BATCH HOT

BATCH HOT DIP DIP

GALVANZING
GALVANIZING OF
OF STEEL
STEEL

1
Abstract
Zinc coatings obtained by Batch hot-gip galvanization process is currently one of the most effective
and economical way of protecting steel products and structures against corrosion when compared
with other techniques like painting, metallizing. The batch hot-dip galvanizing has been used for
almost 150 years, and since then, there has been dynamic developments in this technology to
improve the efficiency and quality of zinc coatings. This article reviews the several topics that affect
the process of batch hot dip galvanizing: the pre-treatment chemical processes, factors like
immersion time, withdrawal speed, zinc bath temperature, bath chemistry etc. Paper also include
role of various alloying elements in steel in coating kinetics and along with substrate conditions.
Because of some abnormalities in processing conditions and use of wrong substrate chemistry, many
defects are generated during Batch galvanizing process. This paper includes exhaustive list of these
defects, their causes, and remedies. Going further, to minimize defects, this paper also suggests
criteria for selection of steel based on coating weights and application. The review also contains the
guidelines to be followed while designing the hot-dip galvanizing products and the various
inspections and testing methods used according to different standards.

2
Contents
1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 5
2. Zinc Coating Technologies............................................................................................................... 9
2.1 Electroplating of Zinc .................................................................................................................... 9
2.2 Spraying of Zinc ............................................................................................................................. 9
2.3 Hot Dip Galvanizing ....................................................................................................................... 9
2.4 Sherardizing ................................................................................................................................ 13
2.5 Mechanical Plating ...................................................................................................................... 13
2.6 Zinc Spraying ............................................................................................................................... 14
3. Batch galvanizing........................................................................................................................... 15
4. Chemical Pretreatment ................................................................................................................. 17
4.1 Degreasing .................................................................................................................................. 17
4.2 Pickling ........................................................................................................................................ 18
4.3 Rinsing ......................................................................................................................................... 20
4.4 Flux .............................................................................................................................................. 20
4.5 Drying .......................................................................................................................................... 21
5. Process of Batch Galvanizing: Influence of Process Variables ...................................................... 23
5.1 Mechanism.................................................................................................................................. 23
5.2 Substrate Conditions ................................................................................................................... 24
5.3 Zinc bath temperature ................................................................................................................ 26
5.4 Immersion time ........................................................................................................................... 26
5.5 Withdrawal speed ....................................................................................................................... 28
5.6 Quenching ................................................................................................................................... 29
5.7 Post Treatment ........................................................................................................................... 29
6. Effect of Alloying elements in Steel .............................................................................................. 30
6. 1 Silicon and Phosphorus .............................................................................................................. 30
6.2 Carbon ......................................................................................................................................... 32
6.3 Aluminium ................................................................................................................................... 32
6.4 Manganese.................................................................................................................................. 32
6.5 Sulphur ........................................................................................................................................ 32
6.6 Steel Selection ............................................................................................................................. 33
7. Zinc Bath Chemistry ...................................................................................................................... 35
7.1 Aluminium (Al) ............................................................................................................................ 35
7.2 Lead (Pb) ..................................................................................................................................... 35

3
 7.3 Nickel (N) ..................................................................................................................................... 35
7.4 Bismuth (Bi) ................................................................................................................................. 36
7.5 Vanadium (V) .............................................................................................................................. 36
8. Defects .......................................................................................................................................... 37
8.1 Pre-treatment ............................................................................................................................. 37
8.2 Treatment Defects ...................................................................................................................... 38
8.3 Post Treatment Defects .............................................................................................................. 41
9. Design Principles ........................................................................................................................... 43
9.1 Venting and Draining .................................................................................................................. 43
9.2 Hanging and Drainage Quality .................................................................................................... 43
9.3 Hole Position and Size ................................................................................................................. 44
9.4 Distortion .................................................................................................................................... 44
9.5 Hollow Sections ........................................................................................................................... 45
9.6 Hot Rolled Sections ..................................................................................................................... 46
10. Test Performed ......................................................................................................................... 47
11. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 49
12. References ................................................................................................................................ 50

4
1. Introduction
The recorded history of galvanizing dates to 1742 when a French chemist named Melouin, in a
presentation to the French Royal Academy, described a method of coating iron by dipping it in
liquid zinc. Later Luigi Galvani discovered more about electrochemical process. In 1829, Michael
Faraday introduced the sacrificial term in the study of galvanizing. In 1836, Sorel, another French
engineer, obtained a patent for a means of coating iron with zinc after first cleaning it with 9%
sulfuric acid and fluxing it with ammonium chloride. A British patent for a similar process was
granted in 1837. By 1850, the British galvanizing industry was using 10,000 tons of zinc a year for
the protection of steel. [1]

Corrosion is basically a natural phenomenon simply defined as rust; it is a chemical reaction

where metals revert to their lower energy form of their ore. This tendency is known as Law
Entropy. Corrosion is an electrochemical reaction where in there is a chemical reaction and flow
of electrons. Metallic corrosion includes both oxidation or exposure to oxygen in the
environment and electrochemical processes, meaning the metal forms corrosion cells on its
surface that greatly accelerate the transformation of metal back to the ore state. A basic
electrochemical process that drives the corrosion of metals is galvanic action, where current is
generated internally by physical and chemical reactions occurring among the components of the
cell. Various categories of corrosion are as follows:

Galvanic Corrosion- This is the most powerful form of corrosion. This includes two dissimilar
metals place within an electrolyte, where the reactive metal corrodes, and the more noble metal
stays protected.

Pitting Corrosion- Pitting corrosion occurs under certain conditions where chemicals like
chlorides and exposed to the surface and an unusual , Non-uniform corrosion occurs.

Microbial corrosion- It is commonly referred to as microbiologically influenced corrosion

(MIC) is caused by microorganisms. It applies to both metallic and non-metallic materials with or
without oxygen.

High-temperature corrosion- It is deterioration of a metal due to heating. This can occur

when a metal is subjected to a hot atmosphere in the presence of oxygen, sulphur, or other
compound capable of oxidizing the material.

5
Crevice corrosion- This type of corrosion occurs in confined spaces where access of fluid from
the environment is limited such as gaps and contact areas between parts, under gaskets or seals,
inside cracks and seams and spaces filled with deposits.

Steel corrosion is a costly problem in fact the annual direct cost of metallic corrosion worldwide
is $2.2 Trillion USD. Though steel corrosion, whether in atmospheric, soil, water, or other
exposures, is a natural phenomenon, estimates show 25-30% could be stymied if proper
corrosion protection methods were employed. [1]

Figure 1-1. Examples of typical corrosion environments according to EN ISO 12944-2

Several solutions to galvanic corrosion are available today. Hot-dip Galvanizing, Zinc coatings,
Duplex system, Protective Coatings, Special steels, and Sacrificial Anodes are the types of
solutions to the galvanic corrosion. HDG metals offer several advantages such as durability,
abrasion resistance, uniform protection, and complete coverage. Protective coatings include
powder and paint coating which only provide a barrier to the atmospheric condition, as it does
not include any chemical reaction between the underlying steel and the protective material. But
using protective coatings over a hot-dip galvanized product gives a greater corrosion resistance;
this type of method is called as Duplex system. Duplex system not only provides improved
resistant to corrosion but also gives an aesthetic look to the steel component. This system is
superior to HDG but does not differ highly in the terms of resistance to corrosion. One type
of cathodic protection system is the sacrificial anode. The anode is made from a metal alloy with
a more "active" voltage than the metal of the structure it is protecting. The difference in
potential between the two metals means the sacrificial anode material corrodes in preference to

6
the structure. This effectively stops the oxidation reactions on the metal of the structure being
protection. Sacrificial anodes generally include metals like Magnesium, Aluminium, Lead and Tin
which are used as metal coatings. The advantage of this system is that no external power is
required and are easy to install. There are a few disadvantages including a limited current
capacity based on the mass of the anode, ineffectiveness in high-resistivity environments.
Increased weight on the protected structure, and increased air and water flow on moving
structures such as ships. Though corrosion resistance is inherent any time HDG is utilized, more
and more specifiers select hot-dip galvanized steel for other reasons including lowest initial
cost, durability, longevity, availability, versatility, sustainability, and aesthetics.

Figure 1-2Corrosion resistance of hot-dip galvanized steel in various climate.

7
 Figure 1-3 Reliability values for four coating systems.

Hot-dip Galvanizing is used in vast fields of applications. Around 40 percent of Galvanized steel is
used in Construction building industries. Other applications include street furniture, Agricultural
and horticultural industries, Power plants, Transmission towers, traffic and transportation,
fasteners, and other joining parts, etc.

