Cost and Management

Accounting
Cost and Management Accounting
 COST AND MANAGEMENT
ACCOUNTING

CONTENTS

Page No.

Unit 1 Accounting 1

Unit 2 Absorption Costing and Marginal Costing 36

Unit 3 Job Order Cost Systems 70

Unit 4 Segment Performance Analysis 110

Unit 5 Budgetary Control 148

Accounting 1

UNIT 1: ACCOUNTING NOTES

Structure
1.0 Learning Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Accounting Information and Managerial Decision-making
1.2.1 Concept of Decision-making
1.2.2 Concept of Differential Costs
1.2.3 Steps in Decision-making
1.2.4 Make or Buy Decision
1.2.5 Operate or Shutdown
1.2.6 Expand or Reduce Capacity Decisions
1.2.7 Key Factor
1.2.8 Special Orders
1.2.9 Sell or Process Further
1.2.10 Accept or Reject Decisions
1.3 Difference between Cost Accounting and Management Accounting
1.4 Difference between Financial Accounting and Cost Accounting
1.5 Difference between Financial Accounting and Management Accounting
1.6 Role of Management Accountant
1.7 Basic Cost Terms and Concepts
1.7.1 Need for Accounting
1.7.2 Development of Accounting
1.7.3 Definition and Functions of Accounting
1.7.4 Book-keeping and Accounting
1.7.5 Is Accounting a Science or an Art?
1.7.6 Accounting and other Disciplines
1.7.7 End-users of Accounting Information.
1.8 Relevant Cost
1.9 Statement of Cost
1.9.1 Meaning of Cost Sheet
1.9.2 Importance of Cost Sheet
1.10 Summary
1.11 Key Terms
1.12 Questions and Exercises
2 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES 1.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:
 The concept of decision making.
 Explain the concept of relevant cost.
 Steps to be taken for decision making.
 Distinction between Book keeping and Accounting.
 Explain the importance and types of Cost Sheet.
 Distinguish between Cost Centre and Cost Unit, Cost estimation and Cost ascertainment.
 Role of a management Accountant.
 Distinguish between Financial Accounting and cost Accounting.
 Describe the various types of material losses.
 Explain the Accounting treatment of different losses.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
In the beginning the main objective of accounting was to ascertain the result of the business
activities during a year and to show the financial position of the business as on a particular
date. But with the lapse of time more and more is being expected from accounting. At
present accounting has to meet the requirements of taxation authorities, investors, government
regulations, management and owners. Accounting is a discipline which records, classifies,
Summarises and interprets financial information about the activities of a concern so that
intelligent decisions can be made about the concern. cost Accounting has developed due to
the complexities so modern commerce and growth of factory system. This chapter attempts
to shows the basic concepts of cost accounting including the elements of cost, the role of a
management Accountant and Cost Sheet.

1.2 ACCOUNTING INFORMATION AND MANAGERIAL

DECISION-MAKING

12.1 Concept of Decision-Making

Decision making is associated with planning and is directed towards achieving a desired goal.
It is the process of evaluating two or more alternatives leading to final selection. It is however
be noted that even the best decision does not guarantee the success decision making which
is the essence of management, is a reflection of responsibility in the case of an enterprise
and constitutes the hall-mark distinguishing the work of the higher echelons of management
from the unglamorous, though vetal, ploodings of the rank and file of the undertaking. In
this connection Sir Geoffery Heyworth once remarked, “In the unilever’s world empire, there
are some two hundred people who take on themselves the decisions which make or mark the
success of business as a whole.”

1.2.2 Concept of Differential Cost

Differential cost is the change in cost which may result from adopting an alternative course
of action in the level of activity which may be due to change in fixed cost or variable cost.
In other words, it is the aggregate of changes in fixed cost and variable cost which take place
due to adopting of an alternative course of action in the level of output.
Accounting 3

Differential costs are affected by the decisions. NOTES

They may be regarded as the difference in the total cost resulting from a change.
In other words it is the increase or decrease in the total cost that result from the alternative
course of action.
The A. A. A. Committee defines it as “the increase or decrease in total cost or the change in
specific elements of cost that result from any variation in operation.”
According to the institute of cost and Management Accountant, London, differential cost may
be defined as “the increase or decrease in total cost or the change in specific elements of cost
that result from any variation in operations.”

1.2.3 Steps in Decision-making

(a) Identifying the problem

The decision making process starts with the identification of problem. The manager must take
utmost care and be able to define the problem clearly because all subsequent actions depend
on this if the problem at hand is not clearly defined, managers may spend considerable time
and efforts in gathering information which is not relevant to the real problem.

(b) Identifying the Alternative Courses of Action

Once the problem is identified all possible and feasible solutions should be identified. It is
the ideal phase of decision process and the experience of the concerned manager is of utmost
importance. The manager must be objective in identifying different alternative courses of
action and need not let his bias to enter into the decision process.

(c) Accumulation of Relevant Information

Manager require a lot of information before making decisions. Depending upon whether
the decision situation has long run implications or short-run implications, relevant data and
information about different courses if action should be gathered. Information may be available
internally or may have be collected from external sources. It is the relevance of information
and the sources of information which is important.

(d) Making a Decision

The information collected in respect of each of the alternative course of action should be
analysed carefully to see the effect if each course of action on the objective of the firm. An
economic cost benefit analysis should be make for each of the alternative course of action.
Out of these different alternative the best one should be selected.
The following are the rules applied in making decisions related to each of the following matters.

1.2.4 Make or Buy decision

The make or buy decision is made to determine the alternative which is most desirable. In
case of industries, a number of spare parts, components are used in the final assembly to
make final product. These accessories can be either manufactured written and organisation
or can be procured from outside sources. Therefore it is necessary to decide whether all the
parts are to be manufactured within or to be purchased from outside sources. The decisions
taken will have the effects on production capacities, working capital, competitive position
and funds.
4 Cost and Management Accounting
Illustration 1.1
NOTES
An automobile manufacturing company finds that while the cost of making is its own workshop
part no. 0028 is ` 6.00 each, the same is available in the market at ` 5.60 with no assurance
of continuous supply. The cost data is as follows:
`
Direct Materials 2.50
Direct wages 2.00
Other variable costs 0.50
Depreciation and other fixed costs 1.00
Total 6.00
You are required (a) To suggest to the managing director, giving your view to make or buy
the part (b) To give your view in case the suppliers reduce the price from ` 5.60 to ` 4.60.
Solution: In order to decide whether to make or buy the part no. 0028, fixed expenses should
be excluded from the cost as they will be incurred irrespective of the part not being produced.
Thus, the additional cost of the part will be as follows:
`
Direct Materials 2.00
Direct wages 2.50
Other variable costs 0.50
Total 5.00
(a) The Company should make the part is available in the market at ` 5.60 because the
production of every part will give a contribution of 60 paise, i.e. (5.60 – 5.00) to the
Company.
(b) On the other hand if the part is available in the market at ` 4.60, the Company should
not manufacture the part, because, the additional cost of producing the part is 40 paise
(i.e., `5.00 – ` 4.60) more than the price at which it is available in the market.
In certain cases, inspite of lower variable cost, there may be increase in fixed cost. Therefore
it is necessary to find out the minimum quantity required in order to justify the making of
product instead of buying. This can be calculated by the following formula:

fixed cost
Increase in =
Contribution per unit

1.2.5 Operate or Shutdown

Differential cost analysis is also used when a business is confronted with the possibility of a
temporary shutdown. This type of analysis has to determine whether in the short-run a firm
is better of operating then not operating. As long as the products sold recovery their variable
costs and make a contribution towards the recovery of fixed costs, it may be preferable to
operate and not to shutdown. Also management should consider the investment in the training
of its employees which would be lost in the event of temporary shutdown.
Accounting 5
Illustration 1.2
NOTES
A manufacturing company has three product lines A, B, and C the company’s management
requested an income statement by product lines and received the following:

Product A Product B Product C Product D

` ` ` `
Sales 4,00,000 1,00,000 3,00,000 8,00,000
Cost of goods sold 2,50,000 60,000 2,00,000 5,10,000
Gross profit 1,50,000 40,000 1,00,000 2,90,000
Operating expenses 1,30,000 70,000 80,000 2,80,000
Net Profit 20,000 30,000 20,000 10,000

The Company’s owner argued that such an analysis is misleading and he requested further
information about the Company’s operating expenses. He was given the following:

Product A Product B Product C Product D

` ` ` `
Variable operating expenses 1,10,000 30,000 50,000 1,90,000
Total Fixed Operating – – – 90,000
expenses
2,80,000

You are required to prepare income statement showing the contribution by products covering
the company’s fixed costs. Would you recommend discontinuance of product B?
Solution:

Product A Product B Product C Product D

` ` ` `
Sales 4,00,000 1,00,000 3,00,000 8,00,000
Less: Marginal Cost and Cost of 3,60,000 90,000 2,50,000 7,00,000
goods sold
Contribution 40,000 10,000 50,000 1,00,000
Less: Fixed operating expenses 90,000
10,000

Note: Cost of goods sold is a variable expenses comment on the Discontinuance of product B,
if product B is a discontinued, the total contribution will be (` 1,00,000 - 10,000) = ` 90,000.
But the total fixed expenses remain the same i.e. ` 90,000. That means there will be no profit
in such a case on the other hand, if product B is not continued, the total contribution will
` 1,00,000 and the fixed expenses will be ` 90,000 and there will be a net profit of `10, 000 so it is
not advisable to discontinue product B.

1.2.6 Expand or Reduce capacity Decisions

The resources that are scarce are taken into account in order to expand or reduce that production
activities. The scarce resources include raw material, labour, labour hours, space, capital,
machine hours etc. These scarce resources help in decision making of alternative choices.
Here, differential and profit and contribution per unit of scarce resource.
6 Cost and Management Accounting
Illustration 1.3
NOTES
A Company engaged in plantation activities has 200 hectres of virgin land, which can be
used in growing jointly or individually tea, coffee and cardamom. The yield per unit hectre
of different Crops and their selling price per Kg are as under:

Particulars Yield Kg Selling price (`)

Tea 2000 20
Coffee 500 40
Cardamom 100 250

The relevant cost data are given below:

Variable cost per kg Tea Coffee Cardamom

` ` `
Labour Charges 8 10 120
Packing Materials 2 2 10
Other costs 4 1 20
Total 14 13 150

Fixed Cost per annum `

Cultivation and growing cost 10,00,000
Administrative Cost 2,00,000
Land revenue 50,000
Repairs and maintenance 2,50,000
Other costs 3,00,000

The policy of the Company is to produce and sell all three kinds of commodities and the
maximum and minimum area to be cultivated per commodity is as follows:

Commodity Maximum Minimum

Tea 160 120
Coffee 50 30
Cardamom 30 10
Calculate the most profitable product mix and maximum profit which can be achieved.
Solution:
Tea Coffee Cardamom
` ` `
Selling price 20 40 250
Less: variable cost 10 13 150
Contribution 6 27 100
Contribution per yield hectre 2,000 500 100
Total contribution 12,000 13500 10000
Ke Factor 2 1 3
Hectrs Allotted 140 50 10
Total yield 16.80,000 675000 100000
Accounting 7
Total Contribution 2455000
NOTES
Less: Fixed Cost 1800000
Profit 655000

1.2.7 Key Factor

P
Generally the product will be selected on the basis of the ratio which is highest, when
V
there is no limiting or key factor. But when the resources are scarce the choice of the product
is made on the basis of the contributions per unit of production.
A key factor is one which generally limits the profit, output or sales many a times a business
may not be in a position sell the output it produces. But in some cases, it cannot meet the
market demand due to scarcity of resources like materials, labour, plant capacity etc. though
it can sell all it produces. Under such circumstances, it has to take a decision regarding the
choice of the product whose production is to be stopped, reduced or increased. Therefore,
these scarce resources should be utilized in those directions where the contribution per unit
is maximum.
Illustration 1.4
Birla Equipment ltd. Manufactures four Components the cost particulars of which are given
below:

Element of Cost Components

A B C D
` ` ` `
Material 80 120 90 100
Labour 20 30 20 25
Variable overheads 10 10 15 12
Fixed overheads 15 20 20 23
Output per machine hour (units) 4 3 3 2
125 180 145 160
The key factor is shortage of machine Capacity.
You are required to advise management as to whether they should continue to produce all
or some of these components (which are used in its main product) or they should buy them
from a supplier who has quoted the following prices:
   A = ` 115, B = ` 185, C = ` 135, D = ` 175
Solution: Profitability Statement

Components
A B C D
` ` ` `
Direct Material 80 120 90 100
Direct Labour 20 30 20 25
Variable Cost 10 10 15 15
Marginal Cost per unit(a) 110 160 125 137
Purchase price per unit (b) 115 185 135 175
8 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES Excess per unit (b) over (a) 5 25 10 38

Output per machine hour (units) 4 3 3 2
Contribution per unit 20 75 30 76
Thus even if there is no key factor, it may not be possible to produce all the components
required and that some of them must be purchased from outside. If this is so that component
which result in the least loss to the company must be purchased from outside. The following
statement will reveal the loss to the Company through purchases of components from outside:

`
A 20
B 30
C 75
D 76
Thus it is clear from the above Statement that component A may be purchased from outside
if needed, and if still the own production could not be effected C should be purchased.
The profitability statement clearly shows that from the point of view of loss per machine hour if
the components are purchased from outside, the ranking of four components would be A, C, B, D.

