The Cardiovascular System - Serous membrane is deep to the fibrous

pericardium and composed of two layers

• A closed system of the heart and blood
1. Parietal pericardium: outside layer that
vessels
lines the inner surface of the fibrous
- The heart pumps blood pericardium
- Blood vessels allow blood to circulate to 2. Visceral pericardium: next to heart; also
all parts of the body known as the epicardium
- Serous fluid fills the space between the
• Functions of the cardiovascular system layers of pericardium, called the
- Transport oxygen, nutrients, cell wastes, PERICARDIAL CAVITY
hormones to and from cells Walls of the heart
Anatomy of the Heart 1. EPICARDIUM
- Size of a human fist, weighing less than a - Outermost layer of the heart wall; also
pound known as the visceral pericardium
- Located in the thoracic cavity, between the
lungs in the inferior mediastinum (medial 2. MYOCARDIUM
section of the thoracic cavity)
- Middle layer composed mostly of cardiac
- Orientation
muscle
o Apex (pointed region) is directed
- This layer contracts
toward left hip and rests on the
diaphragm 3. ENDOCARDIUM
o Base (area where great blood vessels
- Inner layer known as endothelium
emerge) points toward right shoulder

Chambers and Associated Great Vessels

Four chambers of the heart
1) ATRIA (RIGHT AND LEFT)
- Superior receiving chambers
- Assist with filling the ventricles
- Blood enters under low pressure from
veins of the body
2) VENTRICLES (RIGHT AND LEFT)
- Inferior discharging chambers
- Thick-walled pumps of the heart
- During contraction, blood is propelled into
Coverings of the heart circulation

PERICARDIUM —a double-walled sac INTERATRIAL SEPTUM

- Fibrous pericardium is loose and - Separates the two atria longitudinally

superficial INTERVENTRICULAR SEPTUM
- Separates the two ventricles longitudinally

 Heart functions as a double pump

- Arteries carry blood away from the heart
- Veins carry blood toward the heart
• Double pump
- Right side works as the pulmonary circuit
pump
- Left side works as the systemic circuit
pump

 PULMONARY CIRCULATION Heart Valves

- Blood flows from the right side of the heart • Allow blood to flow in only one direction to
to the lungs and back to the left side of the prevent backflow
heart
o Blood is pumped out of right side - Atrioventricular (AV) valves — between
through the pulmonary trunk, which atria and ventricles
splits into pulmonary arteries and takes o Left AV valve: bicuspid (mitral) valve
oxygen-poor blood to lungs o Right AV valve: tricuspid valve
o Oxygen-rich blood returns to the heart - Semilunar valves — between ventricle and
from the lungs via pulmonary veins artery
 SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION o Pulmonary semilunar valve
- Oxygen-rich blood returned to the left side o Aortic semilunar valve
of the heart is pumped out into the aorta
AV VALVES
o Blood circulates to systemic arteries
and to all body tissues - Chordae tendineae anchor the cusps to the
o Left ventricle has thicker walls walls of the ventricles
because it pumps blood to the body - Open during heart relaxation, when blood
through the systemic circuit passively fills the chambers
- Oxygen-poor blood returns to the right - Closed during ventricular contraction
atrium via systemic veins, which empty
SEMILUNAR VALVES
blood into the superior or inferior vena cava
- Closed during heart relaxation
The Systemic and Pulmonary Circulations
- Open during ventricular contraction

