REPUBLIC OF ZAMBIA

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND LIVESTOCK

POPOTA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

- BOTANY –

CERTIFICATE IN SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND RURAL

DEVELOPMENT

PREPARED BY:

Mr Halumba Godfrey
(BSc. Forestry – CBU, Dip. Agric. Educ - NRDC)

AUGUST, 2013

SYNOPSIS

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ITEM PAGE#
1.0 INTRODUCTION 4

1.0 Man and crops 4

1.1 Why study Botany 5

2.0 CLASSIFICATION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANT 5

2.1 Structural and physiological adaptations classification 7

2.2 Plant habit classification 7

2.2.1 Morphological 7

2.2.2 Life span/length of life 8

2.3 General use classification 8

2.4 Taxonomy/Scientific classification 9

2.4.1Division: Bryophyta (Mosses) 11

2.4.2 Division: Pterophyta (Ferns) 11

2.4.3 Division: Spermatophyta 12

3.0 PLANT MORPHOLOGY 14

3.1 Root 14

3.2 Stem 21

3.3 Flower 22

4.0 CYTOLOGY 24

4.1Cell structure 24

4.2 Plant tissues 25

4.2.1 Meristematic tissue 26

4.2.2 Permanent tissue 27

4.2.2.1 Simple permanent tissue 27

4.2.2.2 Complex permanent tissue 29

5.0 PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 33

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 5.1 Photosynthesis 33

5.1.1 Requirements and products of photosynthesis 33

5.1.2 Factors which affect photosynthesis 33

5.2 Respiration 34

5.2.1 Aerobic respiration 34

5.2.2 Anaerobic respiration 34

5.3 Relationship between respiration and photosynthesis 34

5.4 Sexual reproduction in plants 36

5.4.1 Floral parts 36

5.4.2 Pollination and fertilization 37

5.5 Plant growth and irritability 39

5.5.1 Plant growth 39

5.5.2 Tropisms 42

5.6 Plant nutrients 45

5.6.1 Macro nutrients 45

5.6.2 Micro nutrients 46

5.6.3 Uptake of water 46

5.6.4 Uptake of minerals 47

5.7 Transpiration 48

5.7.1 Environmental factors affecting the rate of transpiration 49

6.0 DISPERSAL, GERMINATION AND SEED DORMANCE 50

6.1 Dispersal 50

6.2 Germination 51

6.2.1 Requirements for germination 51

6.2.2 Asexual reproduction 51

6.3 Seed dormancy 52

INTRODUCTION

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Welcome to the Botany manual. Botany is a fundamental course in the Crop Science, Crop
Production and Agroforestry courses with the core objective of introducing you to the
general concepts of Botany so that you will be able to understand the afore going easily.

The course is meant to provide you with practical considerations as they relate to Crop
Science, Crop production and Agroforestry.

Botany is a branch of Biology concerned with the study of plants. It is concerned with all
aspects of the study of plants, from the smallest and simplest forms to the largest and most
complex, from the study of all aspects of an individual plant to the complex interactions of
all the different members of a complicated botanical community of plants with their
environment and with animals (ecology).

Botany is known to be split up into five main subcategories which are:

• Plant anatomy: An area of botany which focuses on the internal structure of

plants, concentrating on mature structures and their origin, development and
evolution.
• Dendrology: An area of botany which studies trees, shrubs and other woody
plants.
• Plant morphology: An area of botany which focuses on the external structure
and appearance of plants, namely their visual characteristics.
• Plant physiology: An area of botany which focuses on the function (or
physiology) of plants such as their daily functions and processes.
• Phytopathology (plant pathology): An area of botany which studies the disease
and disease-causing pathogens that affect plants. Environmental conditions such
as pollution are studied too.

Other branches of botany include:

1. CYTOLOGY: Brach of Botany that deals with the structure and functioning of the cells.
2. HISTOLOGY: It involves the study of tissues. Histology is therefore a component of anatomy.
3. PHYTOGEOGRAPHY: Concerned with the study of distribution of plants e.g. phytogeography
of Mopane is that it is found in lower valleys.
4. TAXONOMY: A branch of Botany dealing with the classification of plants so as to organize
them in a recognizable group.
5. ECOLOGY: The term is derived from a Greek word oikos. The science of Ecology also known
as Bionomics is the study of relationships between an organism and its environment e.g.
Mopane tree is associated with the lower valley environment.

1.0 MAN AND CROPS

Man is almost absolutely dependent on plants for his food. The things he eats are either plant
materials directly from plants. Plants are also a major source of clothing, fuel, drugs and construction
materials. They are also used as ornamentals. Considering the prime importance of plants, it is not
surprising that man has long been concerned with the domestication and development of plants
suited to satisfy his needs. Domesticated plants are called crop plants.

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When we look into the future, it seems likely that crop plants will continue to provide man with all
necessities of his life. However, the problem of food production is chronic and would become more
crucial with each passing year. Although the World is increasing its food supply, population growth is
now out ripping food production in all underdeveloped countries. Thus, a program for increased
food supply is needed. Such an effort will succeed only if combined with population control through
a worldwide program of education as to the dangers of a rapidly increasing population.

Increasing world food supply means, from plant point of view, improving crop yields. In improving
crop yields man has/ is doing the following:
6. Using fertilizer both organic and inorganic.
7. Controlling pests (weeds, insects, diseases animals including man).
8. Opening up irrigation schemes etc.
Because civilization rests in part on knowledge of plants and their cultivation, Botany can
be said to have originated with the first cultivation of crops, which dates as far back as
9000-7000 BC.

Crops are plants that have been carefully selected and developed to produce food for
humanity and animals and give certain materials.

Based on this, two aspects can be considered and these are:

 Centre of origin, meaning a place where the largest numbers of the relatives of a
crop plant are found or where the first crop was identified. It is related to
evolutionary conditions and is supported by fossil studies.

 Centre of diversity, meaning an area where the crops have been domesticated. There
is no fossil evidence of the crop and close relatives may not be found in these areas.

1.1. Why study Botany?

Plants are the source of many important products such as:

 Food (including grass for animals)

 Cotton and other fabrics
 Paper
 Wood
 Coal and oil
 Antibiotics and other medicines

2.0 CLASSIFICATION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANTS

Imagine you are a Poultry-house manager, layers section. Your job requires that amongst
others, you should ensure that you enhance business by grading your eggs. By grading the
eggs, you are somehow advertising your eggs at the same time, you can predict from day’s
collection expected income.

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QUESTION? How many categories of eggs are you going to have? What criteria did you
use to come up with these categories?

E.g. 2: select the two objects in each group that are most closely related:

Orange tree, mango tree, eucalyptus tree

Bicycle, car, motor bike

Grasshopper, horse, cow

Ewe ,hen, bull

In the first activity, you could have categorized your eggs according to:

i. Size: small, medium and large/big

ii. Color: brown, white

Then you would package the eggs into trays: small according to color, medium according to
color and large/big according to color also.

In the second activity, most closely related activities definitely could be:

i. Orange tree and mango tree: use of the tree was considered i.e. we get edible fruits
from these two tree types.
ii. Either bicycle or motor bike: you considered the number of wheels they have i.e.
each has two; or car and motor bike i.e. these are run on petroleum.

In the above activities, you have been classifying objects. Classification is based on
similarities, differences and relationships

Originally, Linnaeus had only two Kingdoms: Plants and Animals. More recently, this has
been expanded to six kingdoms:

Archaea: ancient bacteria: prokaryotic cells, often anaerobic, cell walls lack muramic acid.

Bacteria: more modern, prokaryotic, usually aerobic, cell walls have muramic acid.

Protists: eukaryotic, very diverse group: unicellular and multicellular, some photosynthetic,
some animal like, some slime molds.

Fungi: eukaryotic, cell walls have chitin, typically multicellular, heterotrophs, often
decomposers.

Plants: eukaryotic, photosynthetic, cell walls have cellulose.

Animals: eukaryotic, heterotrophs, no cell wall.

However as for this course we shall simply consider the plant kingdom.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PLANT KINGDOM:

1) Contain chlorophyll

2) Store carbohydrate as starch

3) Have a cellulose cell wall

4) Usually terrestrial (growing on land): waxy cuticle (reduces water loss)

5) Stomata in leaf to allow gas exchange.

