Chapter 6

Performance Specifications of Industrial

Robots

This chapter deals with the physical characteristics of robots; the economic
aspects of performance, such as reliability, are covered in Chapter 12.
Physical specifications have several uses: choosing a robot for a given
task; assessing whether a robot's performance has degraded with time; plan-
ning a task so that it can be done by a given robot; as targets for the design
of new robots; and as a basis for designing end effectors, including devices
for enhancing the performance of the basic robot.
Because of the great variety of shapes and uses of industrial robots, stan-
dardization of specifications over all robots is difficult. However, there are
certain characteristics which, all else being equal, allow robots of similar
type to be compared, and these are listed in the following sections. An in-
ternational standard is being prepared by the International Standards
Organization (ISO). It introduces a number of conventions such as a three-
way division of a robot into a group of major primary axes (the arm), a
group of secondary minor axes (the wrist) and the end effector, with a clearly
defined mechanical interface between the wrist and the end effector. Co-
ordinate systems are defined for the arm and the mechanical interface
(Figure 6. 1).

y.
I

x I·

x
Figure 6.1 Coordinate systems oj the ISO standard.

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D. J. Todd, Fundamentals of Robot Technology
© D J Todd 1986
FUNDAMENTALS OF ROBOT TECHNOLOGY

In Britain the Machine Tool Industry Research Association (MTIRA)

is developing a set of standard test procedures which can be carried out
on site. The performance parameters to be tested have not been finalized,
but a tentative list is as follows:

1) the load-carrying capacity,

2) repeatability of positioning,
3) path tracking ability,
4) consistency of velocity,
5) positioning time,
6) static and dynamic stiffness characteristics,
7) vibrational behaviour.

Geometric configuration; number of axes

The subject of arm geometries and degrees of freedom has been dealt with
in Chapter 2 and will not be discussed further except to say that manufac-
turers of the cheaper robots tend to gloss over the question of the number
of axes . A truly general purpose robot needs at least six controlled degrees
of freedom, excluding the gripper, but, since three-axis wrists are much
more difficult or expensive to make than those with two axes, cheap robots
sometimes leave the third axis off.
Assembly robots often use a simple pneumatic cylinder for one axis, with
servo control of the others.

Positioning accuracy and repeatability

ACCURACY
The accuracy with which a robot can bring the payload to a position and
hold it there or the accuracy with which it passes through a position while
moving, can both be important. Perhaps because of the difficulty of measur-
ing the second of these, accuracy is usually defined for the static case, when
the manipulator has approached a target point and is holding the payload
in a fixed position. Since this is done by servo control (expect for pick and
place machines) and servos are never perfect, there will be both an offset
and a random error. This is true for each axis, and the size of the error
will not be the same for all axes. If a single figure is quoted for a guaranteed
maximum position error for the whole robot it should be the worst case;
the accuracy in certain axes may be much better.
Accuracy is also a function of the geometry and load at the time: the
robot will tend to deflect under heavy loads and the increased inertia may
affect the servos; and geometry affects accuracy in that often what is con-
trolled is joint angle, so that when the arm is extended the positional error
is greater (Figure 6.2). Note that since prismatic joints are usually more

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 PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS

rigid than revolute ones, the most accurate manipulators are Cartesian,
those with some prismatic joints and some revolute are intermediate, and
those with all revolute joints are the least accurate, in principle at least.

- - - - J o s i t i o n a l error
with arm extended

:)=ft:~~~=====~~~~~-~-~-
: --- --
---=-___
I I

--1 I -
I
I_I

positional error
with arm retracted

Figure 6.2 The tiffeet of arm radius on positional accuracy.

There may also be a trade-off between accuracy and speed: if more time
is allowed for the servo to settle down to a commanded position, higher
accuracy may be obtained, at the cost of a lower overall speed.

REPEATABILITY
Accuracy as just discussed is a measure of how closely the robot approaches
its target, on average. Repeatability is a measure of how closely the achieved
position clusters around its mean. The difference between accuracy and
repeatability is illustrated by Figure 6.3. Repeatability is often more im-
portant than accuracy since, provided that the accuracy error is constant,
it can be allowed for. (This is only true if the robot keeps repeating the
same cycle of actions.)

