza & Marques, 2017) (Appendix material 3). Therefore, we might
conclude that the measurement of strikes lacks unification in terms of the methodology
and equipment used (Worsey et al. 2019) (Table 2), e.g., by using a dummy (Clark et al.,
2018).

Specifics of different strikes

For all kinds of strikes, there is the biomechanical construction of the striking action, in
which the length of the hand movement and the properties of the impact surface are
essential (Bolander et al., 2009) along with type of stance. Selection of stance type allows
for rotational movement of the hips (Tong-Iam et al., 2017) and affects stability during
a strike (Chadli et al., 2014). The biggest differentiation among striking actions is in
karate, where the basic movement of a straight strike is the same for gyaku-zuki, oi-zuki,
kizami-zuki, jun-zuki and tate-zuki (Table 2). The movement is performed with the
whole arm in a straight line, and the impact surface is formed by a clenched fist. The
movement of the hand starts close to the waist, and the dorsum of the hand is down.
Shortly before impact, the fist pronates, except in tate-zuki, in which there is only
a partial rotation. Kizame-zuki is the same strike with an added extension of the shoulder
and hips. According to the type of stance used, it can be differentiated from a reverse
punch (gyaku-zuki), in which there is a contralateral position of the hands and feet.
A straight punch (oi-zuki) is a movement in which there is an ipsilateral position of the
hands and legs. The movement of the hand starts close to the face in a typical boxing
stance of the straight punch (direct). A kung fu punch is a movement, where the hands
are near the face with the elbows tucked in to protect the ribs (Bolander et al., 2009). The
side punch and low punch are typical of boxing, and there is an arched hand direction.
The side punch comes from the side, and low punch comes from below. A largely
different strike is the palm strike, in which the striking surface is the open palm of the
hand and the trajectory is straight. Taking all together, each kind of strike provides
different spatial position and provides different tactical conditions to attack the opponent
or block the opponent´s strike during combat. In this relation each kind of strike has its
importance since the impact is determined by the athlete’s decision to move, where
initiation of a striking action provides higher speed and impact than the situation when
the striking action is a reaction (Halperin et al., 2017).
In the case of similarities, it is possible that a straight punch in boxing is the same as
a reverse punch in karate (Cheraghi et al., 2014). Unfortunately, there were not enough values
to compare strikes in a karate style and strikes in a boxing style. No studies were found for
‘short–range’ strikes—elbow strikes. The reason may be that all the studies, except three
(Bolander et al., 2009; Neto et al., 2008; Neto et al., 2012) were focused on sports systems,
where elbow strikes are mostly not allowed. There are only a few combat sports that do not
exclude elbow strikes from their rules: the Thai boxing system (Kaewplee et al., 2014) and the
MMA system (Miarka et al., 2019). Elbow strikes are a significant tactical and technical
element, especially in an MMA system, in which athletes are aware of the high efficiency of
the upper limb impact region (olecranon). All forms of stance are allowed in MMA, and elbow
strikes are frequently used as hitting approaches for close distances. A high peak impact force
in the area of the facial bones can cause a knockout or inflict a tactical injury to an opponent’s
14 V. BERÁNEK ET AL.

face. The missing reports and the use of elbow strikes might be related to the risk of injury in
athletes; however, we recommend measuring these strikes in future studies.
Some studies compared straight punches made by the dominant and non-dominant
hands, where blows made by the dominant hand reached a higher Fmax and higher velocity
than the non-dominant hand (Neto et al., 2012; Smith, 1983). Moreover, strikes are often
accomplished in the trajectory or circular (round) direction (El Ashker, 2011; Davis et al.,
2015; Del Vecchio et al., 2011; Gianino, 2010; Ouergui et al., 2013; Tong-Iam et al., 2017;
Vences Brito et al., 2011), but without the possibility of direct comparison. On the other
hand, there were clear differences between the athlete’s experience and the characteristics of
the strike; experts reach higher Fmean, Fmax and velocities than novices (Cesari &
Bertucco, 2008; Neto et al., 2008; Smith, 1983; De Souza & Marques, 2017).

