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Chemistry WA2 Notes

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12 views11 pages

Chemistry WA2 Notes

Uploaded by

Kayla W
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
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Covalent Bond

1. Definition: the bond formed by the sharing of valence electrons between two atoms of non-metals.
Each atom in the molecule achieves the stable electronic configuration of a noble gas.
___________________________________________________________________________________
2. Covalent bonds can be formed between atoms of the same element / different elements.
3. A molecule is formed when a group of two or more atoms are held together by covalent bonds

4. HOW TO ANSWER:
Molecules of elements (e.g.: H2, O2, Cl2)
Each (molecule name) atom has ___ valence electrons in its outer shell. It needs ___ more electrons to
form a stable (duplet/octet) electronic configuration. The two (element name) atoms combine to share
___ pair/s of electrons.

Example:
Each nitrogen atom has five valence electrons in its outer shell. It needs three more electrons to form a stable octet
configuration. The two nitrogen atoms combine to share three pairs of electrons.

Molecules of compounds (H2O, CH4, CO2, NH3)

H2O
A water molecule is formed by two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. In a water molecule, each hydrogen
atom is bonded to the oxygen atom by two single covalent bonds. The oxygen atom shares two outer electrons
with two hydrogen atoms. Each hydrogen atom shares its outer electron with the oxygen atom. The oxygen atom
achieves an octet electronic configuration. Each hydrogen atom achieves a duplet electronic configuration.

Methane
A methane molecule is formed by 4 hydrogen atoms and 1 carbon atom. In a methane molecule, four hydrogen
atoms are bonded to one carbon atom by four single covalent bonds. The carbon atom shares four outer electrons
with four hydrogen atoms. Each hydrogen atom shares its outer electron with the carbon atom. The carbon atom
achieves an octet electronic configuration. Each hydrogen atoms achieves a duplet electronic configuration.

Carbon dioxide
A carbon dioxide molecule is formed by 2 oxygen atoms and one carbon atom. In a carbon dioxide molecule, two
oxygen atoms are bonded to one carbon atom by two double covalent bonds. The carbon atom shares four outer
electrons with two oxygen atoms. Each oxygen atom shares two of its outer electrons with the carbon atom. The
carbon atom achieves an octet electronic configuration. Each oxygen atom achieves an octet configuration.

5. Bonding and structure


Simple molecular structure
 Low melting and boiling point
______ is a covalent compound with a simple molecular structure. It consists of molecules
held together by weak intermolecular forces of attraction, which require a small amount of
energy to overcome. Hence, MP/BP is low (usually gases/volatile liquids at room temperature
and pressure).
 Insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents (dichloromethane, ethanol. Turpentine,
benzene) except alcohol and sugar are soluble in water
 Poor electrical conductor
Covalent compounds cannot conduct electricity as they do not have delocalized electrons
(unlike in Graphite and metals) or mobile ions (e.g.: molten/aqueous ionic compound). It
consists of molecules, which do not carry any charge / are neutral.

Giant molecular structure (diamond, graphite)


 High melting and boiling point
______ is a covalent compound with a giant molecular structure. It consists of carbons held
together by strong covalent bonds in an extensive network structure, which requires a lot of
energy to overcome. Hence MP/BP is high
 Insoluble in water and insoluble in organic solvents (dichloromethane, ethanol. Turpentine,
benzene)
 Electrical conductivity (allotrope of carbon)
Diamond
Diamonds cannot conduct electricity. In diamond, each carbon atom is covalently bonded to 4 other
carbon atoms, giving diamond a tetrahedral shape. All the outermost electrons are involved in bonding.
Since there are no free electrons available, diamonds cannot conduct electricity.

Graphite (allotrope of carbon)


Graphite can conduct electricity. In graphite, each carbon atom is covalently bonded to 3 other carbon
atoms. Hence, one of the most outer electrons for each atom is not used for bonding and is delocalized
amongst the atom within the layer. The delocalized electrons are mobile and carry charge along the
layers. Hence, graphite can conduct electricity.

Silicon dioxide
Silicon dioxide does not conduct electricity

 Soft and slippery


Graphite is soft and slippery. In graphite, the layers of carbon atoms are held together by weak
intermolecular forces of attraction. Hence, the layers can slide over each other and this explains why
graphite is soft and slippery.