Plants can be classified in four major groups according to structural and physiological adaptations
which are related to “wetness” of the habitat:-

2.1 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATION CLASSIFICATION

(i) Xerophytes: these are plants of dry Country (desert) which are able to resist
drought because of adaptations which minimize water loss; such as having small,
narrow, or curled-in leaves with deep-set stomata which prevent excessive
transpiration; thick external ‘waxy’ cell layers; shallow root system well adapted to
utilize moisture from light erratic rainfall which only penetrates only the surface
soil layers. In general, the plants in this group are associated with Rangeland.
(ii) Mesophytes: Constituted by the large group of grasses and other plants adapted to
grow in intermediate, or high rainfall areas, or on areas of moist soils in arid or
semi-arid parts. Many of the best forage species belong to this group which in
general is associated with areas of cultivation.
(iii) Hygrophytes: These are plants that grow in moist, swampy soils which have a very
high water table or are subject to seasonal flooding. The grasses in this group
usually have poor forage value.
(iv) Hydrophytes: These are aquatic plants. The grasses are generally of low fodder
value.
2.2 PLANT HABIT CLASSIFICATION

Plants exibit certain habits, which could be common within a specific group of plants. Theophrastos
used these habits. He classified plants using the morphological habitat and their life span habitat.

 MORPHOLOGICAL LEVEL

1.Tree: it is a woody plant, with a distinct main stem or trunk. At maturity, trees are usually the
tallest plants, and their height and single main stem differenciate them from shrubs and herb e.g.
mango, orange. Brachstegia etc.

2. Shrub: It is a short, woody plant, typically withseveral stems arising from or near the
ground. Although the distinction is more artificial, shrubs are generally shorter and have
more branches than trees. e.g. Lantana camara, Cassava etc.

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 3.Herb:It is a non-woody /soft-tissued plant that does not develop permanent woody tissues
above the ground. The category may include annuals, biennials or even perennial plants. Their
stems are usually green, pliable and juice. According to pharmasists, the term ‘herb’refers to any
plant or plant part that has medicinal properties.

 LIFE SPAN/LENGTH OF LIFE CYCLE

1. Annuals: These are plants which complete their life cycle in the course of one year. Within
the one year, they grow vegetatively and proce their propagative materials and then die, e.g.
maize, beans, peas, wheat, millet etc.

2. Biennials: These require two years to complete their life cycle i.e. in the first year they grow
vegetativly and then in the second year, they produce their propergative materials and then
die. Examples incude onion, cabbage, carrot etc.

3. Perennials: These are plnts requiring more than two years to grow, mature and then die.they
live for several years dueing which time they produce their propagative materials once or
more than once in a year e.g. cassava, akk trees and shrubs.

2.3 GENERAL USE CLASSIFICATION/ECONOMIC CLASSIFICATION

This classification is based on what the plant is used for. Some crops may have more than
one use and it naturally follows that they will fall under more than one category. The
following are some of the major classes distinguishable from this classification:

1. Cereal/grain crops: These crops belong to the grass family and are grown for their small
edible seeds and include rice, wheat, maize, barley, sorghum and millet. These crops
constitute the major cereals.

2. Legumes: these belong to the family fabaceacea and are grown for their edible seeds. They
are sometimes referred to as ‘pulse crops’ and examples include: groundnuts, soybeans,
peas, beans, pigeon peas etc.

3. Roots and tuber crops: they are grown for their enlarged roots or tubers and include:
cassava, sweet potatoes, Irish potatoes, yams

4. Fibre crops: grown for their fibre and include cotton, kenaf, jute and sisal.

5. Oil crops: grown for edible oil and include groundnuts, soybeans, sesame, sunflower and
rape. Cotton seed and maize seed are also important sources of edible oil. Castor beans are
grown for non-edible oil.

6. Sugar crops: these include sugarcane in the tropics and sugar beet in the temperate regions.

7. Drug crops: These are smoked or chewed for their stimulating effect and include tobacco
and Cannabis sativa.

8. Beverage crops: they are also a source of stimulants and include tea, cocoa and tea.

9. Latex crops: they are grown for their milky sap or latex e.g. rubber tree

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 10. Fruit crops: tomatoes, mango, oranges guava, pineapples, pawpaw, cucurmbers water
melons etc.

11. Leafy vegetables: lettuce, Chinese cabbage

12. Forage crops: These are grown as feed for ruminants either in fresh or dry form. The dried
forms may take the form of hay or silage. The important fodder crops include maize, guinea
corn, cowpea, Rhode grass, elephant grass.

13. Mode of propagation: Either sexually or asexually by cuttings, layering, budding, grafting,
wildings, suckers, stolons, tissue culture.

2.4 TAXONOMIC CLASSIFICATION

A plant is a living organism that is self supporting (holophytic) for instance they are
dependent on pre-existing organic matter. Plants belong to the Plant Kingdom.

Scientific classification

Plants are classified in the following manner;

Note:

Prokaryotes are organisms whose cells lack nuclei i.e. bacteria and blue green algae

Eukaryotes are organisms whose cells have nuclei i.e. all plants except bacteria and blue
green algae

Thallus refers to organisms having no body structure

Thallophytes refers to reproduction by fission

Examples of Thallophytes:

Algae

Manufacture own food (autotrophic-manufacture own food) i.e. Rhodophyta, Chlorophyta,

Blue green algae, brown algae) and live in water for survival

Bacteria

Nucleus not visible, singled celled and do not form spores. They are important in the
decomposition of organic matter and cause diseases both in plants and livestock. The
bacteria take cocci, bacilli and spiral shapes.

There are both harmful (cholera plague, blight disease in potato) and harmless bacteria (two
important antibiotics streptomycin and chloromycin are from bacteria, convert atmospheric
nitrogen to nitrates-Rhizobium sp.)

Fungi

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Fungi is made up of microscopic threads called hyphae, spreads to network hyphae called
mycelium. They are heterotrophic (do not contain any chlorophyll) i.e. are saprophytic and
parasitic

Used for wines, drugs, food, and can also be poisonous and cause diseases i.e. penicillium,
yeast and mushroom and toad stools etc.

Lichen

Combination of fungi and algae (live symbiotically). Mostly found on trunks of various fruit
trees i.e. citrus etc.

FUNGAL DIVISION

A fungus is heterotrophic and lacks chlorophyll. It is noticed in form of powdery furry

moulds which appear occasionally in food.

Characteristics:

 No chlorophyll
 Live on a variety of food stuff or organic matter i.e. mucor white mould usually
grows on bread, rotten fruits even on jam.
 Fungi are either parasitic or saprophytic. They secrete concentrate on to food
material (enzyme) which digest and dissolve it so that fungi can absorb it.
Saprophytes live on dead plants nutrients for growth. Parasites feed on already
manufactured food of the host.
BACTERIA DIVISION
Bacteria have prokaryotic cells, usually 1 - 5 micrometers wide. Many species are
mutualistic eg bacteria in gut of herbivores. Most bacteria are not harmful. In fact,
normal bacteria on the skin keep the skin healthy. Bacteria invade the food material they
feed on and infect it. They secrete enzymes that digest the food material and later absorb
nutrients.
 Classification of bacteria:
 a) Shape of cells
 Round : coccus eg Streptococcus mutans
 Rod shape : bacillus e.g. Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt used as insecticide)
 Escherichia coli ( E. coli )
 Spiral : spirillum eg Treponema pallidum (causes syphilis)
 b) Gram stain
 You stain the bacteria first with violet dye, then a red dye. Bacteria with
peptidoglycan on the outside of the cell wall stain violet (Gram positive) eg
Streptococcus. Bacteria with cell membrane on the outside stain red (Gram
negative) eg Escherichia.
 Many antibiotics prevent bacteria from producing peptidoglycan eg Penicillin.
Antibiotics are often given to farm animals, which increases the risk of antibiotic
resistant bacteria infecting humans

