Theories and Program Design

Introduction

Regardless of the training method, certain conditions must be present for learning to occur:

1) Providing opportunities for trainees to practice and receive feedback

2) Offering meaningful training content
3) Identifying any prerequisites that trainees need to successfully complete the program
4) Allowing trainees to learn through observation and experience

Learning is a relatively permanent change in human capabilities that is not a result of growth
processes. These capabilities are related to specific learning outcomes.

Types of Learning Outcome:

Verbal Information – includes names or labels, facts and bodies of knowledge.

Intellectual skills – include concept and rules.

Motor skills – include coordination of physical movement.

Attitudes – are the combination of beliefs and feelings that predispose a person to behave in a
certain way.

Cognitive Strategies – regulate the process of learning.

LEARNING THEORIES

1) REINFORCEMENT THEORY – emphasizes that people are motivated to perform or avoid

certain behaviors because of past outcomes that have resulted from those behaviors. There are
several processes in reinforcement theory:
 POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT – is a pleasurable outcome resulting from a behavior.
 NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT – is the removal of an unpleasant outcome.

2) SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY - emphasizes that people learn by observing other persons
(models) whom they believe are credible and knowledgeable. Social learning theory also
recognizes that behavior is reinforced or rewarded tends to be repeated. According to social
learning theory, learning also is influenced by a person’s self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is a person’s
judgement about whether he or she can successfully learn knowledge and skills.

A person’s self-efficacy can be increased using several methods:

 Verbal persuasion- offering words of encouragement to convince others they can learn
 Logical verification – involves perceiving a relationship between a new task and a task
already mastered.
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  Modeling – involves having employees who already have mastered the learning
outcomes demonstrate them for trainees.
 Past accomplishments – refers to allowing employees to build a history of successful
accomplishments.

Social learning theory suggests that four processes are involved in learning:

3) GOAL THEORIES

Goal setting theory assumes that behavior results from a person’s conscious goals and intentions.
Goals influence a person’s behavior by directing energy and attention, sustaining effort over time and
motivating the person to develop strategies for goal attainment.

Goal orientation refers to the goals held by a trainee in a learning situation. Goal orientation can
include a learning orientation or a performance orientation. Learning orientation relates to trying to
increase ability or competence in a task. Performance Orientation refers to learners who focus on
task performance and how they compare to others.

4) NEED THEORIES - help to explain the value that a person places on certain outcomes. A need
is a deficiency that a person is experiencing at any point in time and motivates a person to
behave in a manner to satisfy thy deficiency.
5) EXPECTANCY THEORY - suggest that person’s behavior is based on three factors expectancy,
instrumentality and valence.
 Expectancies – beliefs about the link between trying to perform a behavior and actually
performing well.
 Instrumentality – a belief that performing a given behavior is associated with a particular
outcome
 Valence – is the value that a person places on an outcome

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 6) ADULT LEARNING THEORY was developed out of a need for a specific theory of how adults
learn.

Malcolm Knowles’s model is based on several assumptions:

1. Adults have the need to know why they are learning something
2. Adults have a need to be self-directed
3. Adults bring more work-related experiences into the learning situation
4. Adults enter into a learning experience with a problem-centered approach to learning
5. Adults are motivated to learn by both extrinsic and intrinsic motivators

7) Information Processing Theory - give more emphasis to the internal processes that occur when
training content is learned and retained.

THE LEARNING PROCESS

Mental and Physical Processes

1. Expectancy - refers to the mental state that the learner brings to the instructional process.
2. Perception - refers to the ability to organize the message from the environment so that it can
be processed and acted upon.
3. Working storage –information occur allowing material to be coded for memory.
4. Semantic encoding - refers to the actual coding process of incoming messages.
5. Rehearsal – the simplest learning strategy, focuses on learning through repetition.
6. Organizing - requires the learner to find similarities and themes in the training material.
7. Elaboration - requires trainee to relate the training material to other, more familiar knowledge,
skills, or behaviors.
8. Retrieval - involves identifying learned material in long-term memory and using it to influence
performance.
9. Generalizing – reproduce what was learned and adapt the learning
10. Gratifying - refers to the feedback that the learner receives as a result of using learning
content.