Metallic Bond
1. Definition: the electrostatic forces of attraction between positive metal ions and the ‘sea of mobile
electrons’.
___________________________________________________________________________________
2. Forms giant metallic lattice structure
3. Metal atoms lose their outer electrons and become positively charged ions. The outer electrons no
longer belong to any metal atom and are said to be delocalized; hence it moves freely between metal
ions like a cloud of negative charge.

4. Physical Properties

 High melting point / boiling point


_____ is a metal and has a giant metallic lattice structure. It consists of positive ions
surrounded by a sea of delocalized electrons held together by strong electrostatic forces of
attraction which requires a lot of energy to overcome. Hence, ____ has high MP/BP.

 Good conductors of electricity


Metals consist of positive ions surrounded by a sea of delocalized electrons. The delocalized
electrons are mobile and carry charge throughout the lattice structure. Hence, metals conduct
electricity.

 Malleable (hammered into different shapes)


In pure metals, metal atoms are closely packed together in a regular arrangement. The layer of
atoms slides over one another easily when force is applied.

 Ductile (drawn into wires without breaking)

 High densities

Writing Chemical Equations


1. What can be deduced? This shows 2
- Reactants + products
- Relative amounts of reactants + products
- Physical states of reactants + products
2Na moles of
sodium

___________________________________________________________________________________

2. Balancing Equations
What to expect?
- Equal number of atoms of each element on both sides of the equation
- State symbols not needed (unless required)

3. Ionic Equations
 Definition: a simplified chemical equation that shows the reactions involving ions in aqueous solution
 Spectator ions: ions that do not take part in chemical reaction
 What is expected?
- State symbols MUST be present
- Moles must be balanced
- Charges must be balanced
- Substances that ionize → aqueous (solid / liquid / gas does not ionize)

 Example:
AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) → AgCl (white solid precipitate) +NaNO3 (aq)

+ - + - + -
Ag ( aq ) + NO3 ( aq ) + Na ( aq ) +Cl ( aq ) → AgCl ( s ) + Na ( aq ) + NO3 ( aq )
s

Separation and Purification


1. Pure substance: made up of one single element / compound; not mixed with any other substance
2. Mixture: made up of two or more substances that are not chemically combined together
_______________________________________________________________________________

3. Separating SOLIDS from LIQUIDS

Filtration
o Definition: process of separating an insoluble solid from a liquid
o Usually use filter funnel and filter paper
o Examples of mixtures:
 Sand + water
 Chalk powder + water (suspension: a mixture where solid particles are found
throughout the liquid)
 Clay and water
o Steps:
1. Prepare a filter paper, filter funnel and a conical flask
2. Fold the filter paper into a cone and place it in the filter funnel
3. Place both the filter funnel and the paper into the conical flask
4. Pour the mixture of insoluble solid and liquid into the funnel
5. Large insoluble solid particles are trapped by the filter paper in the filter funnel, while
small particles of liquid pass through
6. Upon filtration, the solid that remains of the filter paper is called the residue. The liquid /
solution that passes through the filter paper is called the filtrate.

Evaporation to Dryness
o Definition: process of obtaining a soluble solid from a solution by heating the solution until all
the water has boiled off
o Examples of mixtures:
 Salt + water
 Sugar cannot be heated because it will decompose
o Steps:
1. Using a tripod, gauze, and a Bunsen Burner, heat the solution.
2. The water in the solution is lost to the atmosphere
3. Solids (not always pure) remain as a residue in the evaporating dish.

Crystallization
o Definition: process of obtaining PURE, soluble solid sample from a solution
o Examples of mixtures:
 Hydrated copper (II) sulfate crystals
 Sodium carbonate crystals
o Steps:
1. Using a tripod, gauze, and Bunsen Burner, the solution is heated to remove most of the
solvent
2. Heating is stopped when a saturated solution is formed
3. The hot, saturated solution (solution that contains as much dissolved solute as it can at a
given temperature) is allowed to cool
4. The dissolved solids will appear as pure crystals (rapid cooling: small crystals; slow
cooling: large crystals)
5. The cold solution is removed by filtration to collect the residue, which is then washed
with COLD distilled water so that the number of dissolved crystals in the water decreases