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  Types of bacteria:
 a) Cyanobacteria ( blue/green algae ); autotrophs, they were the first organisms that
produced oxygen in the atmosphere.eg Anabaena
 b) Enteric bacteria-Live in the digestive system.eg Escherichia many are useful
e.g. Lactobacillus, which helps digestion and reduces cancer risk in humans.
 c) Nitrogen fixing bacteria - in soil and legumes. They convert nitrogen gas in the
air to ammonia or nitrate e.g. Rhizobium
 Bacteria are used in bioremediation - removing toxic chemicals from soils. Other
bacteria are used in manufacturing chemicals such as citric acid, human proteins
(insulin, growth hormone), anti-cancer drugs, and also in biotechnology to produce
genetically modified (GM) crops.
 Reproduction in bacteria
 The spore of bacteria is air borne. Reproduction of bacteria takes place when cells
are mature and cell division takes place in every 20 minutes in favourable
conditions.
 Temperature of 44-750c (optimum temperature of 350c) and slight moisture without
direct sunlight favour the development of bacteria. Also the presence of oxygen for
aerobic bacteria and absence of oxygen for anaerobic is necessary.
 Ways bacteria reproduce
 1) Binary fission - one cell splits in two (asexual).
 2) Conjugation - sex pili are used to transfer genes from one bacterium to another.
 3) Transduction - viruses accidentally move genetic material from one bacterium to
another

2.4.1PHYLUM: BRYOPHYTA (MOSSES)

There are 20,000 species. Mosses lack vascular tissue to carry water, so they are small
and slow growing. Gametophytes are dominant. Mosses need water to reproduce:
antheridia produce sperm and archegonia produce eggs.
 Spores are wind dispersed: some species have peristome teeth around the capsule to
release spores in dry weather (Mosses and liverworts). The haploid spores grow into
a long thin protonema which eventually forms the haploid gametophyte. After the
sperm swims to the egg, the diploid sporophyte grows out of the top of the
gametophyte, and often gets food directly from the photosynthetic gametophyte.
 Mosses are very desiccation tolerant. (Rhizoids anchor the plant) example:
Sphagnum peat moss (used commercially for holding moisture in the soil. Sphagnum
can hold 20 times its own weight of water). It stores water in dead cells and creates
acid conditions in Peat bogs.

2.4.2 PHYLUM: PTEROPHYTA (FERNS)

There are 15,000 species. Sporophytes are well adapted to dry areas. The fronds are
usually divided into small pinnae.
 Sporangia on underside of the frond may be clustered together to form sori. In some
species the sporangium may have an annulus or ring of thickened cells, which in
dry conditions suddenly flick the spores out of the sporangium.
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  Ferns are usually homosporous. The gametophyte is typically small, heart shaped,
and photosynthetic.

2.4.3 PHYLUM: SPERMATOPYTA

 It takes up 66% of the Plant Kingdom.

 It is made up of plants that seed.
 The vascular tissues are well developed.
 Well differentiated leaves.
 Most advanced plants of the world

Spermatophyta is divided into two sub phyla namely:

1. Gymnospermae
2. Angiospermae

Sub phylum: Gymnospermae (Gyno-naked; sperm-seed)

Seed plants are well adapted to life on land:

a) Have pollen, carried by wind or animals, instead of sperm.

b) Do not have a separate gametophyte plant instead the female gametophyte is protected
inside the seed.

c) Seeds are much larger than spores, with big food reserves so they can live much longer
before germinating.

All are heterosporous (pollen and egg cell). Gymnosperms have naked seeds (not
surrounded by the ovary). They do not have any flowers instead the seeds are produced in
cones. They are the earliest seed plants that evolved (first evolved about 400 million years
ago).Gymnosperms (such as pine trees) usually wind pollinated.

Sub phylum: Angiospermae (Angio-not naked; sperm-seed)

 Are dominant plants and nearly all crop plants belong to this sub phylum.
 They show great variation to various habitats (adaptation)
 Outstanding structural features are the flower and fruits.
 Seeds are broken within a closed structure which later becomes the fruit after
flowering.
 The flower is the structure adapted for sexual reproduction.

Angiospermae is divided into two sub classes namely:

1. Dicotyledonae

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 2. Monocotyledonae

Subclass: Dicotyledonae (epigeal germination)

i. Seedlings emerge with a pair of seed leaves hence have two cotyledons
ii. Leaves are usually wide and stalked and do not usually sheath the stem
iii. There is usually a created tap root
iv. Leaves are broad and net patterned
v. Have distinct petals and sepals
Sub class: Monocotyledonae (hypogeal germination)

i. Seedlings put on a single seed leaf

ii. Leaves from a sheath around the stem
iii. The veins of the leaves are parallel
iv. Single root is replaced by fibrous root system
v. Has one cotyledon
vi. Vascular bundle is not arranged
vii. Internodes are distinct
viii. Have massive diametric expansion due to non formation of vascular bundles (cambium
absence)
ix. Sepals and petals are fused together to form periath.
x. Nomenclature (by Carl Linnaeus 1650)
xi. Carried out an exploration on plant flowers particularly stamens where he discovered
several numbers stamens which gave a problem towards classification. Hence he instead
looked at ovaries, stamen, pistle etc.
xii. For example Maize (Zea mays sometimes with [L] at the end indicating that it was
worked on by Linneaus)
xiii. Genus: mays
xiv. Species: Zea
xv. The "scientific name" is the genus and species name
xvi. E.g. Zea mays.[L]
xvii. Members of the same species can interbreed to produce fertile offspring. Members of
the same genus are similar, but do not interbreed in the wild. Example: wild perennial
maize (Zea perennis ) is in the same genus as corn, but they do not interbreed.

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xviii. Examples of plants with their respective scientific names (see Table 1):

Common name of crop Scientific name / Botanical name

Rhodes grass Chloris gayana

Sunflower Helianthus annus

Maize Zea mays

Beans Phaseolus vulgaris

Wheat Triticum aestivum

Table 1: Indicating scientific names of selected crops

3.0 PLANT MORPHOLOGY

Plant morphology is a general term used for the study of physical form and external parts of
the plants.

In this unit we shall broadly look at four parts or organs of a plant, namely: root, stem, leaf
and flower.

3.1 ROOT

This organ is the first to emerge from a seed. It develops from the radical.

Types of roots

 Tap
 Fibrous
 Adventitious
The root team influence growth and it is a sensitive part of the plant

The root has several parts:

 Root cap
 Growing point
 Root hair region
 Mature region

Root cap

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Protects the tip of the root from mechanical damage, its cells are made up of hard cells

Cells are continuously formed in this region due to wearing out of friction between the cap
and soil particles

Growing point

This is the meristematic region and the region of elongation. Cells are small and regular in
shape. It is above the elongation that hair roots branch off for the absorption of water and
mineral salts and before that the new cells by the dividing region absorb water and mineral
salts and develop vacuoles and the intake of water cause cells to elongate.

Root hair region

This is a region bearing short finger like out grown projections on epidermal layer. Water
absorption and to a lesser extent that of mineral salts is done in this region.

Mature region

It is the region where an increase in thickness is done unlike elongation (see Figure 2)

Note: Root hairs are exogenous in the region where as lateral roots are endogenous.

Fig.2: indicating parts and region of root

Functions of roots

 Absorb water and salts

 Anchoring and support of plants
 Food storage
 Conduction
 Vegetative propagation

 Carry out respiration

 Assist as support for climber plants

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The primary root is the first root that forms in and emerges from the seed.

In most other plants, the primary root develops into a taproot, a large, central root from
which lateral roots/side roots emerge.

Roots of various plant species have evolved various specializations:

 Food storage roots - used by the plant to store starch for metabolic activities later in
the season. Typical examples: carrot, beet, sweet potato.
 Water storage roots - found in arid regions, these are roots that collect large
amounts of water during rainy season for the plant to use during dry season. These
are most often found in xeriphytes (sometimes spelled xerophyte).
 Propagative roots - have meristematic regions from where new, genetically
identical plantlets can grow. These regions are not the same as nodes: they do not
contain a true apical meristem.
 Pneumatophores - gas exchange surfaces on root tips protruding from water-logged
soil. Certain species of mangrove have these. But, contrary to popular myth, cypress
"knees" apparently have no gas exchange function. (Cypress trees with knees
removed do not suffer from any apparent lack of oxygen.
 Prop roots - These grow from the lower part of a stem or trunk down to the ground,
and providing extra support for the plant. These tend to be more common in plants
with a tall, soft stem structure, as well as in plants that live in softer soils.Common
examples include corn (Zea mays), Screw "Pine" (Pandanus tectorius), various
species of palms, and red mangroves (Rhizophorus mangle.
 Aerial roots - typical of epiphytes such as orchids (in which these roots are called
velamen, with a spongy outer surface very good at absorbing and holding water) and
bromeliads.
 Buttress roots- wall-like extensions off the base of the trunk which provide support
against physical assault from high winds.
 Contractile roots - these specialized roots, usually found at the base of an
underground organ (e.g., a bulb)
 Haustoria - parasitic plant roots that invade the tissues of a host plant and transfer
nutrients from host to parasite.Examples of plants that have haustoria are dodder and
mistletoe
 Adventitious roots - are roots that grow anywhere they are not "expected."
Examples are the adventitious roots that grow so prodigiously from some of our
native and introduced species of Ficus trees. Several of the root types listed above
(e.g., prop roots, aerial roots) can also be considered adventitious.