The Learning Cycle – learning can be considered a dynamic cycle that involves four stages

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Stages of learning cycle:

 Concrete experience – experience work problem

 Reflective observation – thinking about the problem
 Abstract conceptualization – generation of ideas of how to solve the problem
 Active experimentation – implementation of the ideas directly to the problem

Age Influences on Learning

Generations of employees with distinct attitudes toward work and preferred ways to learn:

 Millenniums (Nexters)
 born after 1980
 optimistic; willing to work and learn; technology-literate; & appreciate diversity
 like to learn by working alone and helping others
 they prefer a blended learning approach that involves self-paced online learning for
acquiring basic concepts, ideas, and knowledge followed by group activities and hands-on
practice in which they work with others on questions, cases and role plays
 they are motivated to learn skills and acquire knowledge that will help make their working
lives less stressful and increase their employability
 they place a high value on money so linking training to monetary incentives may facilitate
learning
 prefer entertaining training activities to be interactive and to utilize music, art, and games
 Gen Xers
 born from 1961-1980
 need feedback and flexibility; they dislike close supervision& experienced change all their
lives
 value a balance between work and nonwork
 prefer a self-directed learning environment
 they respond best to training methods that allow them to work at their own pace: videos,
CD-ROMs, and Web-based training
 are highly motivated learners who view training as a way to increase their employability
 they like to learn by doing through experimentation and feedback
 they respond best to training materials that provide visual stimulation with relatively few
words

 Baby Boomers
 born between 1945 and 1960
 competitive, hardworking, and concerned that all employees be fairly treated
 respond well to interactive activities like group activities
 like well-organized training materials with an overview of the information and an easy way
to access more detailed information
 motivated to learn if they believe training content will benefit them personally
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  need to work on translating the knowledge they have into skills
 Traditionalists
 born between 1920 and 1944
 patriotic and loyal, they have a great deal of knowledge of the history of organizations and
work life
 prefer a traditional room with a stable, orderly learning environment
 they do not like to be out on the spot in front of other trainees
 they value direct presentation of information and training materials that are organized
logically
 they like trainers to ask them to share their experiences or anecdotes but they also look to
the trainer to provide expertise

Implications of the Learning Process for Instruction

Instruction refers to the trainer’s manipulation of the environment in order to help trainees learn.

It summarizes the features of good instruction that facilitate the learning process. The features of a
positive learning environment need to be designed into training courses, programs, or specific training
methods that might be used, whether lectures, e-learning, or on-the-job training.

I. Employees need to know why they should learn

Employees learn best when they understand the objective of the training program since objective
refers to the purpose and expected outcome of training activities.

Training objective has three components:

1. A statement of what the employee is expected to do (performance or outcome)
2. A statement of the quality or level of performance that is acceptable (criterion)
3. A statement of the conditions under which the trainee is expected to perform the desired
outcome (conditions)

II. Employees need meaningful training content

Employees are most likely to learn when the training is linked to their current job experiences and
tasks. To enhance the meaningfulness of training content, the message should be presented using

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concepts, terms, and examples familiar to trainees. Training context refers to the physical,
intellectual, and emotional environment in which training occurs.

Useful techniques for convincing trainees that the training program content is meaningful include:

 Telling stories about others success in applying training content

 Showing how training relates to company goals and strategy
 Showing how trainees can use training content ideas at work
 Discussing examples or cases that remind trainees of the good and poor work they have seen
 Repeating the application of ideas in different contexts
 Presenting evidence of the effectiveness of knowledge, skills, and behaviors
 Showing how the conditions that trainees face in training are similar to those on the job
 Providing practice or application activities that can be used on the job
 Providing hard copies or electronic access to well-organized materials so trainees can refer to
them on the job or use them to teach others
 Allowing trainees to choose their practices strategy and how they want training content
presented.

III. Employees need opportunities to practice

Practice refers to the physical or mental rehearsal of a task, knowledge, or skill to achieve proficiency
in performing the task or skill or demonstrating the knowledge. Practice involves having the employee
demonstrate the learned capability emphasized in the training objectives under conditions and
performance standards specified by the objectives.

 Pre-practice conditions – trainers need to focus not just on training content but also on how
to enable trainees to process information in a way that will facilitate learning and the use of
training on the job.
 Practice involves experience – training should involve an active learning approach in which
trainees must explore and experiment to determine the rules, principles, and strategies for
effective performance.
 Massed versus spaced practice – Massed practice conditions are those in which
individuals practice a task continuously without rest. In spaced practice conditions,
individuals are given rest intervals within the practice session.
 Whole versus part practice - A final issue related to practice is how much of the training
should be practice at one time. One option is that all tasks or objectives should be practice at
the same time (whole practice). Another option is that an objective or task should be practice
individually as soon as each is introduced in the training program (part practice).It is probably
best to employ both whole and part practice in a training session.
 Effective practice conditions - Practice must involve the actions emphasized in the training
objective, be completed under the conditions specified in the training objectives, help trainees
perform to meet the criteria or standards that was set, provide some means to evaluate the
extent to which trainees’ performance meets the standards, and allow trainees to correct their
mistakes.