Zinc has a low melting point, very low strength, good casting properties, great alloying
properties, and hardness. At normal temperatures it is tough but at elevated temperatures
above 100°C it is easy to form. At very low temperatures it becomes brittle. Pure zinc quickly
oxidizes when exposed to the air and is prone to corrosion. Zinc also forms a Zinc carbonate
layer under favourable conditions improving the corrosion resistance. Zinc coatings provide
highly efficient and durable protection from corrosion for steel structures and components. [2]

The way in which zinc protects steel from corrosion results from its favourable physical and
chemical characteristics, which are very suitable for this purpose:

A. Acts as a sacrificial Anode.

B. After oxidising creates a highly resistant and metallic barrier with required thickness.

C. Zinc has an ability to be efficiently passivated.

8
2. Zinc Coating Technologies
2.1 Electroplating of Zinc
A very common zinc coating technology is electrolytic deposition of a zinc coating from an
electrolyte. In this system, a zinc electrode (anode) is connected to the positive pole of a source
of direct electric current. Zinc ions contained in the electrolyte are deposited on the negative
cathode represented by the steel product that zinc ions adhere to, forming a zinc layer. [2]
Thickness obtained by this process is around 10 – 20μm, and this coating thickness can be
controlled precisely. Very thin formable zinc coatings, ideally suited for deep drawing or
painting, can be produced as coated steel products by electroplating.

2.2 Spraying of Zinc

Thermal spraying is used to apply zinc that is melted by flame or electric arc and carried by a gas
stream to the sand-blasted surface of the part to be coated. The coating adheres by mechanical
adhesion. Pure zinc may be used for thermal spraying for anti-corrosion, but for higher corrosion
resistance, alloys of zinc with aluminium are also frequently used. The coating is applied as a
layer with the thickness of 80 to 250μm. [2] Pre-treatment like sand blasting with sharp edged
particles is necessary for this process. Post treatment includes organic paint application.
Combination of zinc coating with organic paint offers a very good corrosion resistance regarding
efficient synergy of both the materials. [2] This process is usually performed on-site to cover
welds, ends, and rivets.

2.3 Hot Dip Galvanizing

In hot-dip galvanizing process the parts designed to be zinc coated are first chemically pre-
treated to achieve a clean steel surface. Then the surface is activated with flux and subsequently
the parts are immersed in a bath of molten zinc. During immersion in the bath, a zinc coating
consisting of a few alloy layers is formed on the steel surface. The coating is formed depending
on the instantaneous conditions of diffusion of iron and zinc atoms and their mutual bond. This
operation involves a complex series of diffusion processes, elementary metallurgical reactions,
and thermodynamic transformations. In terms of appearance, thickness, structure, and other
characteristics, the final coating is the result of the influence of several factors. Batch hot-dip
galvanizing is carried out as a dry or wet process or as coating with centrifuging. A basic
comparison of individual galvanized coating types by the method of their application is
presented in Table 2-1.

9
 Table 2-1 Comparisons of individual types of coating

Application Characteristics Application

Method
Batch Dry Process limited handling parts that can be
during coating suspended
application, high individually
productivity
Wet Process good handling during complex shapes
coating application, requiring manual
limited weight handling
Centrifuged Low the coating has the minor parts
temperature same characteristics requiring a bigger
as in the case of batch coating thickness
application, limited
possibility to control
the coating thickness
High the coating lacks the minor parts

temperature alloy phase ζ, good requiring exact

possibility to control control of the
the coating thickness coating thickness

2.3.1 Continuous Galvanizing

Continuous galvanizing is highly suited for mass productions; besides, it provides benefits in the high
productivity lines with accurate parameter settings and allows to efficiently inspect the coatings. The
best-known continuous galvanizing method is the Sendzimir process. In a process line, cold rolled
steel sheet with a relatively clean surface is welded to form an endless strip and it is continuously
degreased and pickled. Then it passes through a furnace where, in a reducing atmosphere, the
material is subject to full annealing and oxides are removed from its surface. In a protective
atmosphere, the clean metallic strip is then immersed in a galvanizing bath and exits in a vertical
orientation through mechanical air knives that wipe the coating surface. After levelling, the strip is
wound up into coils. This produces favourable mechanical properties for further forming of
galvanized metal sheets. The thickness of the zinc coating on the surface of a continuously
galvanized strip is approximately 10 to 35μm.

10
2.3.2 Batch Galvanizing
Significant portion of hot-dip galvanized steel parts is batch galvanized in commercial galvanizing
plants. Batch hot-dip galvanizing is carried out in a standardized manner.

Dry Process

Most commercial galvanizing plants are equipped with a technology for suspension of batches of
components by cranes and jigs within the dry process. A benefit of this technology is relatively high
productivity at a sufficiently high degree of mechanization. The dimensions of tanks of these plants
are adapted to the market demand. If the design and production principles of hot-dip galvanized
parts are observed, very large parts can be galvanized in these plants with transportation capacities
becoming the main limiting factor.

Figure 2-1 Schematic representation of the process sequence of operations in a dry galvanizing process line

Error! Reference source not found. shows U-shaped arrangement of the process line of a hot-dip g
alvanizing plant is shown below. 1. Overhead traveling crane, 2. High-speed roller door, 3. Enclosed
chemical pre-treatment workplace, 4. Degreasing bath, 5. Bath with rinsing water, 6. Pickling bath, 7.
Bath with rinsing water, 8. Flux, 9. Drying furnace, 10. Mechanical stand with a chain conveyor, 11.
Enclosure of the galvanizing workplace, 12. Galvanizing workplace with a suspension crane, 13.
Suspension beam, 14. Stacking truck.

11
 Figure 2-2

Wet Process

Some commercially galvanized production is galvanized in plants using the wet process
technology. Despite relatively low productivity of these plants and limitations of manual
handling there are products whose galvanizing would not be possible in other equipment types
due to their complex shape or lack of access to detailed openings. Unlike the dry process the wet
process line does not contain the drying operation; therefore, this technology is called the wet
process. Immediately after being removed from the pickling bath, in the wet state, the batch is
immersed in molten zinc through flux covering a part of the zinc bath surface and galvanized
parts are removed from the zinc bath in the part separated by the slide. [2]

Figure 2-3 Operation sequence diagram of the wet galvanizing process

12
Centrifuge Galvanizing

Hot-dip centrifuge galvanizing is used for small parts. The batch is first subjected to the usual
chemical pre-treatment, generally in perforated plastic containers that are resistant to
chemicals. Then, after dripping and drying they are transferred into cylindrical galvanizing
baskets that are immersed in the zinc bath. After removal, the cylindrical basket is quickly
transferred to a centrifuge where excessive zinc is centrifuged off the surface of the galvanized
parts. [2]

Figure 2-4 .Operation sequence diagram in a technological line for hot-dip centrifuge galvanizing.

2.4 Sherardizing
Sherardizing is a method of diffusion zinc coating application where small parts cleaned by
sandblasting are tumbled in a rotary furnace together with zinc dust mixed with sand. The
temperature of the charge is just below the melting point of zinc. During the process, zinc atoms
diffuse into the steel surface and at the same time zinc may get chemically bonded to iron in the
surface layer of steel. An advantage is relatively high corrosion resistance of the coating, maintaining
of geometry of the zinc-coated part, and elimination of the hydrogen embrittlement risk. [2]

2.5 Mechanical Plating

Mechanical plating is carried out in a rotary steel tumbler with plastic lining at the ambient
temperature. Pre-treated parts are tumbled for a few tens of minutes in an appropriate chemical
environment together with zinc dust, glass balls, and a suitable promoter. Supported by impacts of
glass balls, zinc particles are cold welded to the material of the parts to be galvanized and zinc sticks
to their surface. When the required coating thickness is achieved, the batch is removed from the
tumbler, separated from the glass balls, rinsed, and usually dried in a centrifuge. Parts that are
surface treated by mechanical plating do not face the risk of hydrogen embrittlement or loss of steel
strength. The thickness of coating applied by mechanical galvanizing is up to 15μm and is very

13
homogeneous. This method is suitable for precise parts made of hardened or heat-treated steel,
e.g., springs. [2]

2.6 Zinc Spraying

Zinc spraying or zinc metallising allows coating of fabricated items with 250 µm thickness which
cannot be galvanized because of their size or because coating must be performed on site, by either
manual or mechanised methods. The steel surface must be prepared by grit blasting. The resulting
zinc coating provides cathodic protection for the underlying steel in the same way as a galvanized
coating. [3]