Tap and fibrous roots are the ones most commonly encountered. Dicots have both tap and
fibrous roots, while monocots have fibrous roots only (see figure 3)

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Fig. 3: showing root types or systems

3.2 LEAF

The leaf is arguably the most diverse and specialized plant organ across taxa. It was the
most recent plant organ to evolve, and is not found in the most primitive plants. The leaf is
the main site of photosynthesis and gas exchange in most plants

 It is a principle organ of photosynthesis

 Carry out respiration and transportation for plant cooing effects.
 Carry out food storage i.e. cactus
 Used as vegetative propagates i.e. African violet

Types of leaves

 Foliage leaf
 Ordinary leaf
 Scale leaf
Ordinary leaf

This leaf is into single or compound leaves

Single

Types include: stipulate, exstipulate, sessile and petiolated etc.

Compound: could be pinnate or bipinnate (see figure 4)

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Fig. 4: showing compound leaf types

Chief overall features of leaves (as shown below):

 Apex
 Margin
 Base
 Overall shape

Leaf Shapes

There are several leaf shapes with several apices and bases namely; cordate, cuneate,
deltoid, elliptic, lanceolate, linear, oblanceolate, obovate, ovate, peltate, perfoliate,
reniform, spathulate, subulate etc. (See figure 5).

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 Fig.5: showing leaf shapes

Leaf venation

 Parallel veins
 Net patterned veins (pinnately veined, palmately veined, dichotomous). (See figure
6).

Leaf Shapes

There are several leaf shapes with several apices and bases namely; cordate, cuneate,
deltoid, elliptic, lanceolate, linear, oblanceolate, obovate, ovate, peltate, perfoliate,
reniform, spathulate, subulate etc. (See figure 5).

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 Fig.5: showing leaf shapes

Leaf venation

 Parallel veins
 Net patterned veins (pinnately veined, palmately veined, dichotomous). (See figure
6).

OR

Fig.6: showing leaf venations

Leaf arrangement

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Leaf magins

3.3 STEM

This organ is responsible for the above ground structure of the plant, and is involved in both
structural support and vascular transport. (See figure 7)

 It has internodes and nodes

 It has terminal and lateral buds
 Transports various food nutrients
 Performs photosynthesis
 Bulb- an underground stem consisting of a dense basal plate (a shortened stem axis),
and growing point or shoot primordium, enclosed by thick, fleshy modified leaves.
 Corm - a solid modified stem consisting of a swollen base of a stem axis enclosed
by dry, scalelike leaves. These usually have fibrous and contractile roots.

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  Pseudobulb - unique to orchids, these are thickened, bulblike stems that store both
water and nutrients.
 Cladophyll - flattened stem that serves the photosynthetic function of a leaf.
Another example: various species of (cactus). From the Greek clad, meaning
"branch" and phyll, meaning "leaf".
 Thorn - Although not all spines you see on a plant are modified stems, thorns are
shortened stems modified to form sharp, protective spikes. (Other types of spines
can be extensions of the periderm, or even modified leaves, as in cactus spines. They
are not always modified stems.)

3.4 FLOWER

A flower is a sexual reproduction part of the plant

Flower reproductive characters
Floral characters are generally used more often than seed and fruit characters.
 Pedicel - stalk of an individual flower
 Sepals - member of outer whorl of a flower, usually small and green (Calyx:
collection of sepals).
 Petals- member of second whorl of a flower, often large and showy (Corolla:
consists of petals to advertise the flower for pollination).
 Stamen - member of whorl of male sex parts
 Anther- structure containing pollen grains
 Andorecium - collective term for stamens
 Stigma- receptive surface for pollen
 Style- connects stigma to ovary
 Locule/Cell- chamber containing ovules
 Ovary- basal portion of pistil where ovules are located, Ovary develops into fruit
and Ovules develop into seeds. The ovary can be superior or inferior (Fig. 8).

Fig. 8: showing different flower parts

 Placenta- place of attachment of ovules within ovary

 Carpel - structure enclosing ovules

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  Pistil - collective term for carpels
 Simple pistil - composed of 1 carpel
 Compound or syncarpous pistil - composed of 2 or more fused carpels
 Gynoecium - collective term for pistils. It can be composed of one simple pistil
(Unicarpellate), many simple pistils (Apocarpous), or a compound pistil
(Syncarpous).
 Perfect flower - having both stamens and pistils
 Complete flower - having sepals, petals, stamens, and pistils
 Monoecious - stamens and pistils in separate flowers on same individual
 Dioecious - staminate (male) and pistillate (female) flowers on different individuals
 Flowers can be bisexual/hermaphrodite (♀♂) or sexual or unisexual flowers

Flowers may be single, or grouped together to form an inflorescence. The main types of
inflorescences are:

 Catkins - hang down with flowers close together.

 Umbels - have several flowers all attached to the same point in a semi-circle.
 Spike - has flowers joined directly to a tall stem
 Raceme - has flowers on stalks alternating up the stem
 Corymb - has flowers that form a flat surface, yet are attached to different points of
the stem.

Inflorescence types

The stalk of the inflorescence is a PEDUNCLE and the stalks of the individual flowers
are PEDICELS
After pollination, the seed develops inside a fruit. Fruit is made of three layers: the exocarp
is the outer layer. The mesocarp forms the fleshy tissue in the middle and the endocarp
surrounds the seed.

Types of fruit

Pome - most of the fruit is formed from the receptacle (under the flower) e.g. pear, apple

Drupe - has fleshy fruit and a single seed with a hard endocarp e.g. peaches, coconut and
olives

Berry - has many seeds e.g. tomatoes, peppers and cucumber but not strawberries!

Aggregate fruit - develop from one flower with many pistils eg strawberries.

Legumes - split along two sides e.g. beans, peas

Capsules - are dry fruit that have several carpels e.g. orchids

Nuts - have one seed and a hard pericarp e.g. acorns

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Grains - have the fruit and seed joined closely together e.g. wheat, rice, barley.

Multiple fruits - come from several different flowers joined together e.g. pineapples.
4.0 CYTOLOGY
This is the study of cells.
4.1 PLANT CELL

Cell is a basic functional structural unit

Cell theory states that cells arise from preexisting cells

Cell ………Tissue………organ……….system………organism

When all the systems in an organism coordinate they make the survival of the organism

Tissue is simply the group of cells that do the function (of the same job)

Fig. 9: showing structure of the cell

All living things are made of cells. Cells are microscopic; cells were first identified in 1665.

Microscopes

1) Light microscopes - focus light on the specimen.

- Advantages: you can see living cells in color, microscopes are portable and cheap.

- Disadvantage: magnification only up to 1000 times.

2) Electron microscopes - focus a beam of electrons on the specimen

- Advantage: high magnification (up to 1 million times).

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- Disadvantages: you can only see dead cells in black/white, not portable and expensive.

The cells consist of: membrane, nucleus and cytoplasm.

Membrane The plasma membrane separates cells from their surroundings. Membranes
are made of phospholipid and protein, arranged in a fluid mosaic. Membranes are
selectively permeable: they only let some chemicals through (generally small molecules).

Nucleus: The nucleus contains DNA arranged in chromosomes. It is surrounded by nuclear

membrane which has pores to let chemicals in and out. The nucleolus, which is inside the
nucleus, produces ribosomes.

Cytoplasm: the area outside the nucleus. It contains many organelles, listed below:

1). Ribosomes : contain RNA. They use this RNA to produce proteins.

2). ER (Endoplasmic reticulum) is in two types:

Rough ER: a series of membranes with ribosomes. It produces new membrane and
proteins.

Smooth ER: is a membrane without ribosomes. Smooth ER produces lipids.

3). Dictyosomes (called Golgi body in animals): packages and ships off chemicals around
the cell.

4). Vacuoles: typically found in plants. Storage vacuoles hold water, minerals, & poison (to
deter herbivores).