1.2.8 Special Orders

All business decisions should not be evaluated in the same way. Sometimes special orders
or one time orders have different characteristics from recurring orders. Therefore, each order
should be evaluated based on costs relevant to the situation and the goals of the business
firm. The question of special orders arises when a company has excess or idle production
capacity and management considers the possibility of selling additional products at less than
normal selling prices, provided that such a special order will not affect the regular sales of
the some product.
Illustration 1.5
Tata Company Ltd. Produce business calculators and the selling price was fixed at ` 400.
The following are the cost particulars:
`
Direct material cost 140
Direct labour cost 40
Variable factory overhead 20
Other variable cost 20
Fixed overhead 5,00,000 p.a.
Commission 30% on selling price.
The Company was producing only 10,000 units. Since the demand was only 10,0000 units.
However the Company has the capacity to produce another 1,000 units without any additional
fixed overheads one of the distributors offered that he will take 1,000 units in addition to his
normal quota, but at a selling price of ` 320 per unit. He was also prepared to accept only
half of his regular Commission for this transaction.
The managing Director wants you as the cost and management Accountant to prepare a statement
to the Board of Directors with your specific recommendations, based on the calculations in
the statement.
Accounting 9
Solution:
NOTES
Statement of Profitability
Particulars Present Additional Total
production production
Production & Sales 10,000 1,000 11,000
Sales 40,00,000 3,20,000 43,20,000
Direct material at `140 14,00,000 1,40,000 15,40,000
Direct labour at `40 4,00,000 40,000 4,40,000
Variable factory overhead at ` 20 2,00,000 20,000 2,20,000
Other variable cost at `20 2,00,000 20,000 2,20,000
Commission at 30% on sales value 12,00,000 - 12,00,000
At 15% on sales value - 48,000 48,000
Total variable cost 34,00,000 2,68,000 36,68,000
Contribution 6,00,000 52,000 6,52,000
Less: Fixed overhead 5,00,000 - 5,00,000
Profit 1,00,000 52,000 1,52,000

Recommendation
The proposal gives a contribution of ` 52 per unit (52,000/1,000). Additional profit will be
`52,000. Here the proposal should be accepted.

1.2.9 Sell or process further

The decision whether a product should be sold at the split off point or processed further is
faced by many manufacturers. The choice between selling a product at split-off or processing
it further is short-run operating decision. Additional processing adds values to a product
and increases its selling price above the amount for which of could be sold at split-off. The
decision to process further depends upon whether the increase in total revenues exceeds the
additional costs incurred for processing beyond split-off.
Illustration 1.6
A production Company is evaluating two possible processes for the manufacture of a component.
The following data is made available.

Process A Process B
` Per unit ` Per unit
Selling price 30 20
Variable cost 12 14
Total fixed cost 30,00,0000 21,00,000
Output capacity in units 4,30,000 5,00,000
Expected sales in units in next 2 years 4,00,000 4,00,000

You are required to suggest

(i) Which process should be chosen?
(ii) Would you change your answer as given above if you are informed that the capacities
of the two process as follows: A = 6,00,000 units and B = 5,00,000 units why?
10 Cost and Management Accounting
Solution:
NOTES
Comparative Profitability Statement
Particulars Process A (`) Process B (`)
Selling price per unit 30 20
Variable cost per unit 12 14
Contribution per unit 8 6
Total contribution 32,00,000 24,00,000
Less: Total fixed cost 30,00,000 21,00,000
Profit 2,00,000 3,00,000
Process B can be selected as it gives higher profit 34,40,000 30,00,000
Total contribution if present capacity is utilized and sold
Total Profit 4,40,000 9,00,000
Process B may be chosen
Total contribution 48,00,000 30,00,000
(if capacity of A of 6,00,000 units and of B 5,00,000 units)
Total profit 18,00,000 9,00,000
Process A may be chosen

1.2.10 Accept or Reject Decisions

Sometimes, a firm which is selling its product in the market may get orders from some certain
customers to sell the product at a slightly lesser price. This may take place in case of special
orders, foreign customers, one time quantity sales etc. A decision to accept or reject has to
be taken based on differential cost and the contribution if the contribution is more than the
differential cost, the offer can be accepted. This is because the fixed cost is already recovered
in the normal production and the contribution in excess of marginal or differential cost leads
to profit. But the price should not be less than marginal cost. The question of accept or reject
the special orders arises in case when the manufacturer has idle production capacity makes
him to think about the possibility if selling the additional products at lesser prices.
Illustration 1.7
A producer is operating at 50% of its capacity due to competition. The following are the
details:

Per Unit (`)

Raw materials 6.00
Direct wages 4.00
Variable overhead 2.00
Fixed overhead 3.00
15.00
Output 15000 units
Total cost `225000
Sales value `210000
Loss `15000

A foreign customer wants to buy 6000 units of `13.50 per unit and the Company does not
know whether to accept or not as it is suffering losses at the current level.
Accounting 11
Solution:
NOTES
Particulars Existing level New order Total
(15000 units) (6000 units) (16000 units)
(`) (`) (`)
Sales 2,10,000 81,000 2,91,000
Variable Cost:
Raw materials 90,000 36,000 1,26,000
Labour 60,000 24,000 84,000
Variable overhead 45,000 18,000 63,000
Total Variable cost 1,95,000 78,000 2,73,000
Contribution 15,000 3,000 18/,000
Less: Fixed cost 30,000 — 30,000
Profit/Loss –15,000 3,000 –12,000

The manufacturer must accept the order as his losses will comes down from `15,000 to `12,000.

1.3 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COST ACCOUNTING AND

MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING
The important differences between Cost Accounting and Management Accounting are as follows:
1. Purpose: The purpose of cost Accounting is the ascertainment of cost at each stage of
production. The purpose of management Accounting is to provide information to the
management for decision making.
2. Basis: Cost Accounting is prepared mainly on the basis of past and less emphasis is given
for the future. Whereas management accounting purely aims at the future based on the
past information.
3. Preparation: Cost Accounting is prepared on the basis of some rules and regulations
prescribed by the ICWAI. Whereas management Accounting is prepared without adopting
any specific and rigid rules. It may be prepared according to the will of the managerial
personnels.
4. Reports: The Reports of the Cost accounting are subject to statutory audit on the other
hand, The reports of the management Accounting are not subject to statutory audit.
5. Useful: The reports of the cost Accounting are useful both to the internal and external
parties. On the other hand the reports of the management Accounting are useful only
for the internal parties.
6. Scope: Cost Accounting does not include tax planning and tax accounting whereas
management Accounting includes tax planning and tax accounting.
7. Evoluation: Cost Accounting evolves due to the limitation of financial accounting, on the
other hand management accounting evolves due to the limitations of cost accounting. It
is the managerial aspects of financial Accounting and cost Accounting.
8. Maintenance of Records: The maintenance of records is compulsory for complying the
statutory requirements in selected industries as notified by Govt. from time to time. On
the other hand the maintenance of records is purely voluntary and for internal use of
management of the Company.
9. Planning Aspect: Cost Accounting is mainly concerned with short-term planning, on the
other side management Accounting is concerned with short-term as well as long-term
planning of the organization.
12 Cost and Management Accounting
10. Installation of system: Cost Accounting can be installed without the help of the
NOTES
management accounting in the organization on the other hand management accounting
system cannot be properly installed without a proper cost accounting system.
11. Derivation of Data: Cost Accounting data are derived basically from financial accounts,
on the other hand management Accounting data are derived from both Cost Accounts as
well as from financial accounts.
12. Status: The status of the cost accountant in the organization comes after the management
accountant. On the other hand the status of the management accountant is higher than
cost accountant in the organization due to direct participation in decision making process.

1.4 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING AND

COST ACCOUNTING
1. Purpose: The main purpose of Cost Accounting is to analyse, ascertain and control costs
on the other hand the purpose of financial Accounting is to record financial transactions
and prepare financial statements.
2. Decision making: The Cost Accounts are basically designed to facilitate decision making
in the areas of production, purchase, sales etc. but on the other hand financial accounts
are of limited use in decision making.
3. Analysis of Cost and Profit: The Cost Accounting shows the detailed cost and profits
for each product, process, job, contract, etc. on the other way the financial Accounting
shows the overall profit/Loss of the entire organization.
4. Transactions Recorded: In Cost Accounting keep records both external and Internal
transactions. On the other hand in Financial Accounts keep records external transactions
with outsiders.
5. Access: In Financial Accounting anybody can have access to Financial Statements of
Companies. On the other hand in cost accounting the outsiders generally have no access
to cost records.
6. Control: Cost Accounting Control all elements of Costs, but on the other hand financial
Accounting does not exercise adequate control over material, labour and overhead costs.
7. Profit or Loss: Cost Accounting determines the profit loss or each product, process, job
and department whereas Financial Accounting determines the profit or loss of the entire
business.
8. Units: Cost Accounting records both monetary and physical units such as labour hour,
machine hour etc. whereas Financial Accounting records only monetary units in the
books of accounts.
9. Valuation of Closing Stock: Closing Stock is valued at cost price only in Cost Accounting
on the other hand. In Financial Account Closing Stock is valued at cost or market price
whichever is less.
10. Audit: Cost Accounting need not be followed by a system of external audit, whereas
financial Accounting needs a system of independent audit of the financial records by an
external auditor.
11. Tax Assessment: Cost Accounting does not form a basis for tax assessment whereas
financial Accounting forms a basis for determination tax liability of the business.
Accounting 13
12. Parties: Cost Accounting serves the information needs of the management whereas
NOTES
Financial Accounting serves the information needs of owners, creditors, employees and
the society as large.
13. Lack of uniformity: Installing a costing system is purely optional. A concern is free to
empty any method it likes. There are no fixed rules and regulations. Therefore different
cost accounting system may be followed by different firms in the same industry which
makes comparison difficult.

1.5 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING AND

MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING
1. Objective: Financial Accounting aims at recording business transaction systematically to
ascertain profit or loss and financial position at the end of the financial year.
The aims of management Accounting at preparing various statements for material planning,
control and decision making.
2. Time period: In Financial Accounting the accounts are prepared for a particular period.
Whereas in management accounting the reports are prepared from time to time to update
with the changing business environment.
3. Audit: In Financial Accounting under Company law Financial accounts are subject to
compulsory Audit. Whereas in management Accounting audit is optional. However,
management is there is to ensure efficiency and productivity of the employees and system.
4. Principles: Financial Accounting is prepared as per Generally Accepted Accounting principles
(GAP). In Management Accounting No set of standing principle are followed. However,
accounting standards are followed to take managerial decisions more effective.
5. Nature: Financial Accounting is concerned with historical data. It records only those
transactions which have already taken place. Thus the accounts prepared here are like
postmortem report.
The management Accounting is concerned with both historical data and estimated data.
6. Publication: In Financial Accounting, Financial Statements are published annually for
external parties interested in the accounting information.
In management Accounting the statements and reports are not published. They are meant
for internal use of the management.
7. Quickness: In Financial Accounting, reporting is slow and time consuming one has to wait
till the end of the accounting year.
In management accounting, reporting is very quick as it is meant for decision making.
8. Nature of Information: Financial Accounting is concerned with quantitative information
expressed in terms of money. Management Accounting is concerned with both qualitative
and quantitative information.
9. Reporting: In Financial Accounting, Financial reports are prepared not only for the
organization but for others interested in the accounting information of the business.
In management Accounting the reports prepared for internal use only.
10. Legal Comparison: In Financial Accounting, preparation of financial accounts is
compulsory to comply statutory requirements. In Management Accounting. It is not
compulsory, it helps in the administration and smooth functioning.
14 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES
1.6 ROLE OF MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTANT
The management accountant, obtain referred to as controller, is the manager of accounting
information used in planning, control and decision making area. He is responsible for
collecting, processing and reporting information that will help managers decision makers in
their planning, controlling and decision making activities. He participates in all accounting
activities within the organization.
The following are the Roles of Management Accountant:
1. Participating in management process: The management accountant occupies a pivotal
position in the organization. He performs a staff function and also has line authority
over the accountant and other employees in his office. He educates executives on the
need for control information.
2. Maintaining optimum Capital Structure: Management accountant has a major role to play
in raising of funds and their application. He has to decide about maintaining a proper
mix between debt and equity raising of funds through debt is cheaper because of tax
benefits.
3. Investment opportunities: A management accountant can assist either person or a firm
regarding the investment in different ways. He can suggest how, when and where the
investment should be made so that the investor or the firm will earn a maximum return.
4. Financial Investigations: A management accountant can assist the management about the
financial investigations which is extremely desired to determine the financial position
for the interested parties. Relating to issue of shares, amalgamation or mergers, or
reconstructions etc to ascertain the reason of decreasing profit or increasing costs, it so
happened.
5. Long-term and Short –term planning: Management accountant plays an important role in
forecasting future business and economic events for making future plans i.e., long-term
plans, strategic management accounting, formulating corporate strategy, market study
etc.
6. Participating in management process: The management accountant occupies a pivotal
position in the organisation. He performs a staff function and also has line over the
accountant and other employees in his office. He educates executes on the need for
control information and on the ways of using it. He shifts relevant information from
the irrelevant and reports the same in a clear from to the management and sometime to
interested external parties.
7. Decision making; Management accountant provides necessary information to management in
taking short-term decision, e.g. optimum product mix, make or buy, lease or buy, pricing
of product discontinuing a product etc and long-term decisions, e.g., capital budgeting.
Investment appraisal, project financing. However, the job of management accountant is
limited to provision of required information in a comprehensive as well as reliable form
to the management for decision making purposes.
8. Control: The management accountant analysis accounts and prepares reports, e.g., standard
costs, budgets, variance analysis and interpretation, cash and funds flow analysis,
management of liquidity, performance evaluation and responsibility accounting etc. for
control.
9. Developing management information System: The routine reports as well as reports for
long-term decision making are forwarded to managerial personnel at all levels to take
connective action at the right time and also uses these reports for taking important
decisions.
Accounting 15
10. Stewardship Accounting: Management accountant designs the framework of cost and
NOTES
financial accounts and prepares reports for routine financial and operational decision
making.
11. Corporate planning: He can assist management for long-term planning and advise
management regarding amalgamation or mergers or reconstructions, including financial
planning to see whether effective utilization of resources is made or not. Thus the role
of management accountants cannot be ignored. Its such, there services are primarily
desired for the efficient management of an undertaking.