4. Separating SOLIDS

Using a Suitable Solvent


o Definition: separate a mixture of two solids using a solvent where one solid is soluble while
the other solid is not soluble in that solvent.
o Common solvents: water + ethanol
o Examples of mixtures:
 Sand + sodium chloride (using water)

Sublimation
o Definition: separate a solid that sublimes from one that does not
o Substances that sublime ammonium chloride, iodine, naphthalene balls, dry ice (solid CO2)
o Steps
 Heat the mixture with an inverted funnel on top of it
 The funnel must be covered with a wet cloth to provide cool surface for condensation
 The solid that sublimes will sublime due to the heat and eventually condense to
become solids sticking on the walls of the funnel

Using a Magnet
o Definition: separate a magnetic substance from a non-magnetic substance using a magnet
o Examples:
 Iron
 Steel
 Nickel
 Cobalt

5. Separating a LIQUID from a solution

Simple Distillation
o Definition: separate a pure solvent (liquid) from a solution
o Examples – extraction of water from:
 Sea water
 Salt / sugar solution
o Set up:
 Thermometer bulb: beside side arm leading to condenser
 Boiling chips: placed in flask to ensure smooth boiling
 Condenser: sloped downwards; water vapor condenses to liquid
 Volatile liquids can be kept in liquid state by placing receiver on ice
o Steps:
 Boiling chips are added to ensure smooth boiling.
 Water boils and becomes vapor. Thermometer measures temperature of the vapor.
 Water vapor enters the condenser. It is cooled and condenses into pure liquid
(distillate)
 Solid solution becomes more concentrated in the boiling flask as distillation
continues and will be collected as RESIDUE.
 Solvent is collected as DISTILLATE

6. Separating LIQUIDS

Using a Separating Funnel


o Definition: separate IMMISCIBLE liquids (do not dissolve in each other)
o Examples:
 Oil + water
o Steps:
 Pour mixture of oil and water into separating funnel. Make sure the tap is closed.
 Support the separating funnel using a retort stand.
 Place a clean beaker below the separating funnel.
 Allow the liquids to separate completely. The denser liquid (water) will be the
bottom layer.
 Open the tap of the funnel to allow the bottom layer to drain into the beaker
 Close the tap before the top layer of liquid runs out.
 Place another beaker below the funnel to collect the top layer of liquid into the
beaker.

Fractional Distillation
o Definition: separate mixture of MISCIBLE liquids (mix together completely to form a
solution) with different boiling points
o Examples:
 Ethanol + water
 Purified air
 Crude oil (petrol, kerosene, diesel in oil refineries)
 Nitrogen, oxygen and argon in liquid air
 Ethanol from fermentation mixture of water, glucose and malt in brewery
o Set up:
 A fractionating column is attached to the round-bottomed flask and the condenser for
fractional distillation
 Glass beads / plates / spiral in the fractionating column provide a large surface area
for vapor to condense on

o Steps (using Ethanol and Water)


 Ethanol vapor and water vapor rise the column as solution is heated.
 The water vapor condenses in the fractionating column and falls back into flask.
 Ethanol, which has a lower boiling point of 78 degrees Celsius than water (100
degrees Celsius), reaches the upper part of the column and is distilled over first.
 At this stage, the thermometer shows a constant temperature of 78 degrees Celsius,
which is the boiling point of ethanol.
 In the condenser, hot ethanol vapor condenses as running water cools it. Liquid
ethanol flows down the inner tube of the condenser and into the receiver.
 Ethanol is collected as the distillate in the receiver.
 When ethanol has fully distilled over, the temperature rises rapidly to 100 degrees
Celsius (water BP). At this temperature, water distils over and can be collected
separately

7. CHROMATOGRAPHY

o Definition: method of separating two or more components that dissolve in the same solvent
o Chromatogram: chromatography paper with separated components
o Depends on relative solubility – the more soluble the component travels faster and further up
the paper than the less soluble components
o When it consists of only one dye, IT IS PURE
o To separate and analyze colorless substances, apply a locating agent (e.g.: ninhydrin spray) on
a chromatogram as it will react with the colorless substances to form colored spots.
o Examples: pigments in plants l dyes in paints l food coloring

o Steps:
 Place a spot of green food coloring on the base line (using pencil) on the paper
 Dip paper into solvent (ethanol / water). Ensure that the colored spot is above water
level
 Components will separate as the solvent travels up the paper.