5). Mitochondria: have a smooth outer membrane, and a folded inner membrane. They
break down food to produce ATP-Adenosine Tri-phosphate (energy).

6). Plastids such as Chloroplasts: only found in plants. They contain chlorophyll.
Chloroplasts consist of grana (membranes) and stroma (liquid). They carry out
photosynthesis to produce carbohydrate.

7). Cytoskeleton: controls the shape, and movement, of the cell. It consists of
microtubules and microfilaments;

Microtubules: are made of the protein tubulin . They move cellulose to the cell wall.

Microfilaments: made of the protein actin. They cause acytoplasmic streaming or cyclosis
in plants.

8). Cell wall: only in plants. It is made of cellulose. It stops the cell from bursting and helps
support trees.

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4.2 PLANT TISSUE

A tissue is defined as an aggregation of cells coordinated to perform a particular function or

set of functions. Tissues may be divided into meristematic and permanent tissue

4.2.1 Meristematic tissue

Consists of dividing cells mostly found on the apex/tip of the roots and stems of the plant

Initial cells do not change position and do not mature. When it divides into two daughter
cells one matures and adds to permanent tissue, where as the other remains as initial cell
and divides further.

The process is continuous until the part becomes larger in the size and length.

Two types of meristem

1. Apical
2. Lateral
Apical

Responsible for increase in length and it is found in the growing regions of the shoots and
roots

Lateral

Lies between the bark and the wood it brings about increase in thickness or secondary
growth (See figure 10)

Fig. 10: showing lateral and apical meristem

Characteristics of meristem

i. Cells are relatively small in relation to other cells

ii. Cells have thin primary walls
iii. Cells have large nuclei
iv. They have fairly small vacuoles if any

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 v. No intercellular air space
vi. Actively divided

4.2.2 Permanent tissue

There are two types;

1. Simple
2. Complex

4.2.2.1 Simple permanent tissue

Cells are structurally and functional i.e. epidermis

1. Epidermis

It is an outer surface layer composed of a single cell with large vacuoles on leaves, roots,
stems and flower etc. Generally they are flat and have small amount of protoplasm (nucleus
and cytoplasm). They have no air spaces (intercellular) and they have a wax water proof
layer cuticle made of chitin.

They lack chlorophyll and give rise to structures such as hairs and can be specialised
trichonies (type of hair). Guard cells may have chloroplasts.

Functions

i. Protection against loss of water

ii. Protection against mechanical injury
iii. Protection against infection

2. Parenchyma

i. Least specialised permanent tissue

ii. It is the commonest and specialised tissue
iii. It forms the packing tissue and gives shape to rigidity stores food and water
Characteristics

 Have thin primary walls

 Have well developed vacuoles
 Have large intercellular air spaces
 Cells are more or less spherical
Functions

 Give shape and rigidity

 Store food and water

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  Sometimes have choloroplasts

3. Collenchyma
These are cells with un-evenly thickened walls which is usually at the corners of cells
Functions

 Mechanical support
 Strengthening the plant (stems and leaves)

4. Sclerenchyma

 Tissue with non-elastic walls

 Contain no living content when mature
 Used for support and protection
Sclerenchyma is divided into fibre and sclereids (See Figure 11)

Fibre:

 Are elongated with tapered ends

 They are tough and strong but flexible
 Found in stems, petioles and leaves of some plants i.e. sisal
Sclereids

 Are irregularly shaped (stone cells) similar to fibre in strength but suffer in shape.
 They are common in shells, nuts, hard part of seeds and some fresh parts of some
fruits like pearls giving a grit texture.

5. Cork

It is a tissue with thick walls improvised with suberin (wax substance)

Are found in outer layers of roots and stems of older woody plants forming water proof
layer

Functions

Protection of inner cells of stem against mechanical injury and chemical injury

Water conservation

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 Fig. 11: showing parenchyma, collenchymas, sclerenchyma, sieve tubes, companion cells.

4.2.2.2 Complex permanent tissue

The complex permanent tissue consists of the following tissues namely;

1. Xylem
2. Phloem
Xylem

There are two types namely;

1. Tracheids
2. Vessels
Tracheids: these are long with cells which are tapered at the end

Vessels: act as medium for the conduction of water and plant nutrients. The vessels have a
shallow structure in nature where the fluids are conducted.

Phloem

It serves as the medium for the conduction of organic substances to all parts of the plant.
The conduction of starch in form of cellulose to all the parts of the plant is called
translocation. The phloem is made up of cells or plates.

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Companion cells are found between sieve cells since there is an association. Sieve cells are
perforated due to the poles they posses internally (in them).

Associated with sieve cells are companion cells. When they mature sieve cells lose their
nucleus therefore their function are taken up by the companion cells

Sieve plates check the flow of the translocation of food unlike the xylem vessels

Stem anatomy (internal structure)- Monocot. and Dicot. (See Figure 12)

Fig. 12: indicating monocot and dicot. stem internal structure

Root anatomy of monocot and dicot (internal structure)

Periferous layer - (outer layer of the root)

 It bears the hair roots

 After sometime it is replaced by the exodermis when the plant is old
 It originates from the epidermis which includes the endodermis and exodermis
(protects plant against injury)
 It is made up of the parenchyma cells which form what is called cortex
 The cortex stores food specifically parenchyma.
Root epidermis is the surface that meets the environment, and it is the first selectively
permeable membrane the plant uses to filter uptake.

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Surface area is increased by trichomes that form root hairs (Fig. 13):

Fig. 13: showing root hairs

Endodermis-is the inner layer of cortex

Xylem and phloem is stele which make the central part, in some plants (hollow part)

Pericycle-is the site of secondary meristematic activity and lateral roots originate from here.
Do not posses intercellular air spaces (see Fig. 14)

Cortex-large area made of several layers of parenchyma cells. It stores food and water and
acts as a packing tissue or storage tissue.

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 Fig. 14: showing internal parts of monocot. and dicot. root

Leaf anatomy (internal structure):

Cuticle - a noncellular, waxy sheet of cutin secreted by the epidermis

Epidermis - this one-cell thick layer of "skin" tissue lacks chloroplasts.

Mesophyll is the leaf's ground tissue, composed primarily of parenchyma containing a great
density of chloroplasts (hence, this is chlorenchyma).

Palisade mesophyll - layer of photosynthetic parenchyma (chlorenchyma) of a tall,

columnar shape. These vertical, columnar cells are closest to the upper epidermis. These
have more chloroplasts than the rest of the mesophyll, and most photosynthesis seems to
take place in the pallisade parenchyma.

Spongy mesophyll - second layer of photosynthetic parenchyma (chlorenchyma), this one

with copious air spaces to facilitate transpiration. These are typical, box-shaped cells, with
much more air/fluid space between them than the pallisade cells. Fewer chloroplasts, but
photosynthesis still takes place here. This is the site of water and gas exchange, with the air
spaces in the spongy mesophyll connected directly to the stomates.

Vein system (xylem on top; phloem on bottom)

Lower epidermis - contains most of the stomates (Gas exchange pores, stomates are
located primarily on the underside of leaves in most plant species, but may also occur on the
top. In some species, stomates occur only on the upper surface. Opening and closing of
stomates

occurs in response to light conditions, environmental humidity, and water content of the
plant body in general) (see figure 15).

Lower cuticle - usually a thinner layer than the upper layer

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 Fig. Figure 15: showing internal parts of a leaf

5.0 PLANT PHYSIOLOGY

It is a branch of botany concerned with life functions of the plant.

It addresses the parts, namely: photosynthesis, respiration, plant nutrition, plant hormone,
tropisms, photo-periodism etc.

5.1 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis: a chemical process that uses light energy and produces carbohydrates.
Photosynthesis is carried out by plants, algae and some bacteria. Anything which carries out
photosynthesis is called a producer.
Consumers, like animals (including humans) and fungi, get their food by eating plants.
They cannot make organic molecules from scratch, like producers.
Photosynthesis is a series of reactions that form glucose and other carbohydrates.