1.7 BASIC COST TERMS AND CONCEPTS

1.7.1 Need for Accounting

Accounting is the Language of business. The oldest branch of accounting is the financial
Accounting, which is concerned with recording day-to-day transactions of business and helps
in preparation of financial statements like profit and loss Account and Balance Sheet. But it
does not provide detailed information about costs of various products processes, services and
operations which is very important for planning and controlling business activities. Due to
this limitation of financial Accounting a separate branch of accounting has been developed
which is known as cost Accounting.
Before beginning the study of Cost Accounting one must be clean in mind that he is going
to read a subject which is immensely useful in all business activities if we analysis business
activities we find mainly two aspects: Firstly the cost involved in it and secondly, the benefits
obtained at of it. This analysis of costs and benefits is very important in all economic activities.
Cost Accounting involves a study of those principles, methods and techniques which help us
in ascertaining, analyzing and controlling Costs.
Meaning of Cost accounting
Cost Accounting is the process of Accounting for costs. It begins with the recording if income
and expenditure and ends with the preparation of periodical statements for ascertaining and
controlling costs.
Definition of Cost Accounting
ICMA London defined Cost Accounting as “The process of accounting for cost from the point
at which expenditure is incurred or committed to the establishment of its ultimate relationship
with cost centres and cost units. In its widest usage, it embraces the preparation of statistics
data, the application of Cost Control methods and the ascertainment of the profitability of
activities carried out or planned.”
Objectives of Cost Accounting
The important objectives of Cost Accounting are as follows:
(a) Ascertainment of cost: one of the important objectives of cost accounting is the
ascertainment of cost at different stages of production. The Cost incurred for each
department and activities are to be calculated. The standard cost for all types of costs
are also to be calculated in order to compare the actual cost with the standard cost.
(b) Internal Audit system: The objective of cost Accounting is to develop internal audit
system which may help in effective working of different departments of the organization.
(c) To classify Cost: Cost accounting classified total cost into different ways i.e., by element
by functions, as direct or indirect, by variability, by normality, by controllability etc.
16 Cost and Management Accounting
(d) To control Cost: Cost Accounting aims at controlling costs by using various techniques
NOTES
such as Budgetary Control, Standard Costing, inventory control etc.
(e) To provide information for Decision making: Cost accounting aims at providing
information for various managerial decisions like, whether to make or buy a component,
whether to retain or replace an existing machine, whether to process further or not etc.
(f) To determine profit: Cost Accounting aims at ascertaining the costing profit or loss of
any activity on an objective basis by matching cost with the revenue of that activity.
(g) To Determine Selling Price: Cost Accounting provides cost information to determine
the selling price of products or services. During the period of depression, it guides the
management to decide. How much reduction in selling price may be made to meet the
situation.
(h) To provides preparation of Cost: Statements- Cost Accounting prepares Cost Statements
as and when required by the management for review of costs and to plan future activities.
(i) To evaluates the efficiency: Cost Accounting evaluates the relative efficiency of different
departments, products, branches and plants so that necessary steps can be taken to
improve their efficiency.
(j) To give causes of wastage: Cost Accounting analysis and identifies the causes of wastage
and helps to take necessary steps to check the wastage.
(k) Minimum capital Stocks: Cost Accounting through various techniques like various
levels of stock, analysis of slow moving material, continues stock taking can decide
the objective to minimize the investment of capital in stocks of raw material, work-in-
progress or finished goods.
(l) Comparison: Cost Accounting helps in making comparisons of Cost or of profits one firm
with other firm operating in the same industry. For the inter-firm comparison there should
be the application of uniform costing system within that industry.
(m) Report to the management: Cost Accounting reports to the management all information
relating to costs and helps management to take decisions.
Installation of Costing System
A cost accountant will encounter the following practical difficulties at the time of
installation of cost accounting system:
(i) Lack of trained staff: This was no doubt a problem in olden days. Today this
problem is overcome thinks to the establishment of the institute of cost and works
Accountant of India in our country which offers professional course in costing and
also offers training facilities through various companies to the candidates undergoing
the course.
(ii) Lack of support from management: wherever costing system is installed it is essential
to seek the support of various departmental managers. Very often the managers
show hostile attitude towards the costing system. They feel that this system will
interfere in their routine work and probably as a means of checking their efficiency
under such circumstances it is better to convince them about the utility of costing
system for the business as a whole.
(iii) Resistance by existing accounting staff: Very often the existing accounting staff
resist the installation of the cost accounting system on two grounds. Firstly they
feel that the new system of accounting might lead to excess work. Secondly, they
are trained of their job security. But this difficulty may be overcome by encouraging
them about the usefulness of cost accounting as a supplement to financial accounts
Accounting 17
and the generation of more employment opportunities from the installation of cost
NOTES
accounting system.
(iv) Non-Cooperation from middle and bottom level management: At times the middle
and bottom level managers such as foremen, supervisors and inspectors also fail
to extend their whole hearted cooperation fearing additional work which may be
entrusted to them. This problem may be overcome by suggesting them about the
simplicity of the system and the existence of a separate cost accounting department
to look after costing matters.
(v) Heavy expenses in installing and maintaining the system: The setting up of
a separate costing department with staff often poses a problem. In addition to
installation, the operating expenses in the form of printing and stationery, heating
and lighting, depreciation and insurance, rent and rates are to be incurred. However
as was mentioned earlier the system of cost accounting must be a useful investment
i.e., benefits derived from it must be more than the investment mode on it.

STEP TO OVERCOME PRACTICAL DIFFICULTIES

To overcome the above difficulties, following steps are suggested:
1. Support from the top management: Before the installation or operation of a costing
system, there must be firm commitment to the system on the part of the top management.
This will create cost consciousness and interest in cost improvement among technical,
production and top management.
2. Utility of system to existing staff: The existing accounting staff should be impressed about
the need to supplement the existing financial accounting system. It will broaden the job
of an accountant and will create new opportunities for the accounting staff.
3. Worker’s confidence for cooperation: The various employees must be properly educated
regarding the benefits which can be obtained from such a system. Worker’s confidence
should be gained in the system to get their co-operation before steps are taken to put
the system in practice.
4. Training of existing accounting staff: The existing staff working in the accounts
department must be properly trained in costing methods and techniques with the help
of the Institute of cost and works Accountants of India Calcutta.
5. Cost System according to specific requirements of the concern: The system should be
installed and operated according to the requirements if a specific case, so that it may
not entail heavy cost on the concern. It should avoid additional unnecessary work as
far as possible. The system when installed and operated will provide many benefits of
the concern as compared to the cost and improve beneficial to the concern.
6. Proper supervision: There should be proper supervision after installation and continuous
efforts on the part of the cost accountant to make the system successful and to achieve
the desired goal of cost ascertainment, cost presentation and cost control.

Methods of Costing
The various methods of costing are as follows:
1. Job Costing: This method where costs are collected and accumulated for each job separately.
This is done because each job requires different mark and has separate identity and
therefore it becomes essential to analyze and segregate costs according to each job
separately.
18 Cost and Management Accounting
2. Costing: Contract costing is a variant of job costing. The method of contract costing is
NOTES
applied where the job is big and of longer duration. Each contract is treated as a separate
unit for the purpose of cost ascertainment and cost control, separate accounts are kept
for each contract and all direct and indirect costs relating to the contract are collected.
3. Batch Costing: Under this method, factories which have to produce a large number of parts
in order to make a product undertake the production of each part in batches. Products
are arranged in convenient batches and each batch is treated as one job and cost is
calculated accordingly.
4. Process Costing: It is a method where costs are collected and accumulated according
to department or processes and cost of each department or process is divided by the
quantity of production to arrive at cost per unit. This method is useful in industries such
as paper, soap, textiles etc.
5. Operation Costing: This is a more refinement and more detailed application of process
costing. This involves costing by every operation instead of a process. Many operations
are necessary to make an article. This method has greater accuracy and control.
6. Single Costing: This method is applied where production is uniform and consists of only
a single product or two or three types of similar products with variation only in size,
shape or quality. The information is presented in the form of a statement known as cost
sheet.
7. Operating Costing: Where a business does not produce tangible goods but renders some
service, the system of costing would be known as operating costing. This is used to
determine the costs of services rendered by airways, roadways, rail ways, hospitals etc.
8. Multiple Costing: This method is followed where the final product consists of a number
of separate parts, e.g. radio set, motor car, bicycle etc. The cost of each part has to be
ascertained and then the cost of assembling the parts will be tabulated. The cost of the
final product will consists of the cost all the parts plus the cost of assembling them.
9. Uniform Costing: Where a number of firms in an industry agree to use the same costing
principles, it is known as uniform costing. This method attempts to establish uniform
costing method so that comparison of performance in various undertaking can be made
to the common advantage of all the participating units.

1.7.2 Development of Accounting

Accounting is as old as money itself. However, the act of accounting was not as developed
as it is today because in the early stages of civilisation, the number of transactions to be
recorded was so small that each businessman was able to record and check for himself all his
transactions. Accounting was practiced in India twenty-three centuries ago as is clear from the
book named “Arthashastra” written by Kautilya, king Chandragupta’s minister. This book not
only relates to politics and economics but also explains the art of proper keeping up Accounts
in the office of Accountants’ describes records of accounts to be maintained in accountant’s
office and methods of checking accounts. However the modern system of Accounting based
on the principles if double Entry system owes its origin to Luco pacioli who first published
the principles of double Entry System in 1994 at Venice in Italy. Thus the art of accounting
has been practiced for centuries but it is only in the late thirties of 20th century that the study
of the subject’ Accounting has been taken up seriously.
In the recent years large scale production, cut throat competition, widening of the market
and changes in the technology have brought remarkable changes in the field of accounting.
In the words of Gordon and Gordon shilling law. It has come to be recognized as a tool for
Accounting 19
mastering the various economic problems which a business organization may have to face. It
NOTES
systematically writes the economic history of the organization. It provides information that
can be drawn upon by those responsible for decisions affecting the organisation’s future.
This history is written mostly in quantitative terms. It Consists partly of files of data, partly
of reports summarizing various portions of these data and partly of the plan established by
management to guide its operations.

1.7.3 Definition and Functions of Accounting

Meaning of Accounting
Every person be he a salaried employee or a businessman, is involved in an economic activity.
As the economic activity occurs, the person enters into various transactions and events. To
derive the results of the economic activity be has to record such transactions and events and
then determine its results. The process of recording transactions and events of a business
in a useful manner so as to determine and analyse the financial performance and financial
position is called accounting.
Definition of Accounting
A committee of the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants has defined Accounting
as follows:
“Accounting is the art of recording, classifying and summarizing in a significant manner and
in terms of money, transactions and events which are in part at least of a financial character
and interpreting the results thereof.”
According to R.N. Anthony “Nearly every business enterprise has accounting system. It is
a means of Collecting summarising analyzing and reporting in monetary terms information
about business.”
According to Smith and Ashburn “Accounting is the science of recording and classifying business
transactions and events, primarily of a financial character and the art of making significant
summaries, analysis and interpretation of these transactions and events and communicating
the results to persons who must take decisions or from judgments.”
Functions of Accounting
Above definition of accounting explains the main functions of Accounting. These can be
summarized as under:
1. Recording: Accounting involves recording of financial transactions in a systematic manner,
such recording is done through journal or subsidiary books. In it accounting transactions
are recorded through supporting vouchers such as purchase bills, payment vouchers,
Deposit slips etc.
2. Classification: second step in accounting is to put information regarding one type of
transactions at one place. This is done by way of posting in the ledger. In it one finds
different accounts relating to expenses classified us salary, Advertisement. Thus all
expenses which are recorded in journal are classified under different account heads in
ledger.
3. Summarising: All the transactions recorded in journal and posted in the ledger are
summarized in such a manner that these are useful for the user of accounts. This is
done by preparing Trial Balance and final accounts.
4. In terms of Money: Accounting records transactions in terms of money. Money represents
the currency of the country where accounts are maintained money gives a common basis
if measurement.
20 Cost and Management Accounting
5. Transactions and Events: In business, both transactions and events are recorded. If
NOTES
business is involved with outsiders, it is a transaction such as buying and selling of
goods, taking a loan, paying salary, rent etc. There are a number of happenings that do
not concern outsiders, these are called “Events” such as loss due to fire, depreciation
of assets etc. Both transactions and events are recorded in accounts.
6. Financial Character: The transaction or event to be recorded should have monetary value.
If it cannot be measured in terms of money it will not be recorded in accounts. Thus,
through the salary given to employee will be recorded, but how honestly and efficiently
employee has worked will not be recorded.
7. Communication and Interpretation of results: Accounting also involves communication
and interpretation of the results of the business. Communication implies reporting to the
end users. The accounting information in desired form so as to enable them to understand
the historical information e.g. preparation of profit and loss Account to understand
the results, Balance Sheet to understand the financial position. Interpretation involves
meaningful comparison which simplifies understanding of financial reports.

