Chemistry WA2 Notes
Chemistry WA2 Notes
1. Definition: the bond formed by the sharing of valence electrons between two atoms of non-metals.
Each atom in the molecule achieves the stable electronic configuration of a noble gas.
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2. Covalent bonds can be formed between atoms of the same element / different elements.
3. A molecule is formed when a group of two or more atoms are held together by covalent bonds
4. HOW TO ANSWER:
Molecules of elements (e.g.: H2, O2, Cl2)
Each (molecule name) atom has ___ valence electrons in its outer shell. It needs ___ more electrons to
form a stable (duplet/octet) electronic configuration. The two (element name) atoms combine to share
___ pair/s of electrons.
Example:
Each nitrogen atom has five valence electrons in its outer shell. It needs three more electrons to form a stable octet
configuration. The two nitrogen atoms combine to share three pairs of electrons.
H2O
A water molecule is formed by two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. In a water molecule, each hydrogen
atom is bonded to the oxygen atom by two single covalent bonds. The oxygen atom shares two outer electrons
with two hydrogen atoms. Each hydrogen atom shares its outer electron with the oxygen atom. The oxygen atom
achieves an octet electronic configuration. Each hydrogen atom achieves a duplet electronic configuration.
Methane
A methane molecule is formed by 4 hydrogen atoms and 1 carbon atom. In a methane molecule, four hydrogen
atoms are bonded to one carbon atom by four single covalent bonds. The carbon atom shares four outer electrons
with four hydrogen atoms. Each hydrogen atom shares its outer electron with the carbon atom. The carbon atom
achieves an octet electronic configuration. Each hydrogen atoms achieves a duplet electronic configuration.
Carbon dioxide
A carbon dioxide molecule is formed by 2 oxygen atoms and one carbon atom. In a carbon dioxide molecule, two
oxygen atoms are bonded to one carbon atom by two double covalent bonds. The carbon atom shares four outer
electrons with two oxygen atoms. Each oxygen atom shares two of its outer electrons with the carbon atom. The
carbon atom achieves an octet electronic configuration. Each oxygen atom achieves an octet configuration.
Silicon dioxide
Silicon dioxide does not conduct electricity
Metallic Bond
1. Definition: the electrostatic forces of attraction between positive metal ions and the ‘sea of mobile
electrons’.
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2. Forms giant metallic lattice structure
3. Metal atoms lose their outer electrons and become positively charged ions. The outer electrons no
longer belong to any metal atom and are said to be delocalized; hence it moves freely between metal
ions like a cloud of negative charge.
4. Physical Properties
High densities
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2. Balancing Equations
What to expect?
- Equal number of atoms of each element on both sides of the equation
- State symbols not needed (unless required)
3. Ionic Equations
Definition: a simplified chemical equation that shows the reactions involving ions in aqueous solution
Spectator ions: ions that do not take part in chemical reaction
What is expected?
- State symbols MUST be present
- Moles must be balanced
- Charges must be balanced
- Substances that ionize → aqueous (solid / liquid / gas does not ionize)
Example:
AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) → AgCl (white solid precipitate) +NaNO3 (aq)
+ - + - + -
Ag ( aq ) + NO3 ( aq ) + Na ( aq ) +Cl ( aq ) → AgCl ( s ) + Na ( aq ) + NO3 ( aq )
s
Filtration
o Definition: process of separating an insoluble solid from a liquid
o Usually use filter funnel and filter paper
o Examples of mixtures:
Sand + water
Chalk powder + water (suspension: a mixture where solid particles are found
throughout the liquid)
Clay and water
o Steps:
1. Prepare a filter paper, filter funnel and a conical flask
2. Fold the filter paper into a cone and place it in the filter funnel
3. Place both the filter funnel and the paper into the conical flask
4. Pour the mixture of insoluble solid and liquid into the funnel
5. Large insoluble solid particles are trapped by the filter paper in the filter funnel, while
small particles of liquid pass through
6. Upon filtration, the solid that remains of the filter paper is called the residue. The liquid /
solution that passes through the filter paper is called the filtrate.