o Rf Value: ratio between the distance travelled by the substance and distance travelled by the
solvent
 Rf value of a substance DOES NOT CHANGE as long as chromatography is carried
out under the same conditions (same solvent and same temperature). This allows us
to easily identify a substance on a chromatogram.

o Uses of Chromatography: separate components in a sample; identify components present in a


sample; identify substances; determine its purity

8. PURITY
o Importance of purity:
o Prevent undesirable side effects
o Safe for consumption
o How to determine purity? (Either one of these)
o Check for exact and constant melting point of a solid (exact → pure)
o Check the exact and constant boiling point of a liquid (exact → pure)
o Performing chromatography
o Effects of Impurity
o Decrease melting point of solid; increase boiling point of liquid
o Melting and boiling take place over a range of temperatures

Acids and Bases


ACIDS
1. Acid: substance that produces hydrogen ions, H+, in aqueous solution (when dissolved in water)
2. A substance has acidic properties only when:
a. It is dissolved in water to form an aqueous solution
b. It ionizes to produce H+ ions
3. Strength of an acid is NOT AFFECTED by its concentration

4. Organic acids (weak acids) Mineral acids (strong acids)

(grapes) + -
3 ( aq ) → H ( aq ) + NO3 ( aq )
Tartaric
HNOacid
Carbonic acid (soda)
Hydrochloric acid
Malic acid (apples)
Sulfuric acid
Citric acid (orange)
Nitric acid
Lactic acid (milk)
Tannic acid (tea)
Strong acids will dissociate COMPLETELY in water to form H+ ions

+ 2-
H2 SO 4 ( aq ) → 2H ( aq ) + SO 4 ( aq )

5. Weak acids will dissociate PARTIALLY in an aqueous solution (reversible)


e.g.: ETHANOIC ACID
+ -
CH 3 COOH ( aq ) ↔
┬┬┬↔ H ( aq ) + CH 3 COO ( aq )

6. Properties of acids
a. Sour taste
b. Turn blue litmus paper red
c. Dissolve in water to form solutions which can conduct electricity

7. Chemical reactions
a. Metal + Acid → Salt + Hydrogen
NOTE:
 To test for hydrogen gas, use a lighten wooden split. Colorless, odorless gas extinguishes
the lighted splint with a pop sound
 A salt is produced when H+ in the acid is replaced by a metallic ion or ammonium
 Lead does not react with acids because there is an insoluble layer / coating of PbCl2 or
PbSO4 which prevents further reaction
b. Carbonate + Acid → Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxide
NOTE:
 To test for CO2 gas, bubbling, colorless, odorless CO2 gas through calcium hydroxide
will produce a white precipitate calcium carbonate
c. Metal oxide / hydroxide (BASE) + Acid → Salt + Water [NEUTRALISATION]
8. Uses of Sulfuric Acid
a. Manufacture of fertilizers (important starting material to produce ammonium sulfate and
superphosphate)
b. Manufacture of detergents
i. Concentrated sulfuric acid used to convert hydrocarbons into organic acids
ii. Organic acids + Sodium hydroxide → Detergents
c. Battery acid in cars (reacts with lead plates and lead (IV) oxide plates in the battery to
generate electrical energy)

9. Use of Hydrochloric Acid: remove impurities (rust / scale) from metals + aluminium alloys
10. Use of Phosphoric Acid: added to food + drinks to give sour taste
11. Use of Ethanoic Acid: food preservatives and flavor enhancer

BASES
12. Definition: any metal oxide or hydroxide that reacts with an acid to produce a salt and water only.