14
 3. Batch galvanizing
Batch hot-dip galvanizing, also known as general galvanizing, produces a zinc coating by completely
immersing the steel product in a bath of molten zinc. Prior to immersion in the zinc bath, the steel is
chemically cleaned to remove all oils, greases, soil, mill scale, and oxides. Surface preparation is
critical as zinc will not react with unclean steel. After surface preparation, the steel is immersed in
the molten zinc bath. The bath consists of more than 98% pure zinc and the remaining 2% or less
consists of additives, most commonly aluminium, nickel, and bismuth. These additives help with zinc
fluidity and consumption, coating appearance, and other efficiencies. While in the galvanizing kettle,
the molten zinc metallurgically reacts with the iron in the steel to form the coating. Most commonly
batch hot-dip galvanizing is used in atmospherically exposed steel; however, it is also used in fresh
and saltwater applications, buried in soil, embedded in concrete, and much more. The applications
include air conditioners, vehicles parts, outdoor electrical boxes, laundry appliances, refrigerators,
roofing sheets, wall panels of sheds etc. HDG sheets are also used in coastal infrastructures due to
its vulnerability to a salty environment. American Institute of Architect strongly recommends the use
of HDG in the 5km range of coastal areas. In India, almost 3% domestic car contains HDG while the
ratio reaches around 70% in Europe, Japan, and North America due to the regional regulations and
warranties. [4]

Table 3-1 Coating weights of zinc layer according to applications.

Sr. No. Application Coating Weight

1. Monopole 70 microns

2. Transmission Line Tower Typically, 86 microns, higher for

seashore applications around
131 microns
3. Solar Panel 131 microns and above

4. Bridges Depends on the application

5. Crash Barriers 70 microns

6. ERW Pipe Depends on the application

15
 Grain Silos, 30 Usage (kT)
Cable Trays, 20

TLT
TLT, 150
Solar Panel, High Mass Pole
160
Solar Panel
Grain Silos
Cable Trays

High Mass Pole,

150

Figure 3-1 Pi chart of Market segment of various applications

Hot Rolled Coils Consumption for direct HR application is 19.5 million tonnes annually. Out of which
5.76 million tonnes of HR Coils are galvanized. 0.1 million ton is available in precoated form i.e.
continuously galvanized part. Rest of the 5.75 million tonnes of HR coils are batch galvanized.

Figure 3-2 Solar Panel Figure 3-6 Cable Trays

Figure 3-3 Monopole

Figure 3-7 Crash Barrier

Figure 3-4 Grain Silos Figure 3-5 TLT

16
 4. Chemical Pretreatment
The metallurgical reactions on galvanized coatings can be successful only if the surface of the
part is clean and without any contamination. In modern galvanizing plants, chemical pre-
treatment is carried out in an enclosed workplace. This guarantees reliable collection of any
emissions released during pickling. Thus, negative environmental influences are minimized and
at the same time favourable working conditions for galvanizing plant operators are provided.
The basic chemical pre-treatment operations are degreasing, pickling, and application of flux.
Individual steps are followed by rinsing to avoid transfer of chemicals between the process
baths, which would lead to their deterioration. [2]

4.1 Degreasing
The first operation in the chemical pre-treatment workplace is degreasing which avoids the
hinderance of perfect wetting of surface in the pickling bath. Commercial galvanizing plants use
alkaline or acidic degreasing agents.

Alkaline degreasing is done in an aqueous solution of an alkaline degreasing agent, usually with
an admixture of surfactants. The main components of the alkaline agents are sodium
hydroxide(NaOH) and potassium phosphate(KOH). The degreasing action consists of dissolution
of grease and its emulsification. To achieve the required degreasing efficiency, the temperature
of the degreasing bath must be maintained around 80°C and the pH level should be high.
Therefore, this degreasing method has a high energy demand. During its useful life, the bath
gradually fills with emulsified grease and when a certain level of saturation has been achieved
(approximately 0.5%), it ceases to work. The saturated solution must be replaced with a new
bath. Several builders like Borates, Carbonates, Phosphates, Silicates, and gluconates and added
in the bath for the dispersion of pigments which also have good soil carrying capacity. Alkaline
degreasing must always be followed by a rinse to prevent deterioration of the acidic pickling
bath. [2]

Acidic degreasing uses agents that also utilize surfactants usually make use of the action of
phosphoric acid in a mixture with nitric, sulfuric, or hydrochloric acid. Advantages of acidic
degreasing baths are that the pickling process already starts during the degreasing and, more
importantly, that grease does not dissolve in the bath but precipitates and settles on the tank
bottom in the form of sediment. From that point the sediment is removed at regular intervals
when the bath has been pumped out and the original bath with a virtually unlimited service life
is returned to the tank. Acidic degreasing agents work at the ambient temperature; thus, they do

17
 not require costly heating and reduce the production of hazardous waste. However, they have
lower efficiency than alkaline agents. [2]

4.2 Pickling
A perfectly clean metallic surface of a degreased part is achieved by subsequent pickling in an
inorganic acid to remove the scales and corrosion from the surface. The most frequently used
pickling agents in commercial galvanizing plants are hydrochloric acid(HCl) or Sulphuric
Acid(H2SO4) in a concentration of up to 8-15%. To increase efficiency, the pickling bath is
formulated with a certain proportion of ferrous chloride, which ensures better dissolution of
scale covering the surface of parts to be galvanized. During its useful life, the content of iron in
the pickling bath increases while the content of free HCl decreases. The contents of acid and Fe
should be maintained in a suitable mutual ratio. Inhibitors are added to the pickling bath to limit
the dissolution of iron during pickling and reduce the rate of saturation of steel with hydrogen.
When using Sulphuric acid, to achieve a sufficient pickling it must be heated at a temperature
above 50°C, which means increased energy demands and production of emissions. [2]

Figure 4-1 Figure 4-2

4.2.1 Principles of operating pickling baths

The surface of the steel part is usually covered with scale and corrosion products, which can be
efficiently removed by pickling, usually in hydrochloric acid. During this process, the iron oxides
become gradually separated from the base material. Scale contains three basic layers of iron
oxides. The shares of individual iron oxides may be different in the scale layer. To efficiently
remove wustite, which is always closest to the substrate, the pickling solution must get access to

18
it. Scale predominantly consisting of magnetite requires very long pickling times. Parts on the
surface where wustite predominates, which dissolves readily in the pickling solution, need
relatively short pickling times to achieve a clean metallic surface. In modern metallurgical plants,
scale is removed from the surface of rolled products with the use of efficient methods and the
occurrence of strongly scaled metal sheets is relatively rare. During pickling, reaction of pure
iron with the hydrochloric acid cannot be excluded, which produces hydrogen. This might
produce harmful effects in the steel and any coating applied onto it.

Therefore, inhibitors are often added to pickling baths to inhibit the reaction of iron with
hydrogen chloride and so reduce the rate of saturation of the substrate with hydrogen. There
are basic requirements to pickling related to environment and production process.

The basic pickling bath management principles must comply with these requirements:

a. high pickling efficiency (the shortest possible pickling time).

b. high acid utilization rate.

c. minimizes negative environmental influences.

d. trouble-free and price efficient disposal of used acid.

Figure 4-3 Principle of scale removal by a pickling solution

During the useful life of the pickling solution, the content of free acid in the solution decreases
while the content of ferrous chloride increases. The initial concentration of the acid in the
pickling solution should not exceed 150 g/l for environmental reasons. A higher temperature of
the pickling bath increases pickling efficiency. If pickling baths are to be operated at higher

19
 temperatures, efficient extraction, and separation of HCl emissions must be ensured so that the
limit concentration of air pollutants in the released air is not exceeded. [2]

4.2.2 The Cross Rule

To ensure sufficient efficiency of a new pickling bath, it must be formulated with a sufficient
content of FeCl2 (approximately 50 g/l). Based on an instantaneous analysis of the chemical
composition of the pickling bath it is made stronger or diluted to optimize HCl and Fe
proportions. Individual quantities that should be mixed to achieve a certain concentration can be
determined with the use of the “cross rule” of mixing.

To obtain a C% concentration from the A% and B% solution you must mix (AC) parts of the B%
and (CB) parts of the A% solution. [2]

The parts can be expressed in mass if the concentration is given in weight percent or expressed
in volume if the concentration is given in volume percent. The content of zinc should be kept to
a minimum in pickling baths as its presence decelerates the pickling process.