1.7.4 Book keeping and Accounting

Book keeping is defined as a process of recording business events in a systematic manner. It
involves recording of transactions. It refers to the record making stage of accounting. This
stage of accounting is mechanical and repetitive. However, maintenance of proper records help
a business organization to know its health and performance. Accounting on the other hand,
includes not only the maintenance of accounting records but also preparation of summary
statements, their analysis and interpretation. Thus book-keeping is only a small and simple
part it accounting.
But the term accounting is used in a broader sense Covering all the accounting activities
including preparation of final statements and their reporting to interested parties. Thus book-
keeping is an aspect of the accounting process. It is a sub-field of accounting.

1.7.5 Is Accounting a science or an Art?

Accounting is a science as well as an art because it contains the ingredients of both science
and art.
Science is a systematic body of knowledge consisting a number of principles, methods and
techniques which have universal applications. Likewise, accounting has certain principles
and rules that are followed all over the world. For example, recording of transaction at
cost is universally followed. However, accounting is not an exact science like physics and
chemistry where cause and effect relationship is established. In accounting the cause and
effect relationship is not studied. Thus to conclude accounting is a science but not an exact
science. It is a social science.
On the other hand Art refers to the application of knowledge to achieve the desired objectives.
Knowing the principles and rules is not enough. These rules should be applied intelligently
to solve the real life problems. Rigorous practice is necessary to achieve a desired skill. For
example, the more a dancer practices the more perfect he will be. Similarly the accountant
must apply the principles of accounting again and again to gain efficiency. Application of
accounting knowledge is of vital importance to prepare records and summary statements.
Therefore accounting is also an art.
Accounting 21

1.7.6 Accounting and others Disciplines NOTES

In order to appreciate fully the role of accounting in modern society, it is essential to consider
the environment in which accounting functions. Accounting is related closely to economics
and statistics. It is often greatly influenced by law and by government action, accounting is
often considered to be mathematical at least arithmetical.
But economics and statistics touch fundamental nature of accounting. For the subject matter,
accounting is inescapably economic and its basic methodology is unquestionably statistical
in character.

1. Accounting and Statistics

Accounting method is statistical in character because its central mechanism consists of accounts,
and accounts are classification categories used for compressing and simplifying amass of
enterprise transactions. The chief function of statistical method is to classify, compress and
simplify masses of data so that their significance may setter be understood. Accounting has
the same functions.
Accounting has some statistical peculiarities of its own. Every ledger account is a dual category.
Items on the debit are of one class, items on the credit are of an opposite class, yet both
are related to the single class of data indicated by the account name. Internal transactions
reallocate expenses and revenues among fiscal periods. Accounting is the connecting link, it
ties the mass of activity data to the need for understanding activities. Accounting is a service
that records, classifies, compresses, simplifies a mass of detail into a few understandable
related totals and sub-totals.

2. Accounting and Economics

From the definition of accounting quoted earlier it can be seen that the setting in which
accounting serves, is an economic one because accounting is concerned with business
transactions. Accounting is oriented most closely to economics.
It is an economic purpose of accounting to produce data helpful to business management
and investors. Accounting contributes factual materials to the formation of business policies.
Expenses and revenues result from buying policies, spanding policies, pricing policies, selling
policies, employment policies. The result of accounting, therefore can be clues to good and
bad policies. According to Wheeler the mutuality of interests of the two fields is so great that
it is often difficult to fall where accounting leaves off and economics begin.

3. Accounting and law

According to Kester the influence of law on accounting “In as much as business must be
carried on within the provisions of the law, principles or rules of law have exerted a powerful
influence on the principles of accounting, they may well be said to have established. Some
of the principles of accounting, obviously, accounting principles and rules dare run counter
to established legal principles.
All economic activities of a business are effected by governing laws, e.g. all transactions
of purchase and sale are effected by contract act, transactions of Bills of exchange and
Banking transactions are effected by negotiable instrument Act. Entry sometimes is itself
created/governed by laws, e.g. partnerships are governed by partnership Act, Companies by
Companies Act, Banking Companies by Banking Regulation Act etc. governing laws provide
strict compliance with stated provisions relating to book keeping, accounting and except the
reporting be done in laid-down manner.
22 Cost and Management Accounting
However in current scenario the accounting is not just effecting law. But laws are also been
NOTES
effected by accounting.

4. Accounting and Management

Obviously the environment of accounting is one of business while accounting provides useful
services to individual and fraternal, religious, government, and educational organizations,
its principal service deals with the business enterprise. Kester has stated that accounting is
primarily and basically a service tool of management.
The growth and development of accounting is closely parallel to that of business enterprise.
With the growth of the large corporation come a corresponding growth of accounting services.
Consequently the recognition of the public aspects of corporate administration brought a
realization that accounting responsibilities transcend service to the owners and the management
of corporations. Today accounting while serving the business enterprise, serves society.

5. Accounting and Mathematics

Double entry book-keeping is based on an algebraic equation, i.e. liabilities + capital = asset.
Arithmetical and algebraic calculations are required for making accounting computations.
Therefore knowledge of arithmetic and algebra is necessary for accounting proficiency.
Examples are calculation of interest, lease rent, depreciation creation of sinking fund etc.
with the increasing use of computer accounting, knowledge of mathematics has been more
essential. Further, statistical models are used for constructing various accounting models for
the use of management.

1.7.7 End-users of Accounting Information

Accounting information is used by various persons. In addition to proprietors, such information
is used by creditors, Government, financial institutions and others.
1. Proprietor: Proprietor is the main user of accounting, through accounts he ascertains
operating result of his business. Further he knows his financial position. He uses accounting
information to know amounts due to others and due from others.
2. Management: In large business organization, ownership and management are separate
functions management has to plan, control and execute. Accounting information is used
for fulfilling various management functions. Accounting data is useful in decision making
at various stages.
3. Suppliers of Goods and Services: Persons who supply goods and services to business on
credit are interested in knowing liquidity position of the business. They have to ensure
repayment capacity of the business. They use accounting information for this purpose.
4. Banks and Financial Institutions: Banks and other financial Institutions who provide loan
to the business are interested to know credit worthiness of the business. At the time of
granting loan they are keen to know past performance of the firm, study profit and loss
Account and Balance Sheet of the firm of previous years to know capacity of the firm
to repay interest and principal amount.
5. Prospective Investors: Persons who are interested to make investments in some Company,
may study annual reports of the Company before making final decision of investments.
They may select the company in which investment is to be made by comparing past
performance of these companies.
Accounting 23
6. Government: Government uses accounting information for levying various taxes. In the
NOTES
absence of accounting data it is difficult to assess proper tax.
7. Customers: Customers who place orders and are dependent on a specific business organization
for their supplies have to ensure the capability of the firm to execute the orders. This
can be done by studying accounts of that business organisation.
8. Employees: Employees use accounting information for various purposes. They can assess
their salary increase and bonus by studying profitability of the business. If business is
constantly incurring Losses, they may decide to leave the organization and if business
is constantly earning they may be more settled and expect carrier promotion in some
enterprise.
9. Regulatory Agencies: Various regulatory agencies such as ROC, REI, IRDA, SEBI, require
information to be filed with them under law. By examining these accounting information
they ensure that concerned companies are following the rules and regulations.
10. Courts: In case of disputs regarding indebtedness insolvency etc. Courts use accounting
information and other related data as evidence.
11. Researchers and statisticians: Research scholars who undertake research on any aspect of
business activity, may use accounting information for the purpose of analysis. Accounting
reports of various companies and of various years may be compared for this purpose.

1.8 RELEVANT COST

A cost may be said to be relevant, if it influences the decisions of the management. It is
influenced by the decision to be taken or the decision under the consideration of management. It
is a cost whose magnitude will be affected by a decisions being made. While taking decisions,
the management should consider only future costs and revenues that will differs under each
alternative. Management is concerned with things it can fetch.
The following are the two main characteristics of relevant costs.
(i) Different Alternatives: Relevant cost differ in amount among two alternatives. In case
some alternatives do not differ among themselves, they are not considered relevant. So
only those costs that differ among decision alternatives are relevant to a decision.
(ii) Expected Future Costs: Relevant costs are future costs as they are expected to occur
during the period covered by the decision. Decisions are must based on the future
expectations of cost and revenue. Selection of one alternative over another does not affect
the past cash flows. Expected future costs are predicted from the available historical
cost data. Historical cost may be irrelevant for decisions making as they represent the
cost that have already been incurred.

1.9 STATEMENT OF COST

1.9.1 Meaning of Cost Sheet

A Cost Sheet is a statement showing various components of total cost of output of a particular
product or service produced during a particular period. It may be prepared on actual basis
or estimated basis.
24 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES
1.9.2 Importance of Cost sheet
The following are the advantages:
1. It discloses the cost per unit as well as total cost of output.
2. It discloses the various elements of cost which to make up total cost.
3. By fixing selling price in advance it facilitates preparation of tender price.
4. It facilitates comparison of total cost with previous year’s cost and standard cost and thereby
help management in locating inefficiency in production.
5. It facilitates calculation of sales price when profit is taken as a fixed percentage on cost.
6. It helps an undertaking to submit quotation for an order with reasonable degree of accuracy.
7. It guides the management in formulating proper production policy.
8. Cost reduction can be made by analyzing and calculating the percentage of different
overheads on total cost.
Proforma of Cost Sheet
Cost Sheet for the period ………………..

Total Cost ` Cost per Unit (`)

Direct Material xxx
Add: Direct labour xxx
Add: Direct Expenses xxx
Prime Cost xxx
Add: Factory overheads
Factory Rent xxx
Foreman salary and wages xxx
Drawing office salary xxx
Consumables stores xxx
Wages of watchman xxx
Motive power xxx
Factory Cost xxx
Add: Administrative overhead
Office Rent xxx
Depreciation office building xxx
Manager or director salary xxx
Counting house salary xxx
Audit fees xxx
Cost of production xxx
Add: Selling and distribution overhead
Sales office expenses xxx
Sales man salary xxx
Showroom expenses xxx
Advertisement charges xxx
Warehouse Rent xxx
Delivery van expenses xxx
Rent of godown xxx
Accounting 25

Cost of sales xxx NOTES

Total cost xxx
Profit/Loss xxx
Sales xxx

Illustration 1.8
Prepare a cost sheet form the following data relating to A ltd for the year ending 31.3.2015.
`
Raw material purchased 35,000
Direct wages 32,000
Factory wages 8,000
Power, fuel and haulage 12,000
Carriage inward 2,700
Carriage outward 3,000
Drawing expenses 2,200
Printing and stationery 3,300
Factory manager salary 6,000
Office manager salary 6,400
Factory Rent 1,600
Warehouse expenses 4,200
Office rent and taxes 3,800
Traveler’s salary 5,200
Depreciation on plant 2,500
Income tax 3,200
Advertisement 6,200
Donation 11,000

Profit 20% on cost of Sales.

Solution:
Cost Sheet
For the year ending 31.3.2015

Details (`) Total (`)

Raw material purchased 35,000
Add: Carriage inward 2,700
37,700
Add: Direct wages 32,000
Add: Direct Expenses Prime Cost 69,700
26 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES Add: Factory overheads

Factory wages 8,000
Power, fuel and haulage 12,000
Draining expenses 2,200
Factory manager’s salary 6,000
Factory Rent 1,600
Depreciation on plant 2,500 32,300
Factory Cost 1,02,000
Add: Administration overheads
Printing and stationery 3,300
Office manager salary 6,400
Office Rent and taxes 3,800 13,500
Cost of Production 1,15,500
Add: Selling and distribution overhead
Carriage outward 3,000
Warehouse expenses 4,200
Traveler’s Salary 5,200
Advertisement 6,200 18,600
Total Cost or Profit 1,34,100

 20  26,820
 × 34,100 
 100 
Sales 1,60,920

Specimen of Cost Sheet with stock Treatment

Cost Sheet of __________
For the year ___________

Total Cost ` Cost per Unit (`)

Opening stock of Raw material xxx
Add: Purchase of raw material xxx
Less: Closing stock of raw material xxx
Value of raw material consumed xxx
Add: Direct Labour xxx
Add: Direct Expenses xxx
Prime cost xxx
Add: Factory overhead xxx
Add: Opening work-in-progress xxx
Less: Closing work-in-progress xxx
Factory Cost xxx
Add: Administrative overhead xxx
Add: Opening stock of finished goods xxx
Less: Closing stock of finished goods xxx
Accounting 27

Cost of production xxx NOTES

Add: Selling and distribution overhead xxx
Total Cost or Cost of Sales xxx
Profit/Loss xxx
Sales xxx
Illustration 1.9
`
Opening Stock of Raw material 18,000
Closing Stock of Raw material 20,000
Opening work-in-progress 12,000
Closing work-in-progress 10, 000
Opening stock of Finished goods 25, 000
Closing Stock of finished goods 16,000
Purchase of Raw materials 1,35,000
Productive wages 70,000
Factory overhead 50,000
Administrative overhead 36,000
Selling and distribution overhead 46,000

If profit is 25% on cost find profit with cost sheet.