Metal Oxides Metal Hydroxides

Sodium oxide (Na2O) Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)


Zinc oxide (ZnO) Zinc hydroxide (Zn(OH)2)
Calcium Oxide (CaO) Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2)
Iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3) Iron (III) hydroxide (Fe(OH)3)
Copper (II) oxide (CuO) Copper (II) hydroxide (Cu(OH)2)

13. Alkali: soluble base which dissolves in water to produce OH- ions
Example: NaOH, Na2O, KOH, Ca(OH)2, NH3(aq) – usually METALS FROM GROUP 1

14. Properties of Alkalis:


a. Soapy and bitter
b. Turn red litmus paper blue
c. React with acids to form a salt and water only (NEUTRALIZATION)
15. Ionic equation for neutralization reaction:

H ( aq ) + OH ( aq ) → H2 O (l)
+ -

16. Chemical reactions


a. Alkali + Ammonium salt (contains NH4+) → Salt + Water + Ammonia
NOTE: To test for NH3, colorless pungent gas turns moist / damp red litmus paper blue
b. Alkali + Salt → Metal Hydroxide + Salt
e.g.: Sodium hydroxide + iron (II) sulfate → Sodium sulfate (colorless solution) + Iron (II)
hydroxide (dirty green precipitate)

17. Uses of Base and Alkalis


a. Calcium hydroxide: reduce acidity in soil
b. Ammonia solution: used in making fertilizers

PH Scale
18. Definition: a set of numbers from 0 to 14 that indicates if a solution is acidic, neutral or alkaline
High concentration of H+ ions Acidic
Conc. of H+ = Conc. of OH- Neutral
High concentration of OH- ions Alkaline

19. pH of some acids and alkaline

a. pH 0 – H2SO4
b. pH 1 – HCl, HNO3, gastric juices
c. pH 2 – lemon juice
d. pH 3 to 4 – CH3COOH, vinegar, canned fizzy drinks
e. pH 4 to 6 – rainwater
f. pH 7 – H2O
g. pH 7 to 8 – blood
h. pH 10 – NH3
i. pH 11 - detergents
j. pH 13 – NaOH

20. Indicators: substances which show different color in acidic and alkaline solutions

Color of Indicator in
Indicator
Strong acid Neutral Strong Alkaline
Litmus Red (Use purple litmus) Blue
Methyl Orange Red orange Yellow
Screened Methyl Orange Violet No change Green
Phenolphthalein Colorless No change Pink
Universal Indicator Red Green Dark purple

21. pH meter
a. measures pH electrically
b. more accurate and reliable
c. consists of a pH probe connected to a data logger
i. Dip pH probe into solution to be measured
ii. pH of solution will be displayed

22. pH of soil (affects growth and development of plants)


Most plants grow best in neutral or slightly acidic soils
a. Potatoes: pH 5.5-6.5
b. Cabbages: 7.5-8.5

23. Controlling pH of soil


a. pH of soil may be unsuitable for plant growth due to
1) too much fertilizers, 2) environmental pollution (acid rain)
b. To treat acidity in soil, add:
(LIMING – neutralize acid in soil, form salt + water)
i. Calcium oxide (CaO – quicklime)
ii. Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) – slaked lime)

TYPES OF OXIDES (Compounds of Oxygen)


24. Metallic oxides (ionic compound; metal ion and oxide ion)
a. Basic oxides
i. Metallic oxides (except PbO, Al2O3, ZnO)
ii. Solids at room temperature
iii. React with acids to form salt and water
iv. Can be soluble (dissolve in H2O to form alkalis)
v. Can be insoluble (bases)
b.Amphoteric oxides
i. Metallic oxides which can react with both acids and alkalis to form a salt and
water
ii. E.g.: ZnO, PbO, Al2O3
25. Non-metallic oxides (covalent compound; non-metal and oxygen)
a. Neutral oxides
i. Insoluble in water
ii. Show neither acidic nor basic properties
iii. E.g.: H2O, NO, CO (monoxides)
b. Acidic oxides
i. Non-metallic oxides (except H2O, NO, CO)
ii. Often gases at room temperature
iii. Most dissolve in water to form acid
iv. React with alkalis to form a salt and water

REACTIVITY SERIES

Potassium Aluminium Lead Silver

Sodium Zinc Hydrogen Gold

Calcium Iron Copper Platinum

Magnesium Tin Mercury

IMPORTANT IONS TO KNOW


H2SO4 = Sulfuric Acid

H3PO4 = Phosphoric Acid

HNO3 = Nitric acid

Why is it useless to add ammonium sulfate and calcium hydroxide in the acidic soil at the same
time?
Ammonium sulfate and calcium hydroxide react to form / produce ammonia. Ammonia (gas) evaporates / lost to
the surrounding air and hence the plants / crops cannot absorb the nitrogen from the fertilizer OR reduce the
amount of ammonium fertilizer.

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