 Valves open and close in response to

pressure changes in the heart
 - Ensures heart muscle depolarization in one
direction only (atria to ventricles)
- Enforces a heart rate of 75 beats per
minute
- Components include:
1) Sinoatrial (SA) node
- Located in the right atrium
- Serves as the heart’s pacemaker
2) Atrioventricular (AV) node is at the
junction of the atria and ventricles
3) Atrioventricular (AV) bundle (bundle of
Cardiac Circulation His) and bundle branches are in the
- Blood in the heart chambers does not interventricular septum
nourish the myocardium 4) Purkinje fibers spread within the ventricle
- The heart has its own nourishing wall muscles
circulatory system consisting of:
o Coronary arteries — branch from the - The sinoatrial node (SA node) starts
aorta to supply the heart muscle with each heartbeat
oxygenated blood - Impulse spreads through the atria to the AV
node
▪ On the left: anterior interventricular artery - Atria contract
and circumflex artery - At the AV node, the impulse is delayed
▪ On the right: posterior interventricular briefly
artery and marginal artery - Impulse travels through the AV bundle,
bundle branches, and Purkinje fibers
o Cardiac veins — drain the myocardium - Ventricles contract; blood is ejected from
of blood the heart
o Coronary sinus — a large vein on the - Tachycardia — rapid heart rate, >100 bpm
posterior of the heart; receives blood - Bradycardia — slow heart rate, <60bpm
from cardiac veins
• Cardiac cycle and heart sounds
▪ Blood empties into the right atrium via the
- The cardiac cycle refers to one complete
coronary sinus
heartbeat, in which both atria and
Physiology of the Heart ventricles contract and then relax
 Systole = contraction
• Intrinsic CONDUCTION SYSTEM OF THE
 Diastole = relaxation
HEART
– Average heart rate is approximately 75 bpm
- Cardiac muscle contracts spontaneously
and can occur independently of nerve – Cardiac cycle length is normally 0.8
impulses second
- Contractions occur in a regular and
– Atrial diastole (ventricular filling)
continuous way
 Atrial cells beat 60 times per minute - Heart is relaxed
 Ventricular cells beat 20−40 times per - Pressure in heart is low
minute - Atrioventricular valves are open
 Need a unifying control system — the - Blood flows passively into the atria and into
intrinsic conduction system (nodal ventricles
system) - Semilunar valves are closed
• Intrinsic conduction system of the heart – Atrial systole
- Two systems regulate heart activity - Atria contract
1) Autonomic nervous system - Blood is forced into the ventricles to
2) Intrinsic conduction system, or the nodal complete ventricular filling
system
– Isovolumetric contraction
- Sets the heart rhythm
- Composed of special nervous tissue - AV valves close to prevent blood backflow
into atria
- For a moment, the ventricles are - 60 percent of blood in ventricles (about 70
completely closed chambers ml) is pumped with each heartbeat
- STARLING’S LAW OF THE HEART
– Ventricular systole (ejection phase)
o The critical factor controlling SV is how
- Ventricles continue to contract much cardiac muscle is stretched –
- Semilunar valves open called preload
- Blood is ejected from the ventricles o The more the cardiac muscle is
- Atria are relaxed and filling with blood stretched, the stronger the contraction
– Isovolumetric relaxation – VENOUS RETURN is the important factor
influencing the stretch of heart muscle
- Semilunar valves close to prevent blood
backflow into the ventricles TWO FACTORS INFLUENCE PRELOAD
– Heart sounds - Amount of venous return (volume of
blood returning to the heart)
o Lub — longer, louder heart sound
- Length of time the ventricles are relaxed
(closing of the AV valves)
and filling (determined by heart rate)
o Dup — short, sharp heart sound (closing
of the semilunar valves) – Contractility – ability of cardiac muscle
tissue to generate tension
Summary of Events Occurring During the
Cardiac Cycle – Afterload – amount of pressure the
ventricles must overcome to eject blood
Factors modifying basic heart rate
1. Neural (ANS) controls
- Sympathetic nervous system speeds heart
rate
- Parasympathetic nervous system, primarily
vagus nerve fibers, slow and steady the
heart rate
2. Hormones and ions
- Epinephrine and thyroxine speed heart rate
• Cardiac output (CO) - Excess or lack of calcium, sodium, and
potassium ions also modify heart activity
- Amount of blood pumped by each side
(ventricle) of the heart in 1 minute 3. Physical factors
- Product of stroke volume and heart rate - Age, gender, exercise, body temperature
• Stroke volume (SV) influence heart rate