Evaporation to Dryness
o Definition: process of obtaining a soluble solid from a solution by heating the solution until all
the water has boiled off
o Examples of mixtures:
Salt + water
Sugar cannot be heated because it will decompose
o Steps:
1. Using a tripod, gauze, and a Bunsen Burner, heat the solution.
2. The water in the solution is lost to the atmosphere
3. Solids (not always pure) remain as a residue in the evaporating dish.
Crystallization
o Definition: process of obtaining PURE, soluble solid sample from a solution
o Examples of mixtures:
Hydrated copper (II) sulfate crystals
Sodium carbonate crystals
o Steps:
1. Using a tripod, gauze, and Bunsen Burner, the solution is heated to remove most of the
solvent
2. Heating is stopped when a saturated solution is formed
3. The hot, saturated solution (solution that contains as much dissolved solute as it can at a
given temperature) is allowed to cool
4. The dissolved solids will appear as pure crystals (rapid cooling: small crystals; slow
cooling: large crystals)
5. The cold solution is removed by filtration to collect the residue, which is then washed
with COLD distilled water so that the number of dissolved crystals in the water decreases
4. Separating SOLIDS
Sublimation
o Definition: separate a solid that sublimes from one that does not
o Substances that sublime ammonium chloride, iodine, naphthalene balls, dry ice (solid CO2)
o Steps
Heat the mixture with an inverted funnel on top of it
The funnel must be covered with a wet cloth to provide cool surface for condensation
The solid that sublimes will sublime due to the heat and eventually condense to
become solids sticking on the walls of the funnel
Using a Magnet
o Definition: separate a magnetic substance from a non-magnetic substance using a magnet
o Examples:
Iron
Steel
Nickel
Cobalt
Simple Distillation
o Definition: separate a pure solvent (liquid) from a solution
o Examples – extraction of water from:
Sea water
Salt / sugar solution
o Set up:
Thermometer bulb: beside side arm leading to condenser
Boiling chips: placed in flask to ensure smooth boiling
Condenser: sloped downwards; water vapor condenses to liquid
Volatile liquids can be kept in liquid state by placing receiver on ice
o Steps:
Boiling chips are added to ensure smooth boiling.
Water boils and becomes vapor. Thermometer measures temperature of the vapor.
Water vapor enters the condenser. It is cooled and condenses into pure liquid
(distillate)
Solid solution becomes more concentrated in the boiling flask as distillation
continues and will be collected as RESIDUE.
Solvent is collected as DISTILLATE
6. Separating LIQUIDS
Fractional Distillation
o Definition: separate mixture of MISCIBLE liquids (mix together completely to form a
solution) with different boiling points
o Examples:
Ethanol + water
Purified air
Crude oil (petrol, kerosene, diesel in oil refineries)
Nitrogen, oxygen and argon in liquid air
Ethanol from fermentation mixture of water, glucose and malt in brewery
o Set up:
A fractionating column is attached to the round-bottomed flask and the condenser for
fractional distillation
Glass beads / plates / spiral in the fractionating column provide a large surface area
for vapor to condense on
7. CHROMATOGRAPHY
o Definition: method of separating two or more components that dissolve in the same solvent
o Chromatogram: chromatography paper with separated components
o Depends on relative solubility – the more soluble the component travels faster and further up
the paper than the less soluble components
o When it consists of only one dye, IT IS PURE
o To separate and analyze colorless substances, apply a locating agent (e.g.: ninhydrin spray) on
a chromatogram as it will react with the colorless substances to form colored spots.
o Examples: pigments in plants l dyes in paints l food coloring
o Steps:
Place a spot of green food coloring on the base line (using pencil) on the paper
Dip paper into solvent (ethanol / water). Ensure that the colored spot is above water
level
Components will separate as the solvent travels up the paper.
o Rf Value: ratio between the distance travelled by the substance and distance travelled by the
solvent
Rf value of a substance DOES NOT CHANGE as long as chromatography is carried
out under the same conditions (same solvent and same temperature). This allows us
to easily identify a substance on a chromatogram.