Solution:
Cost Sheet

Total Cost `
Opening stock of Raw material 18,000
Add: Purchase of raw material 1,35,000
1,53,000
Less: Closing stock of raw material 20,000
1,33,000
Value of raw material consumed
Add: Direct Labour/productive wages 0,000
Prime cost 2,03,000
Add: Factory overhead 50,000
Add: Opening work-in-progress 12,000
62,000
Less: Closing work-in-progress 10,500
51,500
Factory Cost 2,54,000
Add: Administrative overhead 36,000
Add: Opening stock of finished goods 25,000
61,000
Less: Closing stock of finished goods 16,000
28 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES 45,000
Cost of production 2,99,500
Add: Selling and distribution overhead 46,000
Total Cost 3,45,500
Profit/(1/4×3,45,500) 86,375
Sales 4,31,875
Illustration 1.10
From the following data you are required to prepare the Statement of profit under marginal
costing system
Production units 10,000
Sales units 8,000
Raw material consumed (`) 50,000
Direct wages (`) 30, 000
Factory Overheads:
Variable overheads (`) 20,000
Fixed overheads (`) 20,000
Selling price (`) 15

Solution:
Profitability Statement under marginal Costing

Particulars `
Raw material consumed 50,000
Add: Direct wages 30,000
Add: Variable Factory overheads 20,000
Total variable Cost 1,00,000
Less: Value of closing stock (1,00,00/10,000 × 2,000) 20,000
Variable cost of goods Sold 80,000
Sales (8,000×15) 1.20,000
Contribution 40,000
Less: Fixed overheads 20,000
Profit 20,000

1.10 SUMMARY
 The make or buy decision is made to determine the alternatives which is most desirable.
 Differential Cost Analysis is also used when a business is confronted with the possibility
of a Temporary shutdown.
 A key factor is one which generally limits the profit, output or sales.
 Book-keeping as a process of recording business events in a systematic manner.
 Contract costing is a variant of job costing.
Accounting 29

1.11 KEY TERMS NOTES

 Buy decision: the make or buy decision is made to determine the alternative which is most
desirable.
 Cost sheet: A cost sheet is a statement showing various components of total cost of output
of a particular product or service produced during a particular period.
 Multiple costing: This method is followed where the final product consists of a number
of separate parts.
 Single Costing: This method is applied where production is uniform and consists of only
a single product.
 Process Costing: It is a method where costs are collected and accumulated according to
department or process.
 Cost Accounting: Cost Accounting is the process of accounting for costs.
 Financial Accounting: Financial Accounting aims at recording business transaction
systematically to ascertain profit or loss and financial position of the business.
 Management Accounting: Management Accounting is provide information to the management
for decision making.

1.12 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

1. Explain the meaning of ‘relevant costs’. What are the characteristics of such costs?
2. Explain the steps that are to be taken for rational decision-making.
3. What factors would you take into consideration in closing or suspending the business
activity?
4. A company has to decide whether to ‘Make or Buy’. Through differential cost analysis,
how you will ascertain the net difference between the two alternatives so as to assist
the management in their decision-making? Use hypothetical figures to illustrate.
5. ‘The role of managerial accountant in deciding among alternative courses of action is
crucial’. Examine this statement with special reference to special order acceptance.
6 Cost benefit analysis is needed for resolving many managerial problems. List the various
items of cost and benefit that will quantify in respect of managerial decisions concerning
(a) Change versus status quo. (b) Retain or replace, (c) Shut down or continue.
7. Define (i) Differential cost, and (ii) Marginal cost.
8. Briefly explain the relevant considerations involved in respect of:
(a) Make or Buy;
(b) Temporary closure of a business or part of a business;
(c) Choosing a channel of distribution for a product.
9. Define the following terms:
(i) Relevant cost, (ii) Differential cost, (iii) Opportunity cost, (iv) Sunk cost.
10. What are relevant costs? Identify two common pitfalls in relevant cost analysis?
11. It is said that the sales at a price less than the total cost sometimes fetch benefit to a
business house. State the circumstances in which this is justified.
30 Cost and Management Accounting
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS
NOTES
Decision Regarding Sales Mix
1. Present the following information to show to the management (a) the marginal product
cost and the contribution per unit; (b) the contribution and profit resulting from each of
the following sales mixtures :
Product Per unit

Direct Materials P 10.00
Q 9.00
Direct Wages P 3.00
Q 3.00
Fixed Expenses : P 800
Q 2.0
(Variable expenses are allocated to products as 100% of direct wages)
Sales Price P 20.00
Q 15.00
Sales Mix:
(i) 1,000 units of product P and 2,000 units of Q.
(ii) 1,500 units of product P and 1,500 units of Q.
(iii) 2,000 units of product P and 1,000 units of Q.
Recommend which of the sales mix should be adopted.
[Ans. Profit: (i) 7,200, (ii) 8,200, (iii) 9,200, Mix: (iii) is recommended.]
2. From the following data you are required to present to the management:
(i) The marginal cost of product A and B and the contribution per unit.
(ii) The total contribution and profit resulting from each of the suggested sales mix.

Direct Materials per unit ` Direct Wages: per unit `

Product A 10.50 Product A 3.00
Product B 8.50 Product B 2.00
Fixed Expenses (Total) 800 Selling price:
Variable Expense Product A 20.50
100% of direct wages per product Product B
Suggested Sales Mix No. of units
Product A Product B
(a) 100 200
(b) 150 150
(c) 200 100

[Ans. Profit: (a) Nil, (b) ` 100, (c) ` 200; Mixture: (c) is recommended]
Accounting 31
Exploring New Markets NOTES
3. Due to industrial depression, a plant is running, at present, at 50% of its capacity. The
following details are available :
Cost of Production per unit
Direct Material 2
Direct Labour 1
Variable Overhead 3
Fixed Overhead 2
Total
8
Production per month 20,000 units
Total Cost of Production 1,60,000
Sale Price 1,40,000
Loss 20,000

An exporter offers to buy 5,000 units per month at the rate of ` 6.50 per unit and the company
hesitates to accept the offer for fear of increasing its already large operating losses.
Advise whether the company should accept or decline this offer.
[Ans. The company should accept the offer since the amount of loss
will stand reduced from ` 20,000 to ` 17,500.]
4. The ‘PQR’ company manufactures a product which costs:
Fixed (per month) ` 1,000
Variable (per unit) 10 paise.
Sales are at present 10,000 units per month at 30 paise per unit.
(a) A proposal to extend the sale to a foreign market has come where demand for an
additional 5,000 units per month is expected. However, in order to do this it will be
necessary to absorb additional shipping cost and duties amounting to 12 paise per unit.
Will the foreign business be profitable?
(b) A domestic chain store has offered to take 5,000 units per month at 18 paise unit. Should
this order be accepted in place of the foreign order?
(c) The sales department proposes to reduce the selling price of the product to increase
sales. The following estimates of sales volume at various prices are made:
(i) 30 paise per unit (present price) 10,000 units per month
(ii) 25 paise per unit 14,000 units per month
(iii) 20 paise per unit 19,000 units per month
Assuming that the above estimates are correct, should you reduce the price? If so, to what level?
[Ans. (a) Additional Profit ` 400.
(b) (i) Total Profit ` 1,000; (ii) Total Profit `1,100; (iii) Total Profit ` 900.
Thus, ignoring the question of additional sale abroad or to domestic chain store, sale of
14,000 units gives the best results. It may be advisable to accept the order of 5,000 units
from abroad, besides selling 14,000 units at ` 0.25 per unit, presuming availability.]
32 Cost and Management Accounting
Discontinuance of a product line
NOTES
5. A company which sells four products, some of them unprofitable, proposes discontinuing
the sale of one of them. The following information is available regarding income,
costs and activity for the year ended 31st March, 1999:
Products
P Q R S
Sales ` 3,00,000 5,00,000 2,50,000 4,50,000
Cost of sales at
purchase price ` 2,00,000 4,50,000 2,10,000 2,25,000
Area of storage (sq. ft) 50,000 40,000 80,000 30,000
Number of parcels sent 1,00,000 1,50,000 75,000 1,75,000
Number of invoices sent 80,000 1,40,000 60.000 1,20,000

Its overhead cost and basis of allocation are:

Basis of allocation to products
Fixed Costs:
Rent and Insurance 30,000 Sq.ft.Occupied
Depreciation 10,000 Parcels Sent

Salemen’s Salaries and Expenses 60,000 Sales Volume

Administration Wages and Salaries 50,000 No. of Invoices
Variable Costs:
Packing Wages and Materials 20 paise per Parcel
Commission 4% of Sales
Stationery 10 paise per Invoice
You are required to:
(a) Prepare Profit and Loss Statement, showing the percentage of profit or loss to sales for
each product.
(b) Compare the profit if the company discontinues sale of product ‘Q’ with the profit if it
discontinues product ‘R’.
[Ans. (a) P; Profit 9.5% Q : Loss 12.1% R; Loss 8.8%; S: Profit 26.4% (b) Total Profit if
‘Q’ is discontinued ` 79,000, Total Profit if ‘R’ is discontinued ` 56,000.]
6. A Limited manufactures three different products and the following information has been
collected from the books of account:
Products
P Q R
Sales Mix 35% 35% 30%
Selling Price 30 40 20
Variable Cost 15 20 12
Total Fixed Costs 1,80,000
Total Sales 6,00,000
Accounting 33
The company has currently under discussion a proposal to discontinue the manufacture of
NOTES
product R and replace it with product M, when the following results are anticipated:

Products
P Q R
Sales Mix 50% 25% 25%
Selling Price ` 30 40 30
Variable Cost ` 15 20 15
Total Fixed Costs ` 1,80,000
Total Sales ` 6,40,000
Will you advise the company to change over to production of M. Give reason for your answer.
[Ans. Present Profit 1,02,000; Present BEP ` 3,83,000; Profit under proposed situation `1,40,000;
BEP ` 3,60,000. The Proposal to replace the Product R with Product M May be accepted.]
Make or Buy
7. A audio manufacturing company finds that while it costs ` 6.25 each to make component
P 273 Q, the same is available in the market at ` 5.75 each, with an assurance of
continued supply. The breakdown of costs is :
Materials ` 2.75 each
Labour ` 1.75 each
Other variable costs ` 0.50 each
Depreciation and other fixed cost ` 1.25 each
(a) Should you make or buy? ` 6.25 each
(b) What would be your decision if the supplier offered the component at ` 4.85 each?
[Ans. (a) Variable cost ` 5, hence not profitable to buy. (b) There is a saving of 15 p.
per component, the offer may be accepted.]
8. Auto Parts Ltd. has an annual production of 90,000 units for a motor component. The
component’s cost structure is as given

per unit
Materials 270
Labour (25% fixed) 180
Expenses :
Variable 90
Fixed 135
Total 675