- Volume of blood pumped by each ventricle Blood Vessels

in one contraction (each heartbeat) • Blood vessels form a closed vascular system
- About 70 ml of blood is pumped out of the that transports blood to the tissues and back to
left ventricle with each heartbeat the heart
- Vessels that carry blood away from the
• Heart rate (HR) heart
- Typically, 75 beats per minute o Arteries and arterioles
- Vessels that play a role in exchanges
• Cardiac output is the product of the heart between tissues and blood
rate (HR) and the stroke volume (SV) o Capillary beds
- CO = HR x SV - Vessels that return blood toward the heart
- CO = HR (75 beats min) x SV (70 ml beat) o Venules and veins
- CO = 5250 ml min 5.25 L min Microscopic Anatomy of Blood Vessels
• Regulation of STROKE VOLUME • THREE LAYERS (TUNICS) IN BLOOD
VESSELS (except the capillaries)
1) Tunica intima forms a friction-reducing o Brachiocephalic trunk splits into the:
lining  Right common carotid artery
o Endothelium  Right subclavian artery
2) Tunica media o Left common carotid artery splits into
o Smooth muscle and elastic tissue the:
o Controlled by sympathetic nervous  Left internal and external carotid
system arteries
3) Tunica externa forms protective outermost o Left subclavian artery branches into
covering the:
o Mostly fibrous connective tissue  Vertebral artery
o Supports and protects the vessel  In the axilla, the subclavian artery
becomes the axillary artery →
• Structural differences in arteries, veins, and brachial artery → radial and ulnar
capillaries arteries
- Arteries have a heavier, stronger, stretchier  Arterial branches of the THORACIC
tunica media than veins to withstand AORTA
changes in pressure - Intercostal arteries supply the muscles of
- Veins have a thinner tunica media than the thorax wall
arteries and operate under low pressure - Other branches of the thoracic aorta supply
o Veins also have valves to prevent the:
backflow of blood – VARICOSE VEINS o Lungs (bronchial arteries)
o Lumen of veins is larger than that of o Esophagus (esophageal arteries)
arteries o Diaphragm (phrenic arteries)
o Skeletal muscle “milks” blood in veins  Arterial branches of the ABDOMINAL
toward the heart AORTA
- Celiac trunk is the first branch of the
– CAPILLARIES abdominal aorta. Three branches are:
- Only one cell layer thick (tunica intima) 1) Left gastric artery (stomach)
- Allow for exchanges between blood and 2) Splenic artery (spleen)
tissue 3) Common hepatic artery (liver)
- Form networks called capillary beds - Superior mesenteric artery supplies most of
- Blood flow through a capillary bed is known the small intestine and first half of the large
as microcirculation intestine
- Blood flows from terminal arteriole → - Left and right renal arteries (kidney)
exchange vessels of capillary bed → - Left and right gonadal arteries
postcapillary venule o Ovarian arteries in females serve the
ovaries
Gross Anatomy of Blood Vessels o Testicular arteries in males serve the
MAJOR ARTERIES OF SYSTEMIC testes
CIRCULATION - Lumbar arteries serve muscles of the
AORTA abdomen and trunk
- Largest artery in the body ▪ INFERIOR MESENTERIC ARTERY serves
- Leaves from the left ventricle of the heart the second half of the large intestine
- Regions
o Ascending aorta — leaves the left ▪ LEFT AND RIGHT COMMON ILIAC
ventricle ARTERIES are the final branches of the aorta
o Aortic arch — arches to the left - Internal iliac arteries serve the pelvic
o Thoracic aorta — travels downward organs
through the thorax
o Abdominal aorta — passes through External iliac arteries enter the thigh →
the diaphragm into the abdominopelvic femoral artery → popliteal artery → anterior
cavity and posterior tibial arteries
 Arterial branches of the ascending aorta MAJOR VEINS of SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION
o Right and left coronary arteries
serve the heart - Superior vena cava and inferior vena cava
 Arterial branches of the AORTIC ARCH enter the right atrium of the heart
 o Superior vena cava drains the head  Hepatic portal vein drains the digestive
and arms organs and travels through the liver before
o Inferior vena cava drains the lower it enters systemic circulation
body  Left and right hepatic veins drain the liver
 Veins draining into the SUPERIOR VENA
CAVA  Arterial supply of the brain and the cerebral
o Radial and ulnar veins drain brachial arterial circle (circle of Willis)
vein to axillary vein - Internal carotid arteries divide into:
o Cephalic vein drains the lateral o Anterior and middle cerebral arteries
aspect of the arm and empties into the  These arteries supply most of the
axillary vein cerebrum
o Basilic vein drains the medial aspect - Vertebral arteries join once within the
of the arm and empties into the skull to form the basilar artery
brachial vein o Basilar artery serves the brain stem
o Basilic and cephalic veins are joined and cerebellum
at the median cubital vein (elbow area)
▪ Subclavian vein receives: - Posterior cerebral arteries form from the
- Venous blood from the arm via the axillary division of the basilar artery
vein o These arteries supply the posterior
- Venous blood from skin and muscles via cerebrum
external jugular vein - Anterior and posterior blood supplies are
united by small communicating arterial
▪ Vertebral vein drains the posterior part of the branches
head
– Result—complete circle of connecting blood
▪ Internal jugular vein drains the dural sinuses vessels called cerebral arterial circle, or
of the brain circle of Willis
▪ Left and right brachiocephalic veins receive • HEPATIC PORTAL CIRCULATION is formed
venous blood from the: by veins draining the digestive organs, spleen,
– Subclavian veins and pancreas, which empty into the hepatic
portal vein
– Vertebral veins
• Hepatic portal vein carries this blood to the
– Internal jugular veins liver, where it is processed before returning to
 Brachiocephalic veins join to form the systemic circulation
superior vena cava - right atrium of heart • The hepatic portal vein receives blood from:
▪ Azygos vein drains the thorax - Splenic vein (receives blood from
 Veins draining into the INFERIOR VENA inferior mesenteric vein)
CAVA - Superior mesenteric vein
- Left gastric vein
▪ Anterior and posterior tibial veins and fibial
veins drain the legs Physiology of Circulation