6 CO2 + 12 H2O ----------> C6H12O6 + 6 H2O + 6 O2

5.1.1 Requirements and products of photosynthesis

 Supply of carbon oxide

 Light
 Green pigment (chlorophyll)
 Suitable temperature
 Enzymes
 Water
5.1.2 Factors which affect photosynthesis

Environmental factors:

 Light intensity
 Concentration of carbon dioxide
 Temperature
 Amount of moisture content
 Atmospheric dust
 Insect attack
 Disease

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  Aeration of roots

Internal factors:

 Number of stomata and distribution

 Abundance of intercellular spaces for provision of enough carbon dioxide
 Number of veins and distribution
 Total leaf surface
 Thickness of the cuticle

Organic and inorganic conditions:

 Amount and distribution of chlorophyll

 Acidity of the cells affects enzymes
5.2 RESPIRATION

Cellular respiration is a chemical reaction that releases energy from food. Animals and
plants both carry out respiration. In respiration, oxygen is used to break apart food
molecules.

The energy released by this reaction is stored as the chemical ATP. When the cell needs
energy, it breaks down ATP (adenosine tri-phosphate) to ADP (adenosine di-phosphate).

Aerobic respiration: uses oxygen. Anaerobic respiration: does not use oxygen. There are
aerobes which use oxygen but when it is not available still survive are known as facultative
anaerobes.

5.2.1 AEROBIC RESPIRATION

Glucose + Oxygen produces Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy

C6H12O6 + 6 O2 produces 6 CO2 + 6 H2O.

Energy is stored in the cell as ATP. Aerobic respiration is divided into three main stages:

5.2.2 Anaerobic respiration (or fermentation)

Anaerobic respiration does not use oxygen. Only glycolysis can occur. Single celled
organisms e.g. bacteria and yeast can survive anaerobically. Large animals (e.g. humans)
build up an oxygen debt when anaerobic takes place.

During anaerobic respiration, pyruvate builds up and is converted to:

Lactic acid in animals (produced by bacteria)

C5H2O6→2CH3 CHOCOOH (lactic acid fermentation)

Ethanol (alcohol) in plants (produced by yeasts in higher plants)

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C6H2O2→2CO2 + CH3 CH2 OH (alcohol fermentation)

The two processes are referred to as glycolysis since they are similar.

5.3 THE RELATIONSHIP OF RESPIRATION AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS

During photosynthesis C02 is taken in and 02 is given out i.e. respiration is reverse of
photosynthesis.

Respiration goes on at all times (day and night) and if photosynthesis rate and respiration
are the same then the oxygen given out during photosynthesis can be used up for
respiration.

In dim light the rate of photosynthesis is almost equal to the rate of respiration hence all the
carbon dioxide produced during respiration is used for photosynthesis. As a result there is
no gaseous exchange with the atmosphere. In this state the plant is said to have received the
compensation point.

In bright light the rate of photosynthesis exceeds the rate of respiration hence there will be
gaseous exchange.

In total darkness there will be no photosynthesis and only respiration will take place.

5.3.1 SIGNIFICANCE OF RESPIRATION

Much of the energy released through respiration is in form of heat ≈ 2,870kg/mol. It is of

little use to living organisms and most of it produced by plants is just lost into the
atmosphere

Though heat activates the enzymes for metabolic activities;

Free energy is used for physical processes (ATP) rather energy produced during respiration
is trapped in form of ATP (adenosine, phosphate group, high and low energy bond)

When the phosphate group is cribbed out yields ADP

Photosynthesis Respiration

Require carbon dioxide and water Require oxygen and carbon dioxide

Produces oxygen, carbohydrates, light Evolves carbon dioxide and water

energy is trapped by chlorophyll energy released

Only cells with chlorophyll All living cells respire

photosynthesize

Table 2: showing relationship between respiration and photosynthesis

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5.4 PLANT REPRODUCTION

It refers to the ways in which plants reproduce themselves from one generation to another
(where plants store their information in form of DNA molecules later coded to RNA and in
turn translates the message into synthesis of protein-heredity).

OR

It is a means where by successive generations are produced resembling their parents on

greater or less extent. Therefore transfusion of hereditary material is an essential feature in
reproduction.

For instance in flowering plants there are two types of reproduction namely:

i. Sexual reproduction
ii. Asexual reproduction

5.4. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Sexual reproduction refers to a fussion process of two sets of DNA (where one set of DNA
comes from each parent)

Sexual reproduction requires the formation of special cells called gametes (provides variety
among offspring).

Structure and function of the flower

Flower is the reproductive structure of a plant.

5.4.1. FLORAL ORGANS

Sepals; are the outer most and are green in colour, collectively are called calyx

Petals; are usually coloured i.e. green, yellow, red, collectively are known as corolla

Stamens; consist of the filament and anthers, collectively stamens are known as
androecium. Gynoecium - collective term for pistils. It can be composed of one simple
pistil (Unicarpellate), many simple pistils (Apocarpous), or a compound pistil (Syncarpous).

Receptacle; the area just below the fruits which sometimes makes false fruits i.e. mulberry,
strawberry etc

Stalk; attaches the flower to he plant.

Superior ovary; the ovary is above other flower parts (organs) such type of a flower is
referred to as hypogynous flower

Inferior ovary; the ovary is below other flowers organs such a flower is referred to as
epigynous

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When the ovary emerges from the middle is caused intermediate ovary and the flower is
perigynous flower.

The flower which contains all the sets is called complete flower. The flower with some
missing components is called incomplete flower.

OVARY POSITION

5.4.2 POLLINATION AND FERTILIZATION PROCESSES

Pollination: is the transfer of pollen from the anthers to the stigma of the same species of
flower.

Two types of pollination

Self pollination; is transfer of pollen from the anthers to the stigma of the same flower or
stigma of another flower on the same plant which leads to self fertilization and the
consequence is that the offspring will have less genetic variation because of random
assortment, cross over etc.

Advantage

Good characteristics are maintained or retained in a population

Disadvantage

Evolutionally it is bad

Cross pollination; transfer of pollen from one plant to another but of the same species
results in cross pollination which leads to a variety of genomes in the offspring

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Advantage

Better than self pollination

Note: Pathernocapy

Formation of fruit without the pollination and fertilization

No seeds are produced (pathernocapy are seed less) e.g. Washington navel, Cavendish
banana etc.

The two major agents of pollination are wind and insects

Wind pollination

Flowers lack sepals and petals (do not produce nectar)

Reproductive organs grow before leaves

Anthers grow hanging outside the flowers (refer to diagram below)

Pollen is small, simple and light (contains air bladder)

Insect, Bird, Bat pollination

There is a mutual relationship between insects and flowers. As flowers provide food and
insect make the flower achieve pollination

Flower attracts insects through smell, sight of insects (brightly coloured petals), often large,
pollen is large, often very complex in form (as shown below).

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Fertilization

It occurs after the male and female gametes have been brought together (pollination) either
by wind or insects). When the pollen sticks on the stigma, it develops further into the pollen
tube which passes downwards through the style. Then the nuclei of the male gamete
combine with the nuclei of the ovules in the ovary (fertilization) and when the ovules are
mature become seed to give a fruit.

The pollen tube grows through the micropyle opening in the ovule into the embryo sac and
discharges the two sperm nuclei. One unites with the egg cell the other with the polar nuclei
to form the zygote and the endosperm (food storage tissue). The type of fertilization is
double or triploid fertilization which is unique (as indicated below).

The fusion occurs through the micropyle. The seed after it has been formed has several parts

When the seed is fully developed it is surrounded by tissues from carpel (female
reproductive organ of flowering plants-pistils) and the tissue is pericarp. The seed and the
pericarp form the fruit.

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5.5 PLANT GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT AND IRRITABILITY

5.5.1 Plant growth

Plant growth refers to an increase in size or weight.

Plant development refers to the process of growth and differentiation (process by which
cells become specialised) of individual cells into tissues organs or an organism.

Growth in plants is not uniform but restricted to certain zone called meristem (primary
meristem-found during embryonic development as the seed forms i.e. shoot apex, fruit apex
and root apex and secondary meristem-not distinguishable until after germination .i.e.
vascular cambium and meristem found above the nodes of monocots)

Steps in cell growth and development

Cell division-cell divides into smaller volumes which may always be equal

Cell enlargement-the products of division increase in volume

Cell differentiation-when cell has achieved final volume becomes specialised in one of
various possible ways

Factors affecting growth

Internal or external

External factor

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Light

Light is necessary for photosynthesis (CHO are oxidized to form ATP used for plant
growth). In the tropics the day length is almost enough to produce growth but in the
temperate the day length is short that growth is temporarily suspended for some time (the
dormancy they under go is called vegetative photoperiodism). When plants are grown in
darkness they undergo etiolation. The direction of light affects the distribution of growth
promoters in terms of where it strikes the plant hence affecting the direction in which plants
will grow.