4.3 Rinsing
Rinsing is performed twice within the dry process before the pickling process and after the pickling.
After degreasing to remove alkali content rinsing is performed. Later after pickling operation, it is
always followed by a rinse to prevent transfer of ferrous chloride from the parts to the flux and
subsequently to the zinc bath, where it has negative effects as it promotes increased formation of
dross (phase ζ). Nowadays, plants have a two-stage rinsing station in a cascade where every batch is
immersed in the first and then in the second rinsing bath after dipping in the pickling solution.
During operation, water from the first rinsing bath is used to replenish water evaporated from the
pickling bath and the withdrawn quantity is then replenished from the second rinsing bath where
clean service water is replenished after that. [2]

4.4 Flux
Before drying the product, flux is applied to their surface by their immersion in an aqueous solution
of zinc chloride and ammonium chloride, which are dependent on the concentration at a
temperature of 60°C to 70°C. higher levels of ammonium chloride result in a lower flux ratio and a
more active flux solution. The two most common ratio fluxes are at 0.85 and 1.27. These ratios are
known as triple salt and double salt, respectively, due to the chemical formulations of the fluxes. A
low flux ratio is useful in facilitating the coating of work that is difficult to galvanize, or when

20
cleaning or pickling is less than perfect. A low flux ratio will result in parts that dry faster but will
have less protection against reoxidation of the steel during the time between pre-fluxing and
galvanizing. Furthermore, flux solutions with a low flux ratio can lead to higher fume emissions
and skimming’s output. A high flux ratio will provide better protection of the work against
reoxidation between pre-fluxing and galvanizing but are not as tolerant of poor cleaning and
pickling practices. Reduced emissions of smoke and skimming can also be expected when using a
high flux ratio, especially if using a top flux. The pH should be maintained around 4-5 by adding
ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) or zinc oxide (ZnO). Detergents are added as additives to the bath.
The salt content in water should be approximately 400 g/l. The applied flux is dried, and a protective
film is created on the surface that prevents further oxidation.

• During immersion of parts into the molten zinc at the temperature of approximately
450°C, ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) decomposes to ammonium and ammonia (NH3),
which escapes, and to hydrogen chloride (HCl), which mainly dissolves zinc and
aluminium oxides i.e. removes the flash scales on the surface of the zinc bath enabling
direct contact of the steel surface with molten zinc.
• The task of zinc chloride (ZnCl2) is to reduce the surface tension of zinc, activate the
surface, and initiate the metallurgical reaction between iron and zinc that occurs during
the immersion of the batch in the zinc bath and produces the iron-zinc alloy coating.

Figure 4-4 Depicting the effect of Fluxing.

21
4.5 Drying
In the dry process, flux applied on parts to be galvanized must be dried to prevent splashing of
zinc during immersion of the batch into the galvanizing bath. Drying is most frequently done in a
booth with efficient ventilation, and waste heat from the heating of the galvanizing bath is
preferably used for heating. Immediately after drying, the items are immersed into the molten
zinc. The drying temperature should be around 80°C and above. [2] Benefits of Drying :

– Less splashing of Zn (low Zn loss)

– Reduces ash formation on Zn bath

– Higher productivity, as dipping speed can be improved

– Distortion decreases

– Waste gases produced by burning can be utilized in during

– Decreases chances of hydrogen embrittlement in High Strength steels

22
 5. Process of Batch Galvanizing: Influence of Process Variables
5.1 Mechanism
Hot-Dip Galvanizing forms a metallurgical bond between the zinc and the underlying steel or iron,
creating a barrier which includes the metal itself. During this process, the liquid zinc reacts
electrochemically with iron or steel surface and form a series of alloying layers. Below a micrograph
shows the formation of layers formed. Moving from the underlying steel surface outward, these are:

• The thin Gamma layer composed of an alloy that is 75% zinc and 25% iron,

• The Delta layer composed of an alloy that is 90% zinc and 10% iron,

• The Zeta layer composed of an alloy that is 94% zinc and 6% iron, and

• The outer Eta layer that is composed of pure zinc.

The micrograph also shows the amount of hardness of the alloying layer expressed in DPN i.e.
Diamond Pyramid Number. DPN is a progressive measure of hardness. As we can see the alloying
layers, Gamma, Delta, and Zeta are harder than the underlying steel. These layers provide
exceptional protection against corrosion damage due to abrasion. The Eta layer is quite ductile and
provides some resistance to impact. The galvanized coating is adherent to the underlying steel on
the order of several thousand pounds per square inch (psi). [1] Other coatings typically provide
several hundred psi. Hardness, ductility, and adherence combine to provide the galvanized coating
with unmatched protection against damage caused by rough handling during transportation to
and/or at the job site, as well as in service.

Figure 5-1 Photomicrograph of a galvanized coating

23
 Figure 5-2 General composition of the layers in the coating system of general galvanized steel.

5.2 Substrate Conditions

5.2.1 Substrate Thickness
The section thickness of the part to be galvanized has a fundamental influence on the thickness of
the galvanized coating. This is given according to the standard. There is a rule that the coating
thickness is smaller on thin-section substrates than on thick-section ones. [2]

5.2.2 Substrate Structure

Carbon in galvanized structural steel does not have a significant effect on the final coating thickness.
Coatings applied on ferritic steel or on ferritic-pearlitic steel are comparable. Accordingly, the
texture of the galvanized steel does not have any impact on the galvanizing result. Disturbing the
structure of the crystal lattice of ferrite in the surface layer of the substrate during hot-dip
galvanizing releases the bonds between iron atoms and supports their diffusion and the boundary
between the substrate and the zinc melt. This may lead to formation of mixed structures, or the
achievement of the required degree of saturation of the zinc melt with dross crystals is formed in
the zinc melt surrounding the wall of the galvanized part under favourable conditions, which may
stick to the coating in the powder form. [2]

5.2.3 Mechanical Processing of the substrate

Changes of the surface layer of the substrate caused by grinding or sandblasting will change its
profile and increase the contact surface of the substrate with the zinc melt. As a result, the coating
on a material treated in this way achieves higher coating thickness than on a substrate with an as-

24
rolled surface. Metal cutting of steel to be galvanized also influences the coating structure. The tool
blade pressure during turning causes changes in the structure of the surface layer of steel, which is
subsequently manifested in the coating structure by increased roughness. The coating on the turned
surface exhibits apparent scabs caused by damaging of the surface of the galvanized part due to
incorrectly adjusted turning parameters. Similar damage of the substrate as caused by metal cutting
may be caused by excessive concentrated pressure in case of incorrectly adjusted parameters of a
cold forming operation. The cause of the roughness is damage of the surface layer of the substrate
during cold rolling. During rolling of steel, the surface layer may become contaminated by impurities,
which may be impressed into the substrate by rolling. In such a situation, they are the cause of
occurrence of mixed structures. [2]

5.2.4 Thermal processing of the substrate

Annealing of steel produces scale at the expense of the surface layer of galvanized steel. Annealing
at temperatures without recrystallization having already taken place achieves recovery of the
reinforced surface layer and grain refining. Removal of the contaminated surface layer and change of
the steel structure lead to formation of uniform galvanized coatings without local anomalies. Due to
the high energy demands of annealing, this process is not used to improve the zinc coating quality.
The surface layer of steel can also be removed by using very long pickling times. However, harmful
influences of the generated hydrogen must be considered. [2]

5.2.5 Substrate surface cleanliness

The zinc melt surrounding the surface of the galvanized part is partly saturated with iron that
dissolves from the substrate. When a sufficient degree of saturation of the zinc liquidus with iron is
achieved of phase ζ are formed in the zinc melt. They are preferentially formed on crystallization
cores, which are foreign substances present in the melt. They can get there from the substrate
surface. [2]

5.2.6 Concavity of Substrate

It has been depicted schematically the growth of galvanised coatings on irregular surfaces of silicon
free steels, as shown in Figure 5-3. At convex sites gamma crystals separate allowing liquid zinc to
penetrate to the vicinity of the gamma/delta interface. This supports the continued rapid growth of
the gamma to form a tuft like outburst. On concave surfaces, dips, and depressions, however, the
crystals block each other and limit the growth. In the concave regions compact stable structures
grow. The tuft like outbursts, although they appear reactive, are still stable since growth is diffusion
controlled.