▪ Posterior tibial vein drains to → popliteal vein • Vital signs

→ femoral vein → external iliac vein - Measurements of arterial pulse, blood
 Great saphenous veins (longest veins of pressure, respiratory rate, and body
the body) receive superficial drainage of the temperature
legs • Arterial pulse
 Each common iliac vein (left and right) is
formed by the union of the internal and - Alternate expansion and recoil of a
external iliac vein on its own side blood vessel wall (the pressure wave)
 Right gonadal vein drains the right ovary in that occurs as the heart beats
females and right testicle in males - Monitored at pressure points in
 Left gonadal vein empties into the left renal superficial arteries, where pulse is easily
vein palpated
 Left and right renal veins drain the kidneys
 - Pulse averages 70 to 76 beats per
minute at rest, in a healthy person
Body Sites Where the Pulse Is Most Easily
Palpated

• Blood pressure
- The pressure the blood exerts against
the inner walls of the blood vessels
- The force that causes blood to continue
to flow in the blood vessels

Developmental Aspects of the

Cardiovascular System
• In an embryo
- The heart develops as a simple tube
and pumps blood by week 4 of
pregnancy
- The heart becomes a four-chambered
organ capable of acting as a double
pump over the next 3 weeks
• Umbilical cord
- Carries nutrients and oxygen from
maternal blood to fetal blood
- Fetal wastes move from fetal blood to
maternal blood
- Houses: (AVA)
o One umbilical vein, which carries
nutrient- and oxygen-rich blood to
the fetus
o Two umbilical arteries, which carry
wastes and carbon dioxide–rich
blood from the fetus to placenta
• Age-related problems associated with the
cardiovascular system include:
 Weakening of venous valves
 Varicose veins
 Progressive arteriosclerosis
 Hypertension resulting from loss of
elasticity of vessels
 Coronary artery disease resulting from
fatty, calcified deposits in the vessels