Temperature

Growth of plants depends on metabolic activities catalysed by enzymes. Temperature

affects growth. Low temperatures are necessary to break dormancy (reduce growth
inhibitors) for instance by chilling conditions i.e. Irish potato, onion etc.

Gravity

It affects the distribution of growth promoters thereby influencing the direction of growth of
the shoot or root

Oxygen

More ATP is got during the presence of oxygen (aerobic respiration). Plants growing in
water (hydrophytes) carry out photosynthesis to yield oxygen which they use for respiration
hence more ATP will be got to support plant growth.

Water

It is useful for the process of vacuolation (process by which water enter the vacuole) and
maintaining turgidity of plant cells

Carbon dioxide

Necessary for photosynthesis

Mineral elements

Requirement for metabolic activities as major or trace elements

Internal factors

Hormone-is a natural substance (produced by plant itself) that acts to control plant
activities.

Plant growth regulator

It includes hormones, natural and synthetic also non-nutrient chemicals not found naturally
in plants which influence their growth and development when applied on plants (auxins,
gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene and abscisic acid).

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Auxin

Used for cell enlargement or elongation, apical dominance, flower initiation root initiation
fruit set, bulb formation, seed germination, tissue culture etc. They originate in meristem
and enlarging tissues, terminal buds. They are produced in relatively high amounts in the
shoot tip or terminal growing points of the plants and move down the plant through the
vascular tissues causing apical dominance (blockage of the lateral bud by presence of
terminal bud). The reason why when the plant tip is cut many shoots arise along the stem
e.g. indoleacetic acid (IAA) indole butyric acid (IBA) etc

Gibberellins

They are powerfully known for regulatory functions and stimulate stem growth far more
than auxins. In some plants is used in flower initiation, sex expression, fruit set and fruit
growth. Gibberellins are synthesized in the shoot apex of the plant and are found in the
embryos and cotyledons of immature seeds and in the fruit tissue. Gibb is synthesized in
large quantities in the root system Gibb move up and through out the plant unlike the auxins
which moves in an apex to base direction

Cytokinins

Primarily these are responsible for cell promotion but also participate in plant growth and
development. They interact with auxins to influence differentiation of tissues Cytokinins
alone stimulates bud formation in tobacco stem segments. Auxins alone cause roots to
develop. When cytokinin and auxin are applied together there is a cancelling effect (only
masses of undifferentiated callus form-no organ is formed) i.e. natural cytokinin (zeatin)
synthetic cytokinin (kinetin).

Ethylene

The gas is used to induce ripening also it overcomes bud dormancy in potato production
tubers and also induce flowering in pineapple plants and rooting in stem cuttings.

5.5.2 TROPISMS

Tropism is defined as directional growth of a plant, or part of a plant, in response to an

external stimulus

Stimulus – an action or condition that causes a response

Response – an action or condition that is a reaction to a stimulus

Negative response – when the growth of a plant is away from the stimulus

Positive response – when the growth of the plant is towards the stimulus

Types of Tropism

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5.5.2.1 Hydrotropism

Stimulus – water

Response – a plant’s roots grow towards a water source

What type of response is this? Positive

5.5.2.2 Thermotropism

Stimulus – temperature

Response – a plant grows in the direction of/away from a source of heat or cold

Example: In the picture, this tree has a positive response to the cold.

Example: A plant called a Rhododendron curls its leaves away when it experiences cold
weather.

5.5.2.3 Gravitropism

Stimulus – gravity

Response –

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Negative – the stalk grows upwards, against gravity

Positive – the roots grow downwards, towards gravity

5.5.2.4 Thigmotropism

Stimulus – touch

Response – the leaves or part of the plant that is touched move or coil away from the touch,
or trigger some other action.

Example: The Venus Fly Trap is a plant that shows thigmotropism. It closes when a bug or
some other object touches it.

5.5.2.5 Phototropism

Stimulus – light

Response – the plant grows in the direction of a unidirectional light (it only comes from one
direction)

What type of response is this? Positive

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5.5.2.6 Heliotropism

Stimulus – sunlight

Response – a plant grows or turns to face the direction of the sun

Example: Young Sunflowers face the sun all day long. As the sun goes across the sky, the
sunflower turns so that it is always facing it.

Is a Sunflower growing towards the sun an example of Phototropism or Heliotropism? Both

5.6 PLANT NUTRIENTS

There are two types of plant nutrients namely;

1. Macro nutrients
2. Micro nutrients
5.6.1 MACRO NUTRIENTS

Element Function Deficiency/symptom

Nitrogen Component of protein Chlorosis-yellowing of

leaves, purple colouring of
Nucleic acid, vitamins, petiole, hard fibrous leaves,
hormones, co-enzyme stunted growth

Potassium Synthesis of enzymes , Small sized fruit, small

amino acids, protein, cell leaves and old leaves die
walls from tip, premature death

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 of older leaves, stunted
growth

Phosphorus Constituent of ATP Necrotic areas on leaves,

(energy), nucleic enzyme , stunted root, growth /dull
co-enzyme grey leaf colouration

Calcium Development of root and Disintegration of meristem,

stem apex, constituent of distorted leaves, rigid cell
cell wall, activator of walls, abnormal iron up
cellular enzymes, take
influences permeability of
cells membrane

Magnesium Component of chlorophyll Chlorosis, necrosis (dead

areas)

Sulphur Synthesis of amino acids Disruption of biochemical

processes, reduced CHO
levels in plants

5.6.2 MICRO NUTRIENTS

Element Function Deficiency/symptom

Iron Synthesis of chlorophyll Inter-veinal chlorosis

under respiratory system

Manganese For evolution O2 during -

photosynthesis, activates
enzymes

5.6.3 UPTAKE OF WATER

Plants take up water through the following factors namely;

 Root pressure
 Transpiration cohesion
 Capillarity

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Root pressure-it is possible in small plants

Transpiration cohesion-it is more in bigger plants

Uptake of water takes place through root hairs due to large surface area created hence
transpiration plays a role (See figure 16).

Column of water must be continued and should not contain air bubbles and column must be
strong to withstand pressure (xylem walls)

Water moves from cell to cell until reaches the xylem cells due to diffusion pressure deficit.
Water gets its tension through the forces of adhesion and cohesion.

Water moves upwards as a continuous column from roots to leaves through evaporation
from aerial of plant to the atmosphere.

Evaporation of water from the mesophyll cells cause the lowering of osmotic pressure
(which is the maximum amount of pressure can be developed in a solution from pure water
in differential permeable membrane. Hence the term osmotic potential is used.

Water is therefore drawn from the xylem which is pressed under tension which is
transmitted down wards due to cohesion forces which hold water together.

The tension strength is sufficient to form unbreakable column against osmotic pull and also
to overcome the gravitational and frictional forces encountered in the process. The
explanation is valid if the following conditions are satisfied:

Pressure gradient developed as a result of evaporation must be sufficient to move water

Continuous columns of water must exist between the evaporation surface and the roots (leaf
and root).

Forces must be great enough to prevent the column from breaking.

The vessel which conducts water must be strong enough to resist collapse when water is
moving under tension.

Fig. 16: Indicating the uptake of water by plants

Capillarity

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This is the movement of water in the tube and the height depends on the diameter of the
tube. This height of water in the xylem vessel is 1500mm. It is because the xylem has
diameter of 0.02mm hence will allow water to go up that height.

5.6.4 UPTAKE OF MINERAL SALTS

This is independent to the way water is absorbed

The process uses energy because uptake of minerals is against the gradient. Energy is from
respiration

The plant may have more of the minerals than found in the soil hence plant take up the
necessary amount of minerals.

If the plant roots are interfered with then the plant nutrient uptake (minerals) is disturbed.
Some minerals are taken more readily than others. Plants generally have selective mineral
uptake.

The mineral ions diffuse into plant roots from the soil solution and become adsorbed and
stick o the cell walls. Ions diffuse through cells and plasma membrane ions accumulate in
value in cells then transferred to other cells.

Any fertile soil contains at least some clay particles within its structure. Clay particles carry
a negative electrical charge to which the mineral ions (K+, Na+, Ca2+) attach (see Figure
17). This attachment effectively prevents the leaching of the mineral ions from the soil.