(a) The Purchase Manager has an offer from a supplier who is willing to supply the
component at ` 540. Should the component be purchased and production stopped?
(b) Assume the resources now used for this component’s manufacture are to be used
to produce another new product for which the selling price is ` 485.
In the latter case material price will be ` 200 per unit. 90,000 units of this product
can be produced, at the same cost basis as above for labour and expenses. Discuss
34 Cost and Management Accounting
whether it would be advisable to divert the resources to manufacture that new
NOTES
product, on the footing that the component presently being produced would, instead
of being produced, be purchased from the market.
[Ans. (a) Variable Cost per unit: ` 495, Purchases Price ` 540. It is beneficial to continue
the production of the component. (b) Contribution per unit of the new product; ` 60
(i.e., ` 485 − ` 425). Additional cost of purchasing component per unit; ` 45 (i.e. 540-495).
There is a net saving of ` 15. It is beneficial to buy the component.]
Change versus Status Quo
9. A company is producing two products ‘A’ and ‘B’ from a joint manufacturing process.
The joint costs are ` 2,00,000 and it has given a production of 1 lakh kilogram of ‘A’
having a selling price ` 1 per kilogram and 2 lakh kilograms of ‘B’ having a selling
price of ` 1.50 per kilogram.
The company is considering a proposal to process product ‘A’ into a new product ‘Z’
which sells at ` 3 per kilogram. The processing cost would amount to ` 1,75,000 for
converting one lakh kilograms of product ‘A’ to product ‘Z’.
You are required to advise the company about the acceptance or rejection of the above
proposal.
[Ans. Transformation will result in an additional profit of ` 25,000. The proposal may,
therefore, be accepted.]
10. (a) A company is manufacturing three products details of which for the year are given
below:
Product Price Variable Per Cent
cost of total
` ` Sales value
A 20 10 40
B 25 15 35
C 20 12 25
Total Fixed Costs per year ` 1,10,000
Total Sales ` 5,00,000
You are required to work out the break-even point in rupee sales for each product
assuming that the sales mix is to be retained.
(b) The management has approved a proposal to substitute product C by product D
in the coming year. The latter product has a selling price of ` 25 with a variable
cost of ` 12.50 per unit. The new sales mix of A, B and D is expected to be
50: 30: 20. Next year fixed costs are expected to increase by ` 31,000. Total sales
are expected to remain at ` 5,00,000. You are required to work out the new break-
even point in rupees sales and units for each product.
(c) What is your comment on the decision of the management regarding changing
product mix.
[Ans. (a) Total contribution ` 2,20,000; Profit ` 1,10,000; Composite BEP ` 2,60,000
(b) Total contribution ` 2,35,000; Profit ` 94,000; Composite BEP ` 3,00,000
(c) The decrease in net profit in second year is due to fixed costs and not because of
change in Product Mix. The overall contribution has increased by ` 15,000. Hence,
the management may change the product mix, as proposed.]
Accounting 35
Shut down or Continue
NOTES
11. B Ltd. has a factor which manufactures a product whose sales have declined to ` 40,000
per annum. Special purpose machinery is employed to make the product and there is no
hope of this used for any other purpose. Nor is there any hope of stimulating demand
of the existing product.
The estimated life of the factory plant is 5 years and sales should continue at the same
level for the whole period. Total variable costs per annum for the expected sales are
`20,000. Fixed costs per annum total 15,000 including ` 7,000 as depreciation.
All sales and expenses accrue at the end of the year.
If the factory is sold “lock, stock and barrel” immediately, ` 30,000 may be obtained. On
the other hand, if it is operated for 5 years, ` 4,000 is the estimated residual value.
Presuming 10% as the cost of capital, you are required to advise whether it will be
appropriate to operate the factory or close it down immediately. The present value of
an annuity of ` 1 at 10% discount for 5 years may be taken as ` 3.791 and the present
value of ` 1 received after 5 years at 10% discount is ` 0.62.
[Ans. If plant is operated for five years total cash inflow would amount to ` 47,976. If it
is sold only 30,000 would be realised. It is, therefore, advisable to continue the business
to operate.]
[Hint. If factory operates, the annual cash inflow is ` 12,000, Moreover, ` 4,000 will be
realised as scrap. The present value of cash inflows, therefore, amounts to ` 47,976 (i.e.,
12,000 × 3.791 + 4,000 × .621.)]
12. A paint manufacturing company manufactures 2,00,000 per annum medium sized tins
of “Spray Lac Paints” when working at normal capacity. It incurs the following costs
of manufacturing per unit:
`
Direct Material 7.80
Direct Labour 2.10
Variable Overhead 2.50
Fixed Overhead 4.00
Product Cost (per unit) 4.00
Total 16.40
Each unit (tin) of the product is sold for ` 21 with variable selling and administration
expenses of 60 paise per tin. During the next quarter only `10,000 units can be produced
and sold. Management plans to shut down the plant estimating that the fixed manufacturing
cost can be reduced to ` 74,000 for the quarter.
When the plant is operating, the overhead are incurred at a uniform rate throughout the
year. Additional costs of plant shut. Down for the quarter are estimated at `14,000.
You are required:
(a) to express your opinion, along with the calculations, as to whether the plant should
be shut down during the quarter and
(b) to calculate the shutdown point for quarter in units of products (i.e., in terms of
number of tins)
[Ans. (a) Loss when plant is operated ` 1,20,000, Loss when plant is shut down ` 88,000.
The Management should shut down the plant.
(b) Shutdown point at output of 14,000 units (i.e., ` 1,12,000/8)]
36 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES UNIT 2: ABSORPTIONS COSTING AND MARGINAL

COSTING

Structure
2.0 Learning Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Meaning of Marginal Cost
2.3 Marginal Costing
2.4 Absorption Costing
2.5 Special Terms for Marginal Cost
2.5.1 Contribution
2.5.2 Cost Volume Profit Analysis
2.5.3 Break-Even Point
2.5.4 Angle of Incidence
2.5.5 Margin of Safety
2.5.6 Key or Limiting Factor
2.5.7 Assumptions underlying CVP Analysis / Break - Even Charts
2.6 Managerial Application of CVP Analysis.
2.7 Summary
2.8 Key Terms
2.9 Questions and Exercises

2.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:
 Explain concept of absorption and marginal costing.
 Distinguish between absorption costing and marginal costing.
 Explain the managerial application of CVP analysis.
 Explain the concept of angle of incidence.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In cost accounting, cost of production per unit of the goods produced or services provided is
calculated with the help of the various methods such as Unit Costing Method, job costing,
Batch Costing contract Costing or Process Costing. Marginal costing is not a method of
calculating the cost of production as the above given methods are but it is a technique
applicable to the existing methods to find out the effect on profits if changes are made either
in the volume of output or in the type of output. Thus marginal costing is a technique which
helps the management in taking various routine and special or crucial decisions for running
the organisational activities like (i) To continue with a product or not, (ii) To change the
selling price as per the market conditions, (iii) To change the method of production, (iv) To
make or buy decision, (v) To decide about sales mix.
Absorption Costing and Marginal Costing 37

2.2 MEANING OF MARGINAL COST NOTES

(i) According to I.C.M.A. London, marginal cost is defined as “The amount at any given
volume of output by which aggregate costs are changed if the volume of output is
increased or decreased by one unit. In practice this is measured by the total variable
attributable to one unit.” In this context, a ‘Unit’ may be single article, a batch of articles,
an order, a stage of production capactiy, a man-hour, a process or a department.
(ii) According to Blocker and Weltmore, “Marginal cost is the increase or decrease in the
total cost which result from producing or selling additional unit of a commodity or from
a change in the method of production or distribution.”
Marginal cost is the aggregate of variable costs. It is the cost of producing one additional
unit. The marginal cost concept is based on the distinction between fixed and variable
costs. Marginal cost is the total of variable costs only and fixed costs only and fixed
costs are ignored.
So, after analysing the definition we can say that with the increase in one unit of output,
the total cost is increased and this increase in total cost from the existing to the new
level is known as ‘Marginal Cost’.
For example, for the production of 1,000 units of product, the variable costs per unit is
` 5 and fixed costs are ` 5,000 per annum. If the production is increased by one unit,
the marginal cost will be:
Total cost of 1,000 units:
Fixed costs = ` 5,000
Variables costs (1,000 units × 5) = ` 5,0000
Total cost = Fixed Costs + Variables Costs
=` 5,000 + ` 5,000 = ` 10, 000
10, 000
Per unit costs = =
` 10/-
1, 000
Total cost of 1,001 units:
Fixed costs ` 5,000
Variable costs (1,001 units × 5) ` 5,005
Total costs ` 10,005
Marginal cost = ` 10,005 – ` 10,000 = ` 5
Hence, marginal cost is ` 5. This is the change in total cost due to change in one unit of
output.

2.3 MEANING OF MARGINAL COSTING

According to the Institute of cost and management accountants, London, Marginal costing
is defined as “The ascertainment of marginal cost and of the effect on profit of changes in
volume or type of output by differentiating between fixed costs and variable costs. In this
technique of costing only variable cost are charged to operations, processes or products,
while the fixed costs are to be written off against profits in the period in which they arise.”
Thus, in this context, we can say that marginal costing is a technique which is concerned with
the changes in costs and profits result from changes in volume of output. Marginal costing is
also known as ‘Variable Costing’.
38 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES 2.4 ABSORPTION COSTING/TOTAL COSTING

Absorption costing is the total cost technique. It is the practice of charging all costs, both
variable and fixed, to operations, processes or products. Under absorption costing all costs
whether variable or fixed are treated as product cost. Absorption costing is also known as
full costing technique.
This method employs highly arbitrary way of apportionment of overheads which reduces the
practical utility of cost data for controlling purposes.
Illustration 2.1
The following information relates to a company:
Production 40,000 units
Sales 40,000 units
Selling Price ` 30 per unit
Direct Material ` 5 per unit
Direct Labour ` 4 per unit
Overheads:
  Variables ` 3 per unit
   Fixed ` 1,00, 000
Calculate net profit under:
(a) Absorption Costing Method: (b) Marginal Costing Method.
Solution: Income Statement (Absorption Costing)
Sales Particulars ` `
Sale (40,000 units ` 30) 12,00,000
Less : Cost of goods sold :
Direct Material (40,000 × 5) 2,00,000
Direct Labour (40,000 × 4) 1,60,000
Overheads:
Variable (40,000 × 3) 1,20,000
   Fixed 1,00,000 5,80,000
   Net Profit 6,20,000
Income Statement (Marginal Costing)
Particulars ` `
Sale (40,000 × ` 30) 12,00,000
Less : Variable Cost :
Direct Material (40,000 × 5) 2,00,000
Direct Labour (40,000 × 4) 1,60,000
Variable Overheads (40,000 × 3) 1,20,000 4,80,000
Contribution:
7,20,000
  Less : Fixed Cost 1,00,000
   Net Profit 6,20,000
Absorption Costing and Marginal Costing 39
Illustration 2.2
NOTES
The following information relates to a company:
Production 40,000 units
Sales 30,000 units
Selling Price ` 30 per unit
Direct Materials ` 5 per unit
Direct Labour
Factory Overheads:
Variable ` 3 per unit
Fixed ` 1,00,000
Selling and Distribution overheads:
Variable ` 1 per unit
Fixed ` 45,000

Calculate:
(i) Net Profit under Absorption Costing Method.
(ii) Net Profit under Marginal Costing Method.
Solution:
Income Statement (Absorption Costing)
Sales Particulars ` `
Sale (30,000 × ` 30) 90,000
Less : Cost of Sales :
Direct Material (40,000 × 5) 2,00,000
Direct Labour (40,000 × 4) 1,60,000
Factory overheads:
   Fixed 1,00,000
   Variable (40,000 × 3) 1,20,000

 5, 80, 000  5,80,000

Less: Closing Stock  40, 000 ×10, 000 units
1,45,000
Add: Selling and Distribution Overheads: 4,35,000
   Fixed 45,000
   variable (30,000 × 1) 30,000 5,10,000
   Net Profit 3,90,000

Note : Closing stock value of Total Cost.

40 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES Income Statement (Marginal Costing Method)

Particulars ` `
Sale (30,000 × ` 30) 9,00,000
Less : Variable Cost :
   Direct Material (40,000 × 5) 2,00,000
   Direct Labour (40,000 × 4) 1,60,000
   Factory Overheads (40,000 × 3) 1,20,000

 4, 80, 000 
Less: Closing Stock  40, 000 ×10, 000 units 4,80,000

1.20,000
3,60,000
Add: Selling and Distribution (30,000 × 1): 30,000 3,90,000
   Contribution 5,10,000
Less: Fixed cost:
   Factory Overheads 1,00,000
   Selling and Distribution Overheads 45,000 1.45,000
Net Profit 3,65,000

Note: Closing stock value of Variable Cost.

2.5 SPECIAL TERMS FOR UNDERSTANDING MARGINAL COST

(i) Contribution
(ii) Profit Volume Ratio (P/V ratio)
(iii) Break Even Analysis
(iv) Break Even point (BEP)
(v) Break Even Graph
(vi) Angle of Incidence
(vii) Sales for Desired Profit
(viii) Margin of Safety (M/S)

2.5.1 Contribution
Contribution is the difference between Sales and Variable Cost or marginal cost. In other words,
contribution is defined as the excess of sales over variable cost. Contribution first contributes
to fixed cost and then to profit. Higher contribution means more profit and lower contribution
means less profit. So the management of an organisation tries to increase contribution for
higher earning.
Absorption Costing and Marginal Costing 41
Contribution can be represented as:
NOTES
1. Contribution = Sales - Variable Cost (Marginal Cost )
2. Contribution = (per unit ) = Selling price per unit - Variable cost per unit
3. Contribution = Fixed Cost ± Profit / Loss
or C = F±P/L
4. Contribution = Sales ¥ P / V Ratio

For example, if the selling price of a product is ` 100 per unit and its variable cost is ` 60
per unit, contribution per unit is ` 40 (` 100 – ` 60).