25
 Figure 5-3 Schematic of growth of intermetallic layers with regard to geometrical coating instability

5.3 Zinc bath temperature

During hot dip galvanization, the steel substrate is completely immersed in a bath consisting of a
minimum of 98% pure molten zinc. The bath temperature is maintained at about 440°C to 450°C for
reactive steel to keep thickness low and improve appearance and for less reactive steel temperature
of 460°C to 465°C is maintained for high thickness. The zinc metal then reacts with the iron on the
steel surface to form a zinc/iron intermetallic alloy. The articles are withdrawn slowly from the
galvanizing bath and the excess zinc is removed by draining, vibrating, or centrifuging. The articles
are cooled in air immediately after
withdrawal from the bath. [5] The
appearance of coatings on fixing products
after hot-dip galvanizing at different
temperatures has significant differences.
Increase in bath temperature causes
increase in fluidity of Zn, however it also
causes increased Fe in bath. At a
temperature of 475°C the coating is rough,
shiny, and silver coloured. The coating Figure 5-4 Temperature-dependence of the coating thickness, immersion time 5
min, Si content .0.12%.
obtained at a temperature of 530°С is smooth,
matte and gray-colored. [6]

5.4 Immersion time

Dipping time is dependent on the volume (mass) of the object; it varies mostly between 2 and 8
minutes. In certain cases where heavy articles are to be galvanized, they are kept immersed for

26
longer durations to enhance zinc penetration as well as the overall coating thickness. The dipping
duration can be controlled to tune the nature and thickness of the intermittent layers and the extent
of coverage. [5]

Figure 5-5 Relationship between steel composition, dipping time, and coating thickness.

Figure 5-6 Micrograph of galvanized steel with 0.21% Si, galvanized for 1, 2.5, 5 and 10 minutes at 445°C, 455°C, 465°C and
475°C respectively.

27
Micrographs of a galvanized steel, containing 0.21% silicon, galvanized at 445°C, 455°C, 465°C and
475°C for 1,2.5,5 and 10 minutes, respectively, are shown in Figure 5-6. Increases in coating
composition and coating thickness are especially evident at galvanizing temperatures of 445°C and
475°C. At dipping times of 1-minute differences in coating thickness are small.

5.5 Withdrawal speed

The steel substrate is taken out of the bath when the reaction between iron and zinc completed. The
thickness of hot dip galvanized coatings depends on withdrawal speed. Alloy Layer does not depend
on withdrawal rate but depends on dipping time. Zn Layer decreases with increase withdrawal rate
due to decrease in removal time. Conventionally an optimum withdrawal rate of 1.5 m per minute is
maintained for the formation of a bright shiny zinc coating. If the withdrawal speed is too slow, a
uniform unalloyed zinc layer is formed while in the case of faster withdrawal speed, an uneven
coating is formed. Hence, the withdrawal speed should be controlled to tune the nature, thickness
and the surface finishing of the coating. [5]

Figure 5-7 Graph of Coating weight vs Dipping time.

Zn Layer Zn Layer
Zn Alloy
Zn Alloy
Steel Steel

Figure 5-8 Normal Speed Figure 5-9 Fast Speed

28
5.6 Quenching
In water quenching, freshly galvanized steel is dipped into a water bath to help accelerate the
cooling process and stop the reaction between the iron and zinc. A consequence of water quenching
is that the water often becomes contaminated with oil or dirt that gets deposited on the zinc
surface. These contaminants can interfere with adhesion if they are not adequately removed prior to
painting.

5.7 Post Treatment

Passivation is done to protect galvanized parts from white rust. The passivation solvent should be
maintained at 70°C temperature and concentration should be from 0.1% to 0.15%, as increased
concentration causes green-yellow coloration. Quenching along with passivation is avoided due to
yellow color stains occurrence. There are three types of passivation agents that can be used viz.

• Cr6+: This agent gives a higher white rust life, but it is not ROHS Compliant.
• Cr3+: This solution gives lower white rust life than Cr6+, but it is a ROHS compliant
• Polymer: water soluble polymers, forms invisible coating on surface, no colouration like
chromate.

29
 6. Effect of Alloying elements in Steel
6. 1 Silicon and Phosphorus
During steel production, silicon or aluminium is added to remove oxygen. These steels are known as
“killed steels”. Since the content of silicon (Si) affects the hot dip galvanizing reaction, the silicon
content should always be taken into consideration for steels that will be galvanized. Aluminium-
killed steels suitable for galvanizing have low silicon content, below 0.03 weight percent. Silicon-
killed steels with a silicon content above 0.14 % also works well in galvanizing but give a thicker
coating than aluminium- killed steels. The phosphorus content of the steel also influences on the
reactivity, especially for cold rolled steels. Other alloying elements in the steel have no major
influence on the coating.

The Sandelin range

Steels with a silicon and phosphorus content in the range 0.03-0.14 weight percent are called
“Sandelin steels” in galvanizing terminology. These steels should either be avoided, or special types
of galvanizing baths should be used. In a conventional zinc bath, the reaction between this type of
steel and zinc is very strong and the coating becomes thick and irregular, often with poor adherence.
It is the crystals in the outermost alloy layer, the zeta-phase, that grow as small, thin grains. Molten
zinc diffuses rapidly between the grains and the growth of the coating is very fast. If zinc baths with
suitable alloy additions are not available, this type of steel should be avoided for hot-dip galvanizing.
It has been seen that the phosphorus content has a large influence on the reactivity for cold rolled
steels. For this reason, the recommended values of silicon and phosphorus are given below:

If the appearance of the galvanized surface is very important, for example in architectural
applications, the following expression shall be used for cold rolled steel:

Si < 0.03 and Si + 2.5 x P < 0.04 weight percent

For hot rolled steel the silicon content is even more critical, but the phosphorus content is of less
importance, and the following expression is recommended:

Si < 0.02 and Si + 2.5 x P < 0.09 weight percent

In most cases however, steel with silicon + phosphorus content < 0.03 % is adequate and gives an
acceptable surface finish in both the cold rolled and hot rolled conditions. [7]

30
Silicon in the steel significantly increases the solubility of iron in the zinc melt. Consequently,
coatings may be formed not only of great thickness, but with insufficient adhesion to the substrate,
therefore easily descaling. The silicon contained in the steel may also influence the composition of
the coating. In terms of the influence of the silicon content in the steel on the creation of the zinc
coating, the amount of silicon can be divided into four types. Steel with a low silicon content (killed
steel) of < 0,03 wt. % Si, steel with a silicon content in the “Sandelin range” (according to RW
Sandelin), i.e. (0,03 to 0,12 wt. %), steel in the “Sebisty range” (according to JJ Sebisty), i.e. (~0,15 to
0,25 wt. %) and, lastly, steels with high silicon content (> 0,25 wt. %). Low-silicon steel (non-silicon-
rimmed) (< 0,03 wt.% Si) is clearly the best for creating quality coatings in the hot - dip galvanizing
process. Conversely, steels with silicon content above 0,28 wt. % are not recommended for hot dip
galvanizing. [8]

The presence of silicon in the base steel significantly affects the structure and properties of the
resulting galvanized coating. Certain silicon levels can be responsible for excessively thick galvanized
coatings which are often brittle and dull. The effect of silicon content on galvanized coatings in
shown in the graph, Figure 6-1. In general, a peak in zinc pick-up occurs between 0.05 and 0. 1% Si
followed by a trough at around 0.15% to 0.20% Si after which the reaction rate increases again.
Galvanizing temperature and immersion time also affect the location of the peak and trough of the
graph. Since the life of the coating is proportional to its thickness, heavy grey coating, provided they
are sound and continuous, are beneficial. [7]

Figure 6-1 Effect of silicon in the steel on the Zinc coating.

31
6.2 Carbon
Most often batch galvanized steel with a carbon content up to 0,2 wt. % is intended for welded
construction. For these steels, it has not been shown that carbon content had a significant effect on
the formation, composition, and thickness of the zinc layer. However, increased carbon content (>
0,3 wt. %) can increase the reaction rate of dissolution of iron in the melt and therefore,
disproportionately increase the overall coating thickness of phase zeta (ζ) growth. Such a coating is
then very fragile and easily descales from the steel. [8]

6.3 Aluminium
Because of the risk of formation of unfavourable coatings on silicon-killed steels (“Sandelin effect”)
structural steel intended for hot dip galvanizing is often deoxidized by aluminium. Due to its high
affinity for nitrogen, is has the added advantage of providing increased resistance to aging. It is
believed that a comparable aluminium content in the steel, compared to silicon content, does not
cause the undesirable “Sandelin effect”. [8]

6.4 Manganese
Because of its position in the periodic table and comparable size with iron atoms, manganese is
commonly contained in construction steel as a ballast material [1]. Unlike other elements, its effect
on the kinetics of formation, the thickness and composition of the zinc layer is entirely negligible.
Conversely, it was shown that an increased amount of manganese (> 1,25 wt. %) in silicon-killed
steel positively influences the mechanical properties of the coating. This is most likely due to the
closer arrangement of the resulting zeta (ζ) phase. [8]

6.5 Sulphur
The increased sulphur content in steel due to deliberate alloying, e.g. cutting steel (manufacture of
fasteners), ensures its easy machinability. In operation, galvanizing showed that sulphur contents
greater than 0,15 wt.% again increase the solubility of iron in molten zinc, and lead to the formation
of thick coatings with insufficient mechanical properties. [8]

32
6.6 Steel Selection

Figure 6-2 Figure 6 4 Effect of silicon in the steel on the Zinc coating.