1. Unlike animal cell there are no potassium-sodium pumps in the cell membranes of plant
cells. Rather there are proton pumps which pump protons ( H+) outside of the cell. This
creates an electro-negative charge within the cell.

2. When the root cells secrete protons into the surrounding soil water the hydrogen ions
displace the mineral ions from the clay particle, freeing them into solution.

3. The mineral ions in the soil water are free to be absorbed by various pathways.

Fig. 17: Indicating uptake of

mineral salts by plants

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5.7 TRANSPIRATION

Transpiration is the loss of water form the leaves and stem of plants as indicated in the
below diagram. It occurs chiefly at the leaves while their stomata are open for the passage
of CO2 and O2 during photosynthesis.

But air that is not fully saturated with water vapor (100% relative humidity) will dry the
surfaces of cells with which it comes in contact. So the photosynthesizing leaf loses
substantial amount of water by evaporation. This transpired water must be replaced by the
transport of more water from the soil to the leaves through the xylem of the roots and stem
(See figure 18)

Importance
Transpiration is not simply a hazard of plant life. It is the "engine" that pulls water up from
the roots to:

 supply photosynthesis (1%-2% of the total)

 bring minerals from the roots for biosynthesis within the leaf
 cool the leaf

Using potometer (right), one can

study the effect of various
environmental factors on the rate of
transpiration. As water is transpired
or otherwise used by the plant, it is
replaced from the reservoir on the
right. This pushes the air bubble to
the left providing a precise measure
of the volume of water used.

5.7.1 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

THAT AFFECT THE RATE OF
TRANSPIRATION

1. Light
Plants transpire more rapidly in the light than in the dark. This is largely because light
stimulates the opening of the stomata (mechanism). Light also speeds up transpiration by
warming the leaf.

2. Temperature
Plants transpire more rapidly at higher temperatures because water evaporates more rapidly
as the temperature rises. At 30°C, a leaf may transpire three times as fast as it does at 20°C.

3. Humidity
The rate of diffusion of any substance increases as the difference in concentration of the
substances in the two regions increases.When the surrounding air is dry, diffusion of water
out of the leaf goes on more rapidly.

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4. Wind
When there is no breeze, the air surrounding a leaf becomes increasingly humid thus
reducing the rate of transpiration. When a breeze is present, the humid air is carried away
and replaced by drier air.

5. Soil water
A plant cannot continue to transpire rapidly if its water loss is not made up by replacement
from the soil. When absorption of water by the roots fails to keep up with the rate of
transpiration, loss of turgor occurs, and the stomata close. This immediately reduces the rate
of transpiration.

transpiration (as well as of photosynthesis). If the loss of turgor extends to the rest of the
leaf and stem, the plant wilts.

The volume of water lost in transpiration can be very high. It has been estimated that over
the growing season, one acre of corn plants may transpire 400,000 gallons (1.5 million
liters) of water. As liquid water, this would cover the field with a lake 15 inches (38 cm)
deep. An acre of forest probably does even better.

Fig. 18: indicating the loss of water by transpiration

 The leaf adsorbs light on it large surface area.

 Heat is produced.
 Water in the spongy mesophyll tissue enters the vapour phase.
 There is a humidity gradient between the spongy mesophyll which is saturated with
water vapour and the surrounding air.
 Water evaporates through the stomatal pore down a humidity gradient.
 The evaporation of water draws (pulls) more water by mass flow into the spongy
mesophyll space.
 Water molecules are held together cohesion due to hydrogen bonds between water
molecules.
 In turn this draws water from the end of the xylem by the same cohesion.
 Water is therefore drawn up the stem by cohesion between water molecules and
adhesion to the xylem vessel walls.

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This transpiration 'pull or tension' extends all the way down the xylem to the root

6.0 DISPERSAL, GERMINATION AND DORMANCY OF SEED

6.1 DISPERSAL

The way seed is transmitted to other areas

 Self dispersal (antochores)

 Animal (Zoochores)
 Wind (Anaemochores)
 Water (Hydrochores)
Importance of seed dispersal

 Reduces overcrowding and competition

 Makes possible colouration of new territories

6.2 GERMINATION

When seed is planted the embryo resumes its development or germinates. This accompanied
by sprouting. Germination occurs if there are favourable conditions namely; oxygen, water,
suitable temperature.

Seed viability and storage

 Seed viability-refers to the life of seed or the live of seed for future use
(germinability)
 Seeds have different viability potential depending on the moisture content they
contain and seed storage conditions i.e. seed stored at temperature of 1 0c -40c low
relative humidity of 15% and moisture content of 4-7% retain viability considerably
longer than seed stored at room temperature and higher humidity (in sealed
containers).

Asexual reproduction

The offspring are produced in various ways but no nuclear fusion is involved. It is
accomplished entirely by mitosis the daughter cells are exactly a replication of its mother
cell (chromosome number and composition does not change)

Vegetable propagation is used primarily for woody perennial plants that are highly
heterogenous which do not “breed true” from seed.

In those plants the mother plant’s desirable characteristics will be lost if seed propagation is
used. Therefore to maintain their genetic identity seed or flower should be avoided.

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The following are some materials used as vegetative propagates:

 Leaf cuttings, African violet, peperomia

 Leaf bud cutting, perperomia
 Root cuttings, stem cuttings
 Graftage and budding
6.2 GERMINATION OF SEED

Germination is the first phase in the development of a mature plant from an embryo of a
seed.

The appearance of the seedling marks the end of the germination. Germination differs from
plant to plant.

6.2.1 REQUIREMENT OF GERMINATION

Temperature-necessary for enzyme activation since most seeds have an optimum

temperature at which germination will prevail

Water-necessary for metabolic activities as the seeds start to germinate (imbibition)

Oxygen-the rapid metabolic activities require constant supply of energy in form of ATP
which is produced during aerobic respiration hence oxygen is necessary.

Light-some seeds do not need light to germinate but other seeds need light. Some varieties
of tobacco, lettuce, celery, most grasses need light (reason why they are planted shallow).
Alliums and amaranthus are inhibited by light.

Two types of germination

 Hypogeal
 Epigeal

Hypogeal germination-The type of germination where the cotyledon is left underground

i.e. maize, wheat etc. (see Fig. 19)

i. Initially the radicle pushes its way out by splitting the scar of attachment
ii. Coleoptile and plumule elongates
iii. The plumule and coleoptile come out of the soil then the coleoptile stops growing
and the shoot plumule comes out of it so that leaves are seen.

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 Fig. 19: Indicating hypogeal germination

Epigeal germination

This is the type of germination where cotyledons are exposed to the atmosphere out of the soil (see
Fig. 20)

i. The radicle emerges through the scar rupturing the pericarp

ii. Hypocotyl (part of the embryo between cotyledon and radicle) elongates
iii. The cotyledon and plumule drag out of the soil. The hypocotyl straightens and shrinks due
to non-availability of food any longer.
iv. The cotyledons become green and photosynthesizing.
v. The plumule at this stage elongates and the first mature leaves appear.

Fig. 20: Indicating epigeal germination

6.3 SEED DORMANCY

Dormancy is defined as a state of suspended growth and metabolism.

Reasons why seeds do not germinate immediately when planted

Embryo in the seed is not always mature

Nature of the seed coat i.e. legumes seed coats are hard and impermeable water thereby
preventing imbibitions.

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Osmotic pressure will also inhibit germination because if osmotic pressure is high then
there will be no imbibition some seeds will only germinate if there is enough moisture in
soil.

Bud dormancy

Lateral buds on a plant cannot develop if an apical bud is present but when the apical bud
dies then one lateral bud will develop and take over the functions of the dead apical bud.

BIBLIOGRAPPHY

Akinsanmi O. (1984). Certificate agricultural Science, 17th Impression, Longman Ltd.,

Singapore.

Heimler C.H. and Lockard D.J. (1977). Focus on Life Science, Charles E. Merrill Publish Co. A
Bell and Howell Company, Colombus Ohio.

Natural Resources Development College (NRDC). (2010). OLD-Programme, Botany Module,

Lusaka, Zambia.

Zambia College of Agriculture (ZCA)-Monze, OLD-Programme (2011) Botany Module, Un

published.

Zambia College of Agriculture (ZCA)-Mpika, OLD-Programme. (2010) Botany Module, un

published.

WWF. (2001). Environmental Education Manual for Teacher Educators, Lusaka, Zambia.

www.ecoerth.

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