8. PURITY
o Importance of purity:
o Prevent undesirable side effects
o Safe for consumption
o How to determine purity? (Either one of these)
o Check for exact and constant melting point of a solid (exact → pure)
o Check the exact and constant boiling point of a liquid (exact → pure)
o Performing chromatography
o Effects of Impurity
o Decrease melting point of solid; increase boiling point of liquid
o Melting and boiling take place over a range of temperatures
(grapes) + -
3 ( aq ) → H ( aq ) + NO3 ( aq )
Tartaric
HNOacid
Carbonic acid (soda)
Hydrochloric acid
Malic acid (apples)
Sulfuric acid
Citric acid (orange)
Nitric acid
Lactic acid (milk)
Tannic acid (tea)
Strong acids will dissociate COMPLETELY in water to form H+ ions
+ 2-
H2 SO 4 ( aq ) → 2H ( aq ) + SO 4 ( aq )
6. Properties of acids
a. Sour taste
b. Turn blue litmus paper red
c. Dissolve in water to form solutions which can conduct electricity
7. Chemical reactions
a. Metal + Acid → Salt + Hydrogen
NOTE:
To test for hydrogen gas, use a lighten wooden split. Colorless, odorless gas extinguishes
the lighted splint with a pop sound
A salt is produced when H+ in the acid is replaced by a metallic ion or ammonium
Lead does not react with acids because there is an insoluble layer / coating of PbCl2 or
PbSO4 which prevents further reaction
b. Carbonate + Acid → Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxide
NOTE:
To test for CO2 gas, bubbling, colorless, odorless CO2 gas through calcium hydroxide
will produce a white precipitate calcium carbonate
c. Metal oxide / hydroxide (BASE) + Acid → Salt + Water [NEUTRALISATION]
8. Uses of Sulfuric Acid
a. Manufacture of fertilizers (important starting material to produce ammonium sulfate and
superphosphate)
b. Manufacture of detergents
i. Concentrated sulfuric acid used to convert hydrocarbons into organic acids
ii. Organic acids + Sodium hydroxide → Detergents
c. Battery acid in cars (reacts with lead plates and lead (IV) oxide plates in the battery to
generate electrical energy)
9. Use of Hydrochloric Acid: remove impurities (rust / scale) from metals + aluminium alloys
10. Use of Phosphoric Acid: added to food + drinks to give sour taste
11. Use of Ethanoic Acid: food preservatives and flavor enhancer
BASES
12. Definition: any metal oxide or hydroxide that reacts with an acid to produce a salt and water only.
13. Alkali: soluble base which dissolves in water to produce OH- ions
Example: NaOH, Na2O, KOH, Ca(OH)2, NH3(aq) – usually METALS FROM GROUP 1
H ( aq ) + OH ( aq ) → H2 O (l)
+ -
PH Scale
18. Definition: a set of numbers from 0 to 14 that indicates if a solution is acidic, neutral or alkaline
High concentration of H+ ions Acidic
Conc. of H+ = Conc. of OH- Neutral
High concentration of OH- ions Alkaline
a. pH 0 – H2SO4
b. pH 1 – HCl, HNO3, gastric juices
c. pH 2 – lemon juice
d. pH 3 to 4 – CH3COOH, vinegar, canned fizzy drinks
e. pH 4 to 6 – rainwater
f. pH 7 – H2O
g. pH 7 to 8 – blood
h. pH 10 – NH3
i. pH 11 - detergents
j. pH 13 – NaOH
20. Indicators: substances which show different color in acidic and alkaline solutions
Color of Indicator in
Indicator
Strong acid Neutral Strong Alkaline
Litmus Red (Use purple litmus) Blue
Methyl Orange Red orange Yellow
Screened Methyl Orange Violet No change Green
Phenolphthalein Colorless No change Pink
Universal Indicator Red Green Dark purple
21. pH meter
a. measures pH electrically
b. more accurate and reliable
c. consists of a pH probe connected to a data logger
i. Dip pH probe into solution to be measured
ii. pH of solution will be displayed
REACTIVITY SERIES
Why is it useless to add ammonium sulfate and calcium hydroxide in the acidic soil at the same
time?
Ammonium sulfate and calcium hydroxide react to form / produce ammonia. Ammonia (gas) evaporates / lost to
the surrounding air and hence the plants / crops cannot absorb the nitrogen from the fertilizer OR reduce the
amount of ammonium fertilizer.