Steels with the chemistry shown in Category A & B usually provide the best results for aesthetics and
corrosion protection, respectively.

Steels with chemistry shown in Category X (Si ≤ 0.01%) are deoxidised with aluminium in the
manufacturing process. These steels sometimes produce coating thicknesses under the AS/NZS 4680
requirements using normal galvanizing processes. For steels known to produce thinner coatings,
abrasive blasting the steel surface prior to galvanizing will increase the surface area and produce a
thicker coating. This can change the appearance of the galvanized article and/or increase the
roughness of the finished surface and will increase the cost of the finished article. It is therefore best
practice to consider the durability requirement of the article prior to requesting blasting of the steel,
if the coating thickness achieved without blasting will meet the specified design life.

Steels with the chemistry shown in Category C & D are known as highly reactive steels and these can
cause excessively thick galvanized coatings to form. These thicker coatings are also known to be
somewhat less resistant to handling compared to the standard coating; however, they can also
provide increased corrosion resistance. [3]

33
Figure 6-3

Figure 6-4

34
 7. Zinc Bath Chemistry
7.1 Aluminium (Al)
Aluminium is added to the zinc bath to reduce its oxidation at the surface and improve the shine of
the part. In commercial galvanizing plants its content is generally maintained in the range of 0.002 to
0.005%. Higher aluminium contents cause formation of a thicker layer of aluminium oxide on the
zinc bath surface, which cannot be dissolved by the flux applied onto the zinc parts. This leads to
galvanizing defects like black spots. Aluminium is generally added to the zinc bath by adding a zinc
alloy that has been purchased with a higher content of aluminium. Aluminium contained in the
coating at even higher levels can increase its corrosion resistance and adherence. Baths with such a
higher content of aluminium required special conditions of coating application.

7.2 Lead (Pb)

Lead is added to the zinc bath to reduce the surface tension, reduce the zinc melt viscosity, and
improve its flow off the surface of galvanized parts during their removal from the bath. In zinc bath
with a temperature of 450°C lead dissolves up to the levels of approximately 1.2% and it is added to
the bath in the pure form. Its optimum concentration is 0.6 to 0.8%. It forms Pb layer at the bottom
of tank, which avoid eating of welded kettle by Zn liquid. A problem is the regulatory constraints on
lead due to its health effects.

7.3 Nickel (N)

Addition of nickel to the zinc bath improves shine, smoothness of coating and suppresses the
Sandelin effect on steel with silicon contents between 0.03 and 0.12%. In a zinc bath with a nickel
content of approximately 0.05% to 0.06% these steel grades behave in a similar way as steels that
have not been killed by silicon. The coating from a nickel-containing bath is consistent, has an
adequate thickness, and features very good mechanical characteristics. It improves fluidity &
reduces zinc consumption by 5-15%. If the steel contains more than 0.12% silicon, nickel no longer
has any influence on the coating properties.

35
 Figure 7-1

7.4 Bismuth (Bi)

Given the toxicity of lead, we add a small quantity of bismuth to galvanizing baths as an alternative
to lead to increase their fluidity, but it is ineffective in protecting bottom of kettle. Its content is
maintained below 0.1%.

7.5 Vanadium (V)

V is an effective bath additive that offers adequate control of Si reactivity in galvanizing. Its potency
increases with its content in the bath. Both the microstructure and the growth kinetics of the coating
are markedly improved. A ternary compound, denoted as T, forms at the ζ/ liquid interface, and
plays an essential role in Si reactivity control. V in baths introduces a new equilibrium state between
the liquid and the ternary phase T and makes the equilibrium state between the liquid-ζ phases
metastable. Furthermore, the large solubility of Si in T and the high binding energy between V and Si
made the diffusion path more difficult to enter the (ζ+ T + Liq.+ FeSi) region and, thus, protected the
integrity of a normal coating.

36
 8. Defects
8.1 Pre-treatment
8.1.1. Bare/Black Spot
• Cause: Poor steel cleaning (degreasing or acid pickling). Painted
portion not cleaned. Poor flux condition. High aluminum content in
the bath. Rolling defect in basic steel.
• Corrective Action: Change from adding pure aluminum additions to
use of a zinc – aluminum alloy addition. Recommended normal
aluminum content in the bath (and near the surface) is 0.002 –
0.005%. Check steel supply and keep articles separately.
• Remedy: Proper cleaning prior to galvanizing. Add flux powder to the bath surface.
• Comment by standard: Repair or Reject.

8.1.2 Blowouts
• Cause: Pre-treatment chemicals penetrating sealed overlap
areas through the required vent holes and escaping during
immersion in the molten zinc.
• Corrective Action: Pre-heat item prior to immersion in zinc
both to dry out overlap area as much as possible.
• Comment by standard: Clean and Accept.

8.1.3 Flux Deposits/Stains/Inclusion

• Cause: Flux deposits or stains may occur because of excessive
"dusting" with ammonium chloride on withdrawal from the molten
zinc. Flux inclusions can occur when a surface flux blanket is applied
to the zinc surface.
• Corrective Action: Ensure proper flux release.
• Comment by standard: Repair or Reject.

8.1.4 Touch Marks

• Cause: Articles entering the galvanizing baths in tight contact with
each other.

37
• Corrective Action: Minimise contact between components and jig connections. Small
components can be centrifuged.
• Comment by standard: Repair and Accept.

8.1.5 Rust Bleeding

• Cause: Pre-treatment chemicals that penetrate an unsealed
joint.
• Corrective Action: Avoided by seal welding the joint where
possible or by leaving a gap greater than 2.4mm wide to allow
solutions to escape and zinc to penetrate during hot-dip
galvanizing.
• Comment by standard: Accept

8.1.6 Weld Spatter

• Cause: Weld spatter is caused by weld pool explosions when
improper welding parameters are used, or if the material is dirty
or contaminated.
• Corrective Action: Welding residues should be removed prior to
hot-dip galvanizing.
• Comment by standard: Clean and Accept.

8.2 Treatment Defects

8.2.1 Zinc Flow Marks/Lumpiness
• Cause: Bath temperature too low (which reduces zinc fluidity).
High withdrawal Rate. Delayed run-off from seams, joints, bolt
holes, etc.
• Corrective Action: Optimum galvanizing temperature 450 oC -
455oC. Keep optimum Withdrawal rate.
• Comment by standard: Accept.

8.2.2 Ash Lumps/ Streaks

• Cause: Ash lumps or ash streaks on the coating surface.
• Corrective Action: Careful, slow, and steady skimming
technique. Do not “paddle” as this creates waves causing ash
streaks.

38
• Remedy: Keep skim bath surface just in front of the emerging galvanized steel items. Proper
design of the ‘skimmer’ tool. Use a floating type skimming tool.
• Comment by standard: Repair and Accept

8.2.3 Dross Pimples

• Cause: Excessive dross formation in galvanizing bath. Dross
pimples result from agitation of the dross layer at the bottom of
the bath or from dragging material through the dross layer.
• Corrective Action: Do not allow the bottom dross layer to
become very thick. Remove dross from the bottom of the galvanizing bath regularly. Keep a Pb
layer at the bottom of the galvanizing bath at 50 - 100mm deep. The Pb assists in holding the
dross at the bottom. Al can convert bottom dross into top dross Avoid higher fluctuations in
temperature.
• Comment by standard: Repair and Accept.

8.2.4 Delamination/Flaking
• Cause: High phosphorous content (greater) than 0,03% causes
entire coating to delaminate from the steel.
• Corrective Action: Apply second coating. The 2nd coating is
usually “normal”. This is because the first coating removed Si
and P from the steel surface. This will not be applicable to
high Si steel Nickel additions to the bath reduce the
probability of thick and brittle coatings. Control Si + P in steel.
• Remedy: Remove the coating in the acid stripping tank and re-galvanize.
• Comment by standard: Reject.