:+ ·.4:'
T

low accuracy, high accuracy, low accuracy, high accuracy,

low repeatability low repeatability high repeatability high repeatability
Figure 6.3 The dif.ference between accuracy and repeatability. In this target analogy each dot
represents an attempt to get to the central cross. The size of the cluster shows the spread in the
result, and the closeness of the centre of the cluster to the cross is a measure of the accuracy.

Accuracy and repeatability are usually of the same order, typically

millimetres for very large robots, tenths of a millimetre for general pur-
pose robots and hundredths of a millimetre for the most accurate assembly
robots.
The ISO standard will define several accuracy parameters, such as

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FUNDAMENTALS OF ROBOT TECHNOLOGY

1) local pose accuracy,

2) one-way pose repeatability,
3) multiway pose repeatability,
4) stability, stabilization time,
5) overshoot on reaching a target point,
6) path-following accuracy,
7) path repeatability,
8) velocity fluctuation,
9) overshoot and undershoot on the transition between two straight
paths.

It also distinguishes between (a) the desired pose (pose means position and
orientation of the payload or of some reference point on the robot such
as the end effector mechanical interface), (b) the programmed pose, which
is the robot's stored estimate of the desired pose, (c) the commanded pose,
which is the control unit's intrepretation ofthe commanded pose, and (d)
the pose actually attained. Errors can arise at any stage of the chain from
desired to attained pose. (It may not be possible to test all these.)

TEST METHODS FOR ACCURACY AND REPEATABILITY

To be fully useful, specifications should be measured in a standard way.
Such standards are still being defined, although each manufacturer has
standard tests for its own robots. Among the methods in existence may
be mentioned the use of a matching cube, held by the robot, and a fixed
corner (sometimes called a trihedron). Each face of the corner is fitted with
high resolution distance sensors such as LVDTs so that, when the robot
tries to fit the cube into the corner by moving the cube to the calculated
position of the corner, any positional and angular errors can be measured.
This method measures the errors in a static condition, or when the robot
brings a payload to a target point and stops. Measuring its performance
while it is moving over larger distances is harder. The basic method is to
track a marKer carried by the robot, using multiple television cameras or
triangulation with several rangefinders. It is not easy to achieve high ac-
curacy of measurement over a large volume.

Angular accuracy and repeatability

The angular accuracy of any revolute arm joint is the determinant of the
positional accuracy for that axis. The angular accuracy of a wrist joint deter-
mines the accuracy with which the payload is orientated. The same ap-
plies to repeatability. Therefore, a robot specification should include the
angular accuracy and repeatability of all the wrist joints.

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 PERFORMANCE SPECIFICA TIONS OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS

Speed
A manufacturer's specifications will include speed, but this is often the max-
imum steady speed with the arm fully extended. In practice the arm has
to accelerate and decelerate so its average speed is lower than the max-
imum, particularly for short strokes. Also, it will often not be fully extended
and the speed will again be lower.
For a robot with continuous path control the speed when slewing in an
unconstrained way from one point to another may be much higher than
that with which it can follow a prescribed path.
Maximum and minimum acceleration are not usually quoted. In ap-
plications needing low accelerations so as not to spill liquids or break fragile
objects continuous path robots can be used and taught or programmed
with a trajectory having no sudden accelerations.
The maximum acceleration is of interest more because it governs the
effective speed than for its effect on the payload, although operations are
conceivable, such as shaking a workpiece, where high acceleration is
important.
The ISO standard will include:
1) individual axis velocity (maximum rated),
2) resultant velocity (maximum rated),
3) maximum path velocity under continuous path control, at some
specified accuracy,
4) acceleration under various conditions (axis, resultant, path),
5) minimum positioning time at rated load, for a specified travel
distance and path accuracy.

Speed and acceleration accuracy

Applications needing good speed control, such as the application of a line
of sealant, are less common than those needing quality of position control
only, but are not unknown. Such tasks are generally done by continuous
path robots, in which the control of speed and the control of position are
intimately related.