Strike force and injuries

Strikes with a certain level of Fmean or Fmax can have high potential for a risk of injury,
which some authors have evaluated in connection with boxing and taekwondo systems
(Svoboda et al., 2016; Walilko et al., 2005). This becomes even more important if the
strike targets the face, where biomechanical tolerance of different regions of the facial
bones has been reported (Adamec et al., 2013): the nasal bone (os nasale) has the lowest
tolerance (0.5 kN), followed by the maxilla (0.7–1.5 kN), the os zygomaticum (1.0 kN),
the mandibula (1.4 kN), the lateral region of the skull (2.0–3.6 kN), the temporoparietal
region (2.5–5.2 kN), the frontal region (4.0–6.2 kN) and the occipital region (12.5 kN).
When comparing the values of the highest Fmean of straight punches with the contact
forces required for bone fracture, fractures can be caused in six regions of the skull. When
comparing the Fmax (Table 1), fractures can be caused in seven regions of the skull. In
total, four studies reported values that approached or exceeded the tolerance of most
facial bones (5 kN) (Atha et al., 1985; Dyson et al., 2005; Walilko et al., 2005; Pierce et al.,
2006). On the other hand, high-impact strikes can cause injury risks for the attacker and
may cause the attacker to be injured (Kowalczuk et al., 2009; Shafran-Tikva et al., 2017),
according to Newton’s third law.
The relation of injury and strike velocity is not related just to Fmean or Fmax alone,
but also the time over which the force is distributed (Equation 1) and the force vector
(Cournoyer & Hoshizaki, 2019). Moreover, if the striker is hitting by the arm with
constant weight, thus the higher velocity directly causes the higher energy involved in
strike impact. However, the actual damage caused by impact relates also to the kind of
tissue, which is involved (Amato, Billy, Lawson & Rich, 1974).

Study limitations
One of the important issues in striking actions is the influence of body weight on measured
reactive forces. Our analyses did not include the mean force and strike velocity values in
relation to bodyweight because some original studies did not report those values and because
in the case of upper limb striking this is not the determinant of reactive forces (Neto et al.,
2008; Pierce et al., 2006) or striking velocity (Walilko et al., 2005). Although body weight plays
an important role in energy production and reactive forces during kicking action (Pędzich
et al., 2006; Ramakrishnan et al., 2018), this is not the case regarding upper limb strikes (Neto
 SPORTS BIOMECHANICS 15

et al., 2008; Pierce et al., 2006), where performance level (Daruis et al., 2014) and body position
of the striker (Bingul et al., 2017) are the key variables. Therefore, we might consider our
comparison without reported body weight-related parameters as acceptable. On the other
hand, the values related to the bodyweight should be included in future studies.
Another limitation is based on limited kinds of biomechanical parameter’s to compare the
strikes, where most studies were using their measures without justification of measured
parameters. This is understandable since each original study is based on available equipment
to measure inverse dynamics and kinematics. On the other hand, there is current nescience of
importance of different outcomes. E.g., the Impact might be understood as whole force
impulse over the time of force exposure or as impact force acting from initial force application
to the time of the Fmax (Vagner et al., 2018). However, our reported parameter of Fmean and
Fmax represents both approaches to impulse.

Conclusion
Striking actions must be evaluated in the context of a particular combat system, and the
straight punch had the best consequences for impacting the target, which is usually the
body of an opponent. Therefore, the straight punch should be highly recommended in
MMA, boxing, karate, etc., in training and fight tactics because it has the advantages of high
speed and a large impact. Athletes in mixed martial arts, trainers, and self-defence or
tactical coaches can expect that straight punches and reverse punches can be performed at
high speeds (over 10 m/s) and can provide similar or larger impact than other upper limb
strikes; thus, these strikes should be frequently included in strength combat training and
conditioning. In addition, the straight punch provides a large number of variants that
a combat athlete can use tactically. In contrast, the palm strike had a low speed and impact
and probably does not create a specific advantage for athletes in combat competition.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Funding
This study was supported by the Charles University grant [UNCE/HUM/032], a student grant no
[SVV 260466] and by the project [SGS – 2019 – 001] of the University of West Bohemia.

ORCID
Petr Stastny http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2841-374X

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