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 IV. Employees need to commit training content to memory

Memory works by processing stimuli we perceive through our senses into short term memory. If the
information is determined to be “important”, it moves to long-term memory. One way is make trainees
aware of how are creating, processing and accessing memory. It is important for trainees to
understand how they learn. A presentation of learning styles can be a useful way to determine how
trainees prefer to learn.

V. Employees need feedback

Feedback is information about how well people are meeting the training objectives. To be effective
should focus on specific behaviors and be provided as soon as possible after the trainees behavior.
Also positive trainee behavior should be verbally praised or reinforced.

VI. Employees learn through observation, experience, and social interaction

One way employees learn is through observing and imitating the actions of models. For the model to
be effective, the desired behaviors or skills need to be specified and the model should have
characteristics similar to the target audience. Then give employees a hands-on experiences or putting
them with more experienced employees and providing them with the tools and materials needed to
manage their knowledge gaps.

Learning also occurs through interacting with other trainees in small groups during the training
session as well as back at work. By working in small groups, trainees can obtain diverse perspective
on problems and issues, perspectives they would never hear if they learned alone.

Communities of practice refer to group of employees who work together learn from each other and
develop a work together learn from each other and develop a common understanding of how to get
work accomplished.

VII. Employees need the training program to be properly coordinated and arranged

Training coordination is one of several aspects of training administration. Training administration

refer to coordinating activities before, during, and after the program. Training administration involves:

1. Communicating courses and program to employees.

2. Enrolling employees in courses and programs
3. Preparing and processing any pre training materials such as reading or tests.
4. Preparing materials that will be used in instruction (e.g., copies of overhead, cases).
5. Arranging for the training facility and room.
6. Testing equipment that will used in instruction.
7. Having backup equipment (e.g., paper copy of slides, an extra head bulb) should equipment
fail.
8. Providing support during instruction.
9. Distributing evaluation materials (e.g., test, reaction paper measure, survey).
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 10. Facilitating communicating between trainer and trainees during and after training (e.g.,
coordinating exchanges of email addresses).
11. Recording courses completion in the trainees training records or personal files.

INSTRUCTIONAL EMPHASIS FOR LEARNING OUTCOMES

Internal conditions are processes within the learner that are necessary for learning to occur.

External conditions are processes in the learning environment that facilitate learning.

CONSIDERATIONS IN DESIGNING EFFECTIVE TRAINING PROGRAMS

A. Selecting and Preparing the Training Site

 Training site refers to the room where training will be conducted. A good training site
offers the following features:
1. It is comfortable and accessible.
2. It is quiet, private, and free from interruptions.

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3. It has sufficient space for trainees to move easily around in, offers enough room for trainees to
have adequate work space, and has good visibility for trainees to see each other and with the
trainer, and any visual display or examples that will be in training.

 Details to be considered in the Training Room

 Seating Arrangements – should be based on an understanding of the desired type of

trainee interaction and trainee-trainer interaction.

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 B. Choosing Trainers

Selecting professional trainers or consultant is one obvious possibility for companies. Trainers
whether from inside or outside the company, should have expertise in the topic and experience in
training.

How Trainers Can Make the Training Site and Instruction Conducive to Learning

Creating a learning setting - before choosing a training room, consider how the trainees are
expected to learn. Determine the extent to which trainees decide when, where, and how they will
learn (self-direction) and whether learning will occur by interaction with others (collaboration).

Preparation - you need to know your content very well. Use mental and physical rehearsal to help
build confidence and to evaluate the pace and timing of material.

Classroom management - monitor the room for extra chairs, overflowing trash cans, and piles of
materials left over from previous training sessions.

Interacting with trainees - you as a trainer carry the responsibility for the trainees learning
experience. You need to communicate the topics that will be covered, the learning approach that will
be used and the expectations for trainees.

Dealing with disruption trainees - how can you with employees who don't want to be trained
despite being informed in advance of the course and how it relates to the business? First, take charge
of the session immediately, communicate your credentials, and in a friendly but assertive way tell
employees why the training is important and how it will help them.

Managing group dynamics - to ensure an even distribution of knowledge or expertise in groups, ask
trainees to indicate whether they consider themselves novices, experienced or experts on a topic.

Program Design

It refers to the organization and coordination of the training program. Program design includes
considering the purpose of the program as well as designing specific lesson within the program.

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Design document - can be used can be used to guide the development of training and to explain the
training to managers, subject matter experts, reviewers, or other trainers.

Course or lesson plan - lesson plans are typically more detailed that the design document. They
include the specific steps involved in the lesson, instructor and trainee activities, and the time
allocated to each topic included in the lesson.

Lesson plan overview – matches major activities of the training program and specific times or time
intervals.

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