8.2.5 Ash Deposits

• Cause: Zinc oxide deposits cooling take place when the
component is dipped or when it is removed from both.
• Corrective Action: Remove ash from all liquid conveyance
pipes.
• Comment by standard: Repair and Accept.

39
8.2.6 Drainage Spikes
• Cause: The edge mast likely to have these spikes is the last to
leave the bath on withdrawal. This applies particularly to
complex fabrications.
• Corrective Action: Drainage spikes are easily removed by
buffing or grinding at the bath while still molten but with
complex fabrications, the solidified spikes will be removed by
fettling by the galvanizer prior to inspection.
• Remedy: Buffing or Grinding.
• Comment by standard: Repair and Accept.

8.2.7 Distortion
• Cause: Cause of this is differential thermal expansion and
contraction rates for the thin, flat plate and mesh than the thicker
steel of the surrounding frame.
• Corrective Action: Use a thicker plate, ribs, or corrugations to
stiffen flat sections or make the entire assembly out of the same
thickness steel.
• Comment by standard: Repair and Accept.

8.2.8 Runs
• Cause: Occur when zinc freezes on the surface of the product
during removal from the zinc bath.
• Corrective Action: Adjustments of the dipping angles can be
made, if possible, to alter the drainage pattern to a more
acceptable mode.
• Comment by standard: Repair and Accept.

8.2.9 Rough Surface Condition

• Cause: Cause for this rough surface condition is hot-rolled steel
with a high level of silicon content.
• Corrective Action: Using steel with a silicon content less than
0.03% of the steel by weight.
• Comment by standard: Accept.

40
8.3 Post Treatment Defects
8.3.1 Grey Coatings
• Cause: High silicon and phosphorous content in the steel
composition. Occurs when %Si + 2.5 X %P > 0.09%. Thick steel
sections being galvanized. These remain very hot immediately
after exiting from the bath. The Zn-Fe alloy layer then has time
to grow and reach the coating surface before the steel is water
cooled.
• Corrective Action: Control Silicon and Phosphorus content in
steel. Quench the part immediately after Galvanizing Bath.
• Comment by standard: Repair and Accept.

8.3.2 Appearance of Sodium Dichromate

• Cause: Sodium dichromate content greater than 0.3% while
passivation.
• Corrective Action: Maintain concentration of sodium dichromate
at about 0.15 to 0.3%.
• Comment by standard: Accept

8.3.3 Wet Storage Stains

• Cause: Caused by newly galvanized surfaces being exposed to
fresh water, such as rain, dew, or condensation that react with
the zinc metal on the surface to form zinc oxide and zinc
hydroxide.
• Corrective Action: Passivate the product after galvanizing by
using a chromate quench solution.
• Comment by standard: Repair or Reject.

8.3.4 Dross Inclusion

• Cause: Caused by picking up zinc-iron particles from the bottom of
the kettle.
• Corrective Action: Avoided by changing the lifting orientation or
redesigning the product to allow for proper drainage.
• Comment by standard: Repair and Accept.

41
Hydrogen Embrittlement

Hydrogen that recombined in substrate defects achieves a pressure of up to several hundreds of

megapascals. During the hot-dip galvanizing process this pressure rises even further, and the yield
point of the material is locally exceeded. A higher risk of hydrogen embrittlement is present in steels
with a higher yield point, which put up increased resistance to possible plastic deformations, show a
difficult relaxation capability, and, in extreme cases, a brittle fracture may occur. Hydrogen that
combines with free carbon precipitated at grain boundaries, producing methane, causes “hydrogen
corrosion.” Methane is not capable of further diffusion and accumulates in the place of its
generation where it causes strong stress. Welds and heat-affected weld areas exhibit an increased
risk of hydrogen corrosion.

Dross

Dross forms because of a chemical reaction between molten Zn and Fe. During galvanizing, some Fe
is constantly transferring into the molten Zn. Molten zinc can only dissolve a small amount of Fe
(about 0.04% maximum). As more Fe transfers into the molten zinc, the “surplus” Fe combines with
zinc to form very tiny dross particles. The reaction that takes place between iron and zinc is

Fe + 13 Zn →Fe Zn13.

Fe in Zn ingot is big source of dross, use of SHG instead of normal Zn ingot is commercially & quality
wise beneficial. Lower zinc temperatures mean less absorption of Fe from steel. Maintain bath
temperature at 445 - 455oC. Do not exceed 465oC. Temperature should be as stable as possible, +/-
2°C is acceptable. Maintain a very low Fe content in the flux since Fe from the flux is carried across
into the zinc bath. This can be maintained by improving rinsing after pickling.

Repair

The coating thickness of the repaired area must match the coating thickness of the surrounding
area. However, if zinc-rich paint is used for repair, the coating thickness must be 50% higher than the
surrounding area, but not greater than 4.0 mils because mud cracking tends to result when the paint
coating is too thick. Materials used to repair hot-dip galvanized products include zinc-based solder,
zinc-rich paint, and zinc spray metallizing.

42
 9. Design Principles

9.1 Venting and Draining

The purpose of venting and draining is to ensure the article can be
immersed and withdrawn from each stage in the process in a safe,
efficient, and effective manner. Both the pre-treatment solutions (to
clean the article) and the molten zinc must be able to flow freely
into and around the article, so contact is made with all surfaces and
all air is displaced. In turn, the liquids must then be able to flow out Figure 9-1 Sealed Unit

Super-heated stream inside leads to Explosions

of and run off the article. Trapped air due to an inadequately vented
area of an article has two effects on galvanizing:

1) Will stop the pre-treatment solutions from cleaning that section

of article and/or prevent zinc contacting the surface so the
galvanized coating will not form, creating a bare spot.

2) Can cause the article to float in the zinc bath, due to the similar
densities of molten zinc and steel. For hollow sections, a general rule
is if an article contains more than 15% of its internal volume as air, it Figure 9-2 Two Holes
will not sink in the molten zinc. Allows unit to vent and drain and to be galvanized
inside and out
Hence, vent holes need to be provided to allow air and moisture to
escape.

9.2 Hanging and Drainage Quality

Adequate hanging points should be provided, e.g.
suspension holes or lugs, taking into
consideration article size and the lifting capacity
of equipment.

Figure 9-3 Zinc drips off causing spikes and a very rough surface

For long, straight sections, 2 lifting lugs are

preferred to avoid wire or chain marks.

Where possible, articles are hung on a 45° angle

(approximately) to ensure efficient drainage of
pre-treatment solutions and molten zinc. This Figure 9-4 Natural drain to one point. Where possible, think 45 degrees!

43
avoids rough surfaces and lets the air escape from the highest point, preventing explosions.

9.3 Hole Position and Size

The location of the vent and drain holes shall be determined by
the shape of the fabrication and the angle at which it is
suspended for galvanizing, as well as the enclosed volume of zinc
in the fabrication when draining. A good rule of thumb for the
designer is to think of items being lowered into and lifted from
the galvanizing bath at an approximate 45° angle.

• Holes should be placed as close to corners and/or Figure 9-5

connections as practical.
• Holes must be located as close to the high and low points of hollow sections as possible to
prevent air locks, entrapment of pre-treatment chemicals and zinc puddling.
• Holes should be orientated in the same plane as the
fabrication.
• Holes should not be in the centre of end plates and
connections.
• Holes should be diagonally opposed where possible.

Dimensions of holes shall be determined by the trapped volume

of air in the fabrication and the surface area of the steel in the
vented area. Each square metre of steel surface produces

approximately 200g of zinc ash, which must be able to escape Figure 9-6

through the holes.

• Minimum hole size is ø10mm

• Hole diameters should be at least the same size as the steel thickness.
• Having bigger holes (where feasible) is always better for the galvanizing outcome.

9.4 Distortion
1) Maximise the uniformity of heat transfer into and out of the steel.

a. Ensure venting and draining is adequate. This will allow the

article to be immersed in and withdrawn from the molten zinc

Figure 9-7

44
 as quickly as possible.

b. Minimise section thickness variations wherever possible in the fabrication.

2) Minimise the effect of stresses while the article is in the molten zinc.

a. Use symmetrically rolled sections in preference to angle or channel frames. I-beams are
preferred to angle or channels.

b. Ensure assembly and welding techniques minimise stresses in components making up the
article.

3) Avoid designs that require double dipping. It is preferable

to build assemblies and sub-assemblies in suitable modules
allowing for quick immersion and galvanized in a single dip so
the entire article can expand and contract uniformly.