Spatial specifications: working volume, swept area, reach

The next group of specifications is concerned with the space which can
be accessed by the robot. This can be expressed as the volume accessible
to the payload and this number can be used for comparing robots, but
other measurements are important as well. This aspect of robot perfor-
mance is highly dependent on the arm configuration. The most usual way
of describing the working volume is as a plan view and side elevation of
the area swept out by ajoint or combination of joints , as shown in Figure
6.4. Such a representation cannot capture the full three-dimensional shape:

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FUNDAMENTALS OF ROBOT TECHNOLOGY

both plan and elevation have to be drawn for a fixed state of some joints.
These drawings can give a misleading impression; e .g. for a spherical polar
arm geometry the plan of the swept area is correct when the gripper is
level with the shoulder, but at the top and bottom of the arm's reach the
swept area is a narrow ring.

(b)
vertical st rok e

horizontal
reach

radial
troke

envelope
defined with
reach

Figure 6.4 The work en velope of a spherical polar robot in (aJ plan and (bJ elevation.

Two terms characterizing the working envelope are reach and stroke. These
are not used consistently, but reach is essentially a distance from a reference
point (the robot's shoulder for horizontal reach, or the floor for vertical
reach) whereas stroke is the range which can actually be moved through.
Both reach and stroke apply to the end effector.

Payload (maximum load capacity)

In this context the payload should refer to a workpiece or tool and does
not include the gripper, which is regarded as part of the robot. However,
some manufacturers supply an arm ending in a mounting to which various
grippers can be attached, and in this case the weight of the gripper must
be subtracted from the payload capacity figure given . If the robot is
dedicated to one purpose and has a tool built into it then a payload figure
is not applicable.
Since load affects speed and accuracy, it may be quoted for more than
one condition. Load capacities range from less than a kilogram to several
tons.
A rigorous specification of load needs to include several parameters rather
than just a single payload figure. These are the allowed mass and moment
of the load (referred to the end effector interface) for which the specified
performance is met (Figure 6.5) and the maximum mass, torque and ap-
plied thrust which will not damage the robot.

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 PERFORMANCE SPECIFICA TIONS OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS

contours of
/ maximum load
y~-~

lOkg
20kg

load

M limit of combined
X, Y movements
mechanical interface
/
M

Figure 6.5 Contours of allowed load and moment defined in wrist/end-effector interface
coordinates.

Control-related specifications
MEMORY CAPACITY
For a limited sequence (pick and place) arm or a point to point robot,
memory capacity is expressed as the number of movements or positions,
and may be several hundred. Such a number might well be needed in,
say, spot welding; for many transfer operations less than ten positions might
be used. For a continuous path robot, memory capacity is expressed as
the length of time which can be recorded.
The specification should state what kind and capacity of exchangeable
memory device is provided.

PROGRAM STRUCTURE
These remarks about memory capacity assume that a program consists of
a simple sequence of operations. More complex facilities are useful, such
as subroutines, branches, a choice of programs and so on. The details of
these facilities should be stated.

ADVANCED FEATURES
Some of the properties whose presence or absence, and their type when
present, should be made clear in the specification are as follows:

1) programming languages,

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FUNDAMENTALS OF ROBOT TECHNOLOGY

2) ability to generate circles,

3) ability to generate welding patterns (,weaving'),
4) interfaces for sensors (such as vision systems),
5) ability to track a conveyor,
6) ability to control ancillary devices such as positioning tables,
7) communications ports for factory networks,
8) ability to be down-line loaded with a program by some other
system.

Vibration
Several vibrational parameters can be specified, such as

1) resonant frequencies of the robot structure,

2) amplitude of vibrations produced by the robot (some vibration
is always present in some servo systems),
3) frequency response to applied vibration,
4) damping,
5) dynamic stiffness,
6) resistance to external vibration.

Miscellaneous specifications
1) Stiffness
2) danger volume (swept volume including all moving parts)
3) mounting positions allowed
4) fixing methods
5) transport methods
6) weight of each part
7) cables, hoses, accessories
8) power supplies needed (electric, hydraulic, pneumatic)

In addition there are specifications concerning safety, reliability and

environmental conditions; these are discussed in Chapter 12.

Bibliographic notes
The draft standard from the International Standards Organization is
ISO/TC184/SC2/WG2N6. Information on MTIRA's activities in stan-
dardization can be obtained from MTIRA, Hulley Road, Macclesfield,
Cheshire SK10 2NE, England.

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