4) Ensure the structural design of the item is sufficient to

support its own weight at 50% of the steel's specified yield
strength.

5) Avoid using large areas of thin (under 8mm), unbraced flat Figure 9-8 Thick + Thin = Distortion

plate.

6) Use temporary bracing or reinforcing on thin-walled and

asymmetrical designs.

9.5 Hollow Sections

Figure 9-9 Avoid Distortion with Good Design

• Holes shall be appropriately sized for the size of the

section to be galvanized.

Figure 9-10 Diagonal Cross Sections

45
• Vent holes shall be at least 10mm in diameter or
the same thickness as the steel section.

• The length of the hollow section should also be

taken into consideration for the required hole size.
The hollow vessel rule may need to be applied for
some longer lengths or larger volumes.

• Large hollow vessels require a vent and drain

hole for every 0.5m3 of enclosed volume, each
being a minimum of 50mm in diameter. Figure 9-11

• Hollow sections (pipe/CHS, RHS and SHS) require vent and drain holes, each with a diameter
equivalent to at least 25% of their diagonal cross section length or multiple holes (for both
venting and draining) of equivalent minimum cross sectional area.

9.6 Hot Rolled Sections

• End plates, gussets and stiffeners

all restrict drainage. Vent and drain
holes or openings (e.g. snipes)
need to be provided in the corners
of connected structural member.
• The corners of end plates, gussets
and stiffeners can also be cropped
(referred to in industry as ‘snipes’)
to allow for venting and draining.

Figure 9-12

46
 10. Test Performed
Tests performed by ASTM Standards (A123/A123M)

• Coating Thickness - Magnetic gauges, Optical microscopy

o Pencil-Style Gauge is pocket-size and employs a spring-
loaded magnet encased in a pencil-like container. Its
accuracy depends on the skill of the inspector; thus,
the measurement should be taken multiple times.
o Banana Gauges have an advantage over pencil-style
gauges as they can measure the coating thickness in
any position without recalibration or interference Figure 10-1 Pencil Gauge

from gravity.
o Electronic or Digital Gauge is the most accurate and
easiest to use. Furthermore, electronic gauges can store
data and perform averaging calculations.

• Coating Weight - Weigh-galvanize-weigh, and weigh-strip-weigh

o Weigh-galvanize-weigh measures the weight of a steel

part after it has been cleaned, and again after galvanizing Figure 10-2 Banana Gauge
is completed. This technique only measures the zinc metal
added to the steel and will underestimate the total coating weight by up to 10%.
o Weigh-strip-weigh measures the weight immediately after a galvanized part is cooled,
and again after the coating has been stripped off the part using an acid solution. This
method renders the part unusable as the coating is removed. The weights must then be
divided by the surface area of the steel part to determine a value that can be compared
to the specification requirement.
• Finish and Appearance - Visual inspection
• Additional Tests
o Adherence - Stout knife
o Embrittlement - similar bend radius, sharp blow, and steel angle
o Chromating - spot test
o Bending - minimum finished bend diameter table

47
• Sampling
• Field Inspection
Inspection of hot-dip galvanized steel products does not end once they are accepted at the
galvanizer’s facility or job site. Once erected, any good corrosion protection strategy includes
periodic inspection and maintenance to ensure the protective coating is performing as expected.
When inspecting hot-dip galvanized steel in the field, the inspector should be aware of potential
accelerated corrosion areas and aesthetic surface defects.

Tests performed by IS Standards (IS2633)

• Microscopic Test - Section the test piece through the

copper deposit, mount and polish it metallographically.
Etch the polished surface using an etching solution
composed of 20 g of chromic acid, 1.5 g of sodium
sulphate and 100 ml of distilled water. After etching,
wash the test piece with alcohol. Examine the etched
test piece under a microscope, using a magnification of

100 diameters, or greater if necessary. Look for the Figure 10-3 Elcometer
exposed base metal.
• Qualitative Test for Zinc - Apply a drop of 'dilute hydrochloric acid ( I : I ) to the area in
question (depending on its size). The presence of zinc is indicated by immediate vigorous
effervescence. If no appreciable zinc is present, the effervescence will be mild. By carefully
removing the acid, a confirmatory test for zinc may be made as follows.
• Neutralize the acid with ammonium hydroxide, acidify with acetic acid and pass hydrogen
sulphide into the solution, a white precipitate ( zinc sulphide) confirms the presence of zinc.

48
 11. Conclusion

Batch Galvanizing is most widely used process for Zn coating involving higher coating applications
like Monopoles, Transmission line towers, railway bridges, Crash Barrier, Solar installations etc, since
process is simple, and equipment required to apply coating are cheaper compared to Continuous
galvanizing process. Through this technique coating can be controlled by changing process
parameters in relatively easy manner. Coating applied through this, has higher corrosion resistance
than simple painted structures due to sacrificial protection offered by Zn. To improve their corrosion
life further, duplex coating including Zn coating followed by painting process is used for heavy duty
applications like those placed near seashore or industrial areas.

Aim of this paper was collection of scattered knowledge in this field to make exhaustive
compendium which describes process of Batch Galvanizing in details. Efforts were made to include
impact of all process parameter involved in this process on end quality of coating. This paper also
provides guidelines for selection of steel substrate to get defect free coatings. Selection of steel
substrate is just one aspect of achieving defect coating, other aspects include process design like
bath temperature, flux chemistry etc. which plays major part in coating development. These factors
are described in detailed manner, also wherever possible recommended parameters are also
given. In last chapters, this paper describes design of component suitable for batch galvanizing,
testing of coating, defects, and their remedies.

49
 12. References

[1] American Galvanizers Association, "American Galvanizers Association," [Online]. Available:

www.galvanizeit.org.

[2] J. K. Vlastimil Kuklık, Hot-Dip Galvanizing of Steel Structures, New York: Elsevier Ltd., 2015.

[3] "Galvanizers Association of Australia," July 2013. [Online]. Available: https://gaa.com.au/.

[4] "Commodity Inside," [Online]. Available: https://commodityinside.com/coated-steel-market/.

[5] B. M. R. R. S.M.A. Shibli, "A review on recent approaches in the field of hot dip zinc," Surface &
Coatings Technology, p. 6, 2014.

[6] O. Bondareva, "Study of the Temperature Effect on the Structure and Thickness of Hotdip Zinc
Coatings on Fixing Products," Applied Mechanics and Materials, vol. 698, pp. 355-359, 2015.

[7] "Nordic Galvanizers," [Online]. Available: www.nordicgalvanizers.com.

[8] J. K. L. B. P. N. P. POKORNY, "EFFECT OF CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF STEEL ON THE STRUCTURE

OF HOT – DIP GALVANIZED COATING," Czech Technical University,Prage,Czech, vol. 55, p. 4,
2015.

[9] M. T. Wolf-Dieter Schulz, General Hot-Dip Galvanizing, Dresden: Leuze Verlag, 2012.

[10] A. J. V. V. a. J. J. d. D. Gonzhlez, "The Sandelin effect and continuously cast steels," International
Journal of Materials and Product Technology, vol. 6, no. 3, p. 42, 1991.

[11] C. W. L. Y. Z. Y. Xuping Su, "Effect of vanadium on galvanizing Si-containing steels," Surface &
Coatings Technology, vol. 205, pp. 213-218, 2010.

[12] J. v. Eijnsberge, Duplex Systems, ELSEVIE R SCIENC E B.V . , 1994.

[13] J. v. Eijnsbergen, Duplex, ELSEVIER , 1994.

[14] I. Standards, "Indian standards Method os testing Uniformity of Zinc coatings," Bureau of Indian
Standards, 2016.

[15] "HOT DIP GALVANIZERS ASSOCIATION SOUTHERN AFRICA," [Online]. Available:

http://www.hdgasa.org.za/.

[16] Galvanizer Association of Australia, "Design Guide for Hot-Dip Galvanizing -Best Practices for
Venting and Draining.," [Online].

50
Acknowledgement
I wish to thank Mr. Rhushikesh Mane [Manager – Product Application (West), Product Technology
Department, Tata Steel Limited] for his valuable technical support and for his useful and constructive
recommendations on this review paper. I am immensely grateful to Mr. Deepak Deshpande [Head
(PAG West), Product Technology Group, Tata Steel Limited], my review paper supervisor and
sponsorer, for his professional guidance and valuable support. I would also like to thank the TATA
Prashikshan (SNTI) for enabling me to work on a project in their institution.

51