2.5.2 Profit Volume Ratio

The profit/volume ratio, also called the ‘contribution ratio’ or ‘marginal ratio’, is defined as
the relationship between contribution and sales. In other words, profit/volume ratio is a ratio
of contribution to sales and it can be expressed as under:
Contribution per unit
P/V Ratio =
Sales per unit

Contribution C
(i) P / V Ratio = × 100 or = × 100
Sales S

Sales − Variable Cost

(ii) P / V Ratio = × 100
Sales

Fixed Cost + Profit F+P

(iii) P/V Ratio = ×100 or = ×100
Sales S

Change in profit contribution

(iv) P/V Ratio = ×100
Change in sales

(v) P/V Ratio = 1 – variable Cost Ratio

Example: If selling price of product is ` 100 and the variable cost is `75 per unit, then P/V
ratio is:
Marginal costing and Break Even Analysis

100 − 75 25
P/V Ratio = × 100 = × 100 = 25%
100 100

2.5.3 Cost-Volume-Profit (CVP) Analysis or Break Even Analysis

CVP analysis is the relationship among cost, volume and profit. In CVP analysis, an attempt
is made to measure variations of costs and profit with volume of production. In other words,
it is a technique of management accounting which determines profit, cost and sale volume at
different levels of production. When volume of production increases, cost per unit decreases
because fixed cost remains constant. Again, with the increase in volume of output there are
chances of decrease in cost per unit and increase in profit per unit. Thus, cost–volume profit
42 Cost and Management Accounting
analysis helps the management in profit planning because we can determine the amount of
NOTES
profits at different levels of activity and the volume of sales to earn desire profit can also be
determined. In this regard, Herman C.Heiser rightly said ‘the most significant single factor
in profit planning of the average business is the relationship between the volume of business,
costs and profits.”
The study of cost–volume–profit analysis is also known as break-even analysis because break-
even analysis refers to the study of relationship between costs, volume and profit at different
levels of production or sales.

2.5.4 Break-even Point

Break-even point may be defined as the point of sales volume at which total revenue equals
total costs. It is the point of no profit, no loss. When the total sales of a business is equal to
its total costs, it is known to break-even point. At this point, contribution is equal to fixed
costs. If a business is producing more than the break-even point there shall be profit to the
business organisation otherwise it would suffer a loss. The detailed study of Break-even point
is known as Break-even Analysis.

2.5.5 Break-even Chart: Graphic Method

Break-even chart is a tool of presentation of the information relating to production quantity,
sales and profits of a business organisation. With the help of this chart the break-even point
can be known as well as the amount of profit or loss at the various levels of output and
margin of safety can be found out. It also provides us the knowledge about the relationship
between fixed and variable costs as well as the contribution and profit-volume(P/V) relationship.
Break-even chart shows the relationship between cost, volume and profit. Break-even point
is the most important information out of the all above information and due to this reason, it
is known as break-even chart.

Methods of Drawing a Break-even chart

For drawing a break-even chart, one should have information regarding production capacity,
variable costs and fixed costs of a business organisation.
Firstly, a table is prepared to know about the fixed cost, total costs and total sales at various
levels of output.

First Method (BEP Chart)

(i) Volume of production/output or sales (in units/rupees) is plotted on X-axis (horizontal
axis).
(ii) Cost and sales revenue are shown in Y-axis (vertically).
(iii) On Y-axis, fixed costs are shown first. A parallel line to X-axis is drawn which means
that fixed costs remain constant at each level of input. Total cost line is drawn
upward from the starting point of fixed cost line. To draw total cost line, the total
costs points are plotted at various levels of output with the help of table and a line
is drawn thereafter joining all these points. This line is called total cost line.
Absorption Costing and Marginal Costing 43

NOTES

(iv) Sales values at various levels of output are plotted and a line is drawn joining these
points. This line is called total revenue line.
(v) The point at which total cost line and total revenue line intersect each other is
called break-even point.
(vi) A perpendicular is drawn, from this point, to X-axis to know the break-even point
in units and sales revenue at break-even point can be known by a perpendicular
Y-axis from this point.
(vii) The area on the left of break-even point represent the loss area and on the right
of BEP indicates the profit area.
(viii) The angle between sales or total revenue line and total cost line in profit area is
called ‘angle of incidence’. The wider the angle the greater is the profit and vice-
versa.
(ix) Difference between the present sales and Break-even sales on the graph shows the
margin of safety.

Second Method (BEP Chart)

In this method, variable costs are shown first and fixed cost line is drawn parallel and upward
to the variable cost line. The fixed cost line drawn represents the total cost of various levels
of output. With the help of this chart, contribution can be known at various levels of output
by the differences between total sales (revenue) line and variable cost line.
44 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES Third Method (Contribution Chart)

In this method, fixed cost line is drawn parallel to X-axis. The contribution line is drawn
from the origin point which increases with the increase in the output. The contribution line
and fixed cost line inter sects each other that points are called break-even point:

2.5.6 Angle of Incidence

The angle formed at the intersection of the total sales curve and the total cost curve is known
as angle of incidence. Bigger the angle of incidence higher will be the profits and smaller the
angle of incidence the lower will be the profits. To improve this angle contribution should
be increased either:

(i) By raising the selling price or

(ii) By reducing Variable cost or
(iii) By both the way.

Illustration 2.3
Plot the following data on a graph and determine break-even point: selling price = ` 20 per
unit, Variable Cost = ` 10 per unit, Fixed Cost ` 20,000.

Output Variable Cost Fixed Expenses Total Cost Total Sales Contribution Pr ofits
(in units) (10 per unit )
0 0 20, 000 20, 000 0 0 −20, 000
1, 000 10, 000 20, 000 30, 000 20, 000 10, 000 −10, 000
2, 000 20, 000 20, 000 40, 000 40, 000 20, 000 −
3, 000 30, 000 20, 000 50, 000 60, 000 30, 000 10, 000
4, 000 40, 000 20, 000 60, 000 80, 000 40, 000 20, 000
5, 000 50, 000 20, 000 70, 000 1, 00, 000 50, 000 30, 000
Absorption Costing and Marginal Costing 45

First Method NOTES

B.E.P. = 2,000 units or `40,000

Second Method

B.E.P. = 2,000 units or `40,000

46 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES Third Method

B.E.P. = 2,000 units or `40,000

Calculation of Break-even point: Algebraic Method
1. Break-even Point in units: It can be calculated with the help of following formula:

Fixed Cost
Break − even point (in units) =
Selling Price per unit − Variable Cost per unit
Fixed Cost
or B.E.P. =
Contribution per unit
or B.E.P. = F C / C

2. Break-even point in terms of money value:

Fixed Cost × Sales
Break − even point (Rupees ) =
Sales − Variable Cost
Fixed Cost × Sales
or B.E.P. =
Contribution
With the help of P/V ratio, B.E.P can be calculated as follows
Fixed Cost
B.E.P. =
P/V Ratio

New Break-even Point: If the selling price of a product changes, contribution will be changed.
As a result, new Break-even point will be as follows:

Fixed Cost
(i ) New B.E.P. (in units ) =
New Selling Price − Variable Cost
FC
or =
New Contribution
Fixed Cost
(ii ) New B.E.P. ( Rupees ) =
New P/V
V Ratio

Absorption Costing and Marginal Costing 47

Calculation of selling price when Break-even point is shifted NOTES

When break-even point is shifted, selling price will be calculated in the following manner:

Fixed Cost
New Contribution =
New BEP (in units)
Sales = New Contributiion + Variable cost

Illustration 2.4
From the following information, calculate:
(i) BEP (in units)
(ii) BEP (in `)
Sales of 50,000 units @ `6
Variable Costs @ ` 4
Total Fixed Costs ` 80,000
Solution:
Fixed Costs 80,000
(i) B.E.P. (in units) = = = 40,000 units
Contribution Per unit 2(6 - 4)

Contribution = Selling price – Variable Cost

or C = S – V
C =` 6 – ` 4 = ` 2
Fixed Cost × Sales
(ii) B.E.P. (in `) =
Sales − Variable Cost

80, 000 × (50, 000 × 6) 80, 000 × 3, 00, 000

= =
(50, 000 × 6) − (50, 000 × 4) 3, 00, 000 − 2, 00, 000

80, 000 × 3, 00, 000

= = ` 2,40,000
1, 00, 00

or with the help of P/V ratio, BEP is:

Fixed Costs
BEP (in `) =
P/V Ratio

Contribution C
P/V Ratio = × 100 = × 100 [C = S − V ]
Sales S
Marginal Costing and Break Even Analysis
and C = Selling Price per unit – Variable Cost = ` 6 – `4 = ` 2
2
∴ P/V Ratio = × 100 = 33.33%
6

Fixed Costs 80, 000 × 100

BEP (in `) = = = `2,40,000
P/V Ratio 33.33
48 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES 2.5.7 Sales for Desired Profit

Marginal Costing technique can be applied for maintaining a desired level of profit. Due to
competition, the price of the products may have to be reduced. The change in sales price
affects the profitability of a concern. Marginal costing helps the management to know how
many units have to be sold to maintain the desired level of profits. In order to achieve the
desired level of profit the required sales can be calculated by the following formula:

(a ) When total amount of desired profit is given :

Fixed Cost + Desired Pr ofit
o earn desired profit (in units ) =
(i ) Required sales to
Contribution per unit
Fixed Cost + Desired profit
(ii ) Required sales to earn desired profit =
P/V Ratio
( b ) When desired profit per unit is given :
Fixed Cost
(i ) Sales (in units ) =
Contribution per unit − Profit per unit
Fixed Cost
(ii ) Sales (in ` ) = × Selling Price Per unit
Contribution per unit − Profit per unit

Illustration 2.5
Following data are collected from the record of a manufacturing unit of scooter:
Selling price of a scooter is ` 32,000
Fixed cost of a scooter is ` 2,000
Variable cost of a scooter is ` 23,000
In the given period 1000 scooters were sold.
Calculate break -even point of the company and how many scooters should be sold to earn
the same profit, if company reduces the selling price of scooter by ` 2000 per scooter?
Solution:
Total Fixed = ` 2000 × 1000 = ` 20,00,000

Fixed Cost
Break − even po int =
Contribution per unit

20, 00, 000

= = 222.22 [C= S − V = ` 32,00 − ` 23,000 = ` 9,000] or = 222 Scooters.
9, 000
The present profit of the company is as follows:
Variable cost per scooter ` 23,000
Fixed cost per scooter ` 2,000
Total cost per scooter _________
` 25,000
Absorption Costing and Marginal Costing 49

Selling price of a scooter is ` 32,000 NOTES

Profit of the company per scooter is ` 32,000 – ` 25,000 = ` 7,000
Total profit is (` 7,000 × 1,000) = ` 70,00,000
To earn the same profit with a reduced price by ` 2000, the number of scooters can be
found out as follows:
New Selling Price = ` 32,000 – ` 2,000 = ` 30,000
Fixed Cost = ` 20,00,000
Described profit = ` 70,00,000
New contribution per unit = ` 30,000 – ` 23,000
= ` 7,000
FC + Desired profit 20, 00, 000 + 70, 00, 000
Sales = =
Cost per unit 7, 000

= 1,285.71 or = 1,286 scooters.

2.5.8 Margin of Safety

Margin of safety is the difference between actual sales and sales at break-even point. For
example, if actual sales of a company is ` 10,00,000 and the sales at break-even point is
` 4,00,000 the difference between these two figures ` 6, 00, 000 (10,00,000 – 4,00,000) is
margin of safety. Margin of safety can be calculated by the following formulae:
(i) Margin of safety (in units) = Actual sales (in units) − sales at B.E.P. (in units)
(ii) Margin of sales (in Rupees ) = Actual sales(in Rupees) − sales at B.E.P. (in Rupees )
Pr ofit
(iii) Margin of safety = × 100
P/V Ratio
Margin of Safety
(iv) Margin of safety(%) = × 100
Actual Sales

Illustration 2.6
The data below relate to a company:
Sales `1,50,000
Fixed Cost `45,000
Profit `15,000
Calculate:
(i) P/V ratio at present
(ii) P/V ratio, if selling price is increased by 10%.
(iii) P/V ratio, if selling price is decreased by 20%.
Solution:
Sales (S) = `1,50,000.
Fixed Cost (FC) = ` 45,000
Profit (P) = `15,000
S – V = FC + P
` 1,50,000 – V = ` 45,000 + ` 15,000
50 Cost and Management Accounting
or V = ` 1,50,000 – ` 60,000 = ` 90,000
NOTES
(i) P/V ratio at present is:
C 1, 50, 000 − 90, 000
Since P/V ratio = × 100 = × 100 C = S − V
S 1, 50, 000

60, 000
= × 100 = 40%
1, 50, 000

(ii) Calculation of P/V Ratio, if selling price is increased by 10%:

10
Sales Value = `1,50,000 + ` 1,50,000 ×
100

= ` 1,50,000 + 15,000 = ` 1,65,000

S−V 1, 65, 000 − 90, 000

P/V ratio = × 100 = × 100
S 1, 65, 000

75, 000
= × 100 = 45.45%
1, 65, 000
(iii) Calculation of P/V ratio, if selling price is decreased by 20%:
In this case, sale value would be ` 1,50,000 – ` 30,000 = ` 1,20,000

S−V
P/V Ratio = × 100
S

1, 20, 000 − 90, 000 30, 000

= × 100 = × 100 = 25%
1, 20, 000 1, 20, 000

Illustration 2.7
Following information is available from the records of a company:

Year Sales (`) Profit/Loss (`)

I 5,00,000 2,000 (Loss)

II 7,00,000 2,000 (Profit)

Selling price is given ` 100 per unit

Calculate:
(i) Fixed Cost
(ii) Break-even point in units
(iii) Sale in units for desired profit of ` 28,000.
Solution:

Change in profit / Contribution 4000

P/V Ratio = × 100 = × 100 = 2%
Change in Sales 2,00,000
Absorption Costing and Marginal Costing 51
(i) Fixed Cost:
NOTES
S × P/V Ratio = P + FC
2
I Year: ` 5, 00, 000 × = FC + ( −2, 000)
100
` 10,000 = FC – 2,000
FC = ` 10,000 + ` 2,000 = ` 12,000
2
II Year: 7, 00, 000 × = FC + 2, 000
100
` 14,000 = FC + ` 2,000
FC = `14,000 – ` 2,000 = ` 12,000
FC 12, 000
(ii) B.E.P. = = × 100 = ` 6,00,000
P/V Ratio 2

6, 00, 000
B.E.P.(in units) = 6, 000 units
100
(iii) Sale of units for a profit of ` 28,000:

FC + DP 12, 000 + 28, 000

Sale = = × 100
P / V Ratio 2
40, 000
= × 100 = ` 20,00,000
2

20, 00, 000

Sales (in units) = = 20, 000 units
100

2.6 MANAGERIAL APPLICATION OF CVP ANALYSIS

2.6.1 Fixation of Selling Price

Fixation of selling price is an important function of management. Under normal circumstances,
the price is fixed to cover the fixed as well as variable cost and to earn the profit. But
under other circumstances, the product may be sold at a price below the total cost. These
circumstances may arise due to stiff competition, trade depression, for accepting additional
orders, for exporting, etc. In such circumstances, the price should be fixed on the basis of
marginal cost in such a manner so as to cover the marginal cost and contribute something
towards the fixed costs. In the following circumstances production may be continued even if
the selling price is below the marginal cost:
(i) To dispose of surplus stocks.
(ii) To eliminate the competitor from the market.
(iii) To utilise idle capacity.
(iv) To explore new markets.
(v) To explore foreign markets in order to earn foreign exchange.
52 Cost and Management Accounting

(vi) When company deals with perishable products.

NOTES
(vii) When company wants to introduce a new product in the market.
(viii) When the labour cannot be retrenched.
(ix) When company wants to avoid extra losses by closing down the business.
Illustration 2.8
The P/V Ratio of a company is 75%. Marginal cost of the product is ` 50. Determine the
selling price of the product.
Solution:
If selling price is ` 100
Variable cost will be ` 25
and contribution is ` 75
Selling price of the product, when the marginal cost is ` 50, will be:

100
= × 50 = ` 200
25

Assumptions Underlying Break-Even Charts

There are a number of assumptions which are made while drawing a break-even chart, such as:
(i) All costs can be separated into fixed and variable costs.
(ii) Fixed costs remain constant at all levels of activity.
(iii) Variable cost fluctuates directly in proportion to changes in the volume of output.
(iv) Selling prices per unit remain constant at all levels of activity.
(v) There is no opening or closing stock.
(vi) There will be no change in opening efficiency.
(vii) Product mix remains unchanged or there is only one product.
(viii) The volume of output or production is the only factor which influences the cost.

Advantages Or Uses of Break-Even Charts

Computation of break-even point or presentation of cost, volume and profit relationship by
way of break-even charts has the following advantages:
1. Information provided by the break-even chart is in a simple form and is clearly understandable
even to a layman. The whole idea of the problem is presented at a glance.
2. The break-even chart is very useful to management for taking managerial decisions
because the chart studies the relationship of cost, volume and profit at various levels
of output. The effects of changes in fixed costs and variables costs at various levels of
output and that of changes in the selling price on the profits can be depicted very clearly
by way of break-even charts.
3. The break-even charts help in knowing and analysing the profitability of different products
under various circumstances.
4. A break-even chart is very useful for forecasting (the costs and profits), planning and
growth.
Absorption Costing and Marginal Costing 53

5. The break-even chart is a managerial tool for control of costs as it shows the relative NOTES
importance of fixed cost in the total cost of a product.
6. Besides determining the break-even point, profits at various levels of output can also be
determined with the help of break-even charts.
7. The break-even charts can also be used to study the comparative plant efficiencies of
business.

Limitations of Break–Even Charts

Despite many advantages, a break-even chart suffers from the following limitations:
1. A break-even chart is based upon a number of assumptions, discussed above, which may
not hold good under all circumstances. For example, fixed costs do not remain constant
after a certain level of activity; variable costs do not always vary in direct proportion
to changes in the volume of output because of the laws of diminishing and increasing
returns; selling prices do not remain the same forever and for all levels of output due
to competition and changes in general price level; etc.
2. A break-even chart provides only a limited information. We have to draw a number of
charts to study the effects of changes in the fixed costs, variable costs and selling prices
on the profitability. In such cases, it becomes rather more complicated and difficult to
understand.
3. Break-even charts present only cost-volume profit relationships but ignore other important
considerations such as the amount of capital investment, marketing problems and
government policies, etc.
4. A break-even chart does not suggest any action or remedies to the management as a
tool of management decisions.
5. More often, a break-even chart presents only a static view of the problem under consideration.

2.6.2 Maintaining a Desired Level of Profit

Marginal Costing techniques can be applied for maintaining a desired level of profit. Due to
competition, the price of the products may have to be reduced. The change in sales price,
variable cost and product mix affects the profitability of a concern. Marginal costing helps
the management to know of profit the sales can be ascertained by the following formula;
Fixed Cost + Desired Profit
Sales =
P/V Ratio

Illustration 2.9
The price structure of a cycle made by a company is as follows:
Per Cycle `
Materials 600
Labour 200
Variable overheads 200
1000
Fixed overheads 500
Profit 500
Selling price 2,000
54 Cost and Management Accounting
This is based on the manufacture of one lakh cycles per annum. The company expects that
NOTES
due to competition they will have to reduce selling prices, but they want to keep the total
profit intact. How many cycles will have to be made to get the same amount of profit if:
(a) The selling price is reduced by 10%.
(b) The selling price is reduced by 20%.
Solution:
Total Fixed Costs = 500 × 1 lakh = 500 lakhs
Total Present Profit = 500 lakhs

Fixed Cost + Desired Profit

Sales =
Contribution per unit

(a) If selling price is reduced by 10%: Use

New selling price= (2,000 – 10 % of 2,000)
= 2,000 – 200 = ` 1,800

500 + 500
Sales =
1, 800 − 1, 000

1000
= × 1, 00, 000 = 1,25,000 Cycles
800
(b) If selling price is rescued by 20%:
New selling price = (2,000 – 20 % of 2,000)
= 2,000 – 400 = `1,600
500 + 500
Sales =
1, 600 − 1, 000

1000
= × 1, 00, 000 = 1,66,667 Cycles
600

2.6.3 Key or Limiting Factor

A key factor or limiting factor is a factor which limits or puts a restriction on production
or sales and restricts a company from making unlimited profits. Limiting factors may be
availability of raw material, labour, sales finance, plant capacity, etc. When contribution and
key factors are known, the profitability of a product can be measured as under:
Contribution
Profitability =
Key Factor
For example:
(i) When limiting factor is the availability of labour:
Contribution
Profitability =
Key Hours
(ii) When limiting factor is raw material:
Contribution
Profitability =
Materials in Kg
Absorption Costing and Marginal Costing 55
Illustration 2.10
NOTES
A company is producing two products A and B. The particulars of the company are as follows:
Product A Product B
(` per unit) (` per unit)
Sales 75 80
Material Cost 15 20
Labour Cost 20 15
Direct Expense 10 12
Variable overheads 10 15
Machine Hours used 3 hrs 2 hrs
Consumption of material 2 kg 2 kg

Comment on profitability of each product, if both use the same raw material, when:
(i) Total sales potential in units is key factor.
(ii) Total sales potential in values is key factor.
(iii) Raw material is in short supply.
(iv) Production Capacity (in terms of machine hrs.) is the key factor.
Solution:
Product A Product B
(` per unit) (` per unit)
Sales 75 80
Marginal Cost
Materials 15 20
Wages 20 15
Direct expense 10 12
Variable overheads 10 15
Total Marginal Cost 55 62
Contribution (Sales– Total marginal cost) 20 18
Contribution (per ` of Sales) 20/75 18/80
(Contribution/Sales) = ` 0.266 = ` 0.225
Material consumed contribution per kg of materials 20/2kg 18/3kg
= ` 10 ` 6
Contribution per hour 20/3 hrs 18/2 hrs
= ` 6.6 ` 9

Comments:
(i) When total sales potential in units is limited, product A is more profitable as its
contribution per unit is more than that of product B.
(ii) When total sales potential in value is limiting factor, product A is more profitable
as it has more contribution as per sales in rupees than that of product B.
56 Cost and Management Accounting
(iii) Product A is more profitable than product B, when raw material is in short supply.
NOTES
(iv) Product B is more profitable that product A, when production capacity in terms of
machine hours is the key factor.

2.7 SUMMARY
 Marginal cost is the aggregate of variable costs. It is the cost of producing one additional unit.
 Absorption costing is the total cost technique. It is the practice of charging all costs,
both variable and fixed, to operations, processes or products.
 Contribution is the difference between Sales and Variable Cost or marginal cost.
 Break-even chart is a tool of presentation of the information relating to production quantity,
sales and profits of a business organisation.
 The angle formed at the intersection of the total sales curve and the total cost curve is
known as angle of incidence.
 Marginal Costing techniques can be applied for maintaining a desired level of profit.
 Fixation of selling price is an important function of management. Under normal circumstances,
the price is fixed to cover the fixed as well as variable cost and to earn the profit.

2.8 KEY TERMS

Marginal cost—Marginal cost is the aggregate of variable costs.
Marginal costing—Marginal costing is a technique which is concerned with the changes in
costs and profits result from changes in volume of output.
Absorption Costing—Absorption costing is the total cost technique. It is the practice of
charging all costs, both variable and fixed, to operations, processes or products.
Higher contribution—Higher contribution means more profit
Break-even Analysis—In CVP analysis, an attempt is made to measure variations of costs
and profit with volume of production.
Break-even point- Break-even point may be as the point of sales volume at which total
revenue equals total costs.

2.9 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

1. What is ‘cost and profit’? Bring out its importance.
2. ‘Profit-Volume analysis’ is a technique of analysing the costs and profits at various ‘level
of volume’. Explain how such analysis helps management.
3. (a) Your boss is looking over a Break-even Chart which you have constructed to portray
the cost volume profit relationship of proposed plan of operations. He comments
‘The chart only tells me more we sell more profits we make’. What is your reply?
(b) What are the limitations of a break even chart.
4. Explain the technique of marginal costing and state its importance in decision-making.
5. (a) State distinction between Marginal Costing and Absorption Costing as regards valuation
of finished goods inventories.
Absorption Costing and Marginal Costing 57
(b) State the circumstances in which ‘contribution approach to price is most suitable’. If
NOTES
this approach is adopted, what are the special items of cost or revenue that have
to be considered when quotation for an export order is made?
6. (a) What benefits are gained from Marginal Costing? Are there any pitfalls in the
application of Marginal Costing? Discuss these matters critically.
(b) Give a brief account of practical application of marginal costing which you consider
sound from a policy point of view.
7. What is Break-even Analysis? Discuss its assumptions and uses.
8. State the implications of selling the product of a multiple firm at a price less than the
marginal cost. When would you advocate selling below the marginal cost?
9. ‘Cost-Volume-Profit’ relationship provides the management with a simplified framework
for an organization which is thinking on a number of its problems. Discuss.
10. ‘The proper treatment of fixed costs presents a problem in full cost pricing’. Explain
this statement. Give suitable illustrations.
11. Explain with suitable illustrations the following statements:
(a) ‘In the very long run all costs are differential’.
(b) ‘In the long run profit calculated under absorption costing will be the same as that
under variable costing’.
12. State four different methods of finding out the break-even point graphically.
13. Explain how semi-variable costs could be split into fixed and variable costs.
14. What is meant by differential cost? Explain the practical utility of differential cost
analysis.
15. What is meant by break-even analysis? Explain the important assumptions and practical
significance of break-even analysis.
16. What are the uses of break-even analysis and direct costing?
17. Mention the types of problems which a Management Accountant can expect to solve
with break-even analysis.
18. ‘Marginal Costing is an administrative tool for the management to achieve higher profits
and efficient operation’. Discuss.
19. Explain under what circumstances marginal costing plays important role in price fixation?
20. Explain how marginal costing technique is useful in day-to-day decision making.
21. What are the cheif advantages of break-even analysis? Outline the assumptions behind
this analysis.
22. Write briefly about Cost-Volume-Profit Analysis’.
23. Examine the concept of ‘Margin of Safety’ and give its uses for decision-making.
24. Explain the concept of BEP and CVP. Explain as to how are they useful for the managers
for their decision-making.
25. What are the limitations of marginal costing? Explain.
26. Distinguish between Marginal Costing and Total Costing techniques of cost Analysis.
How are the Profit Statements under the two techniques Present?
27. Mention any four important factors to be considered in Marginal Costing Decisions.
28. Discuss the relationship between Angle of Incidence, Break-even and Margin of Safety.
58 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES PRACTICAL PROBLEMS

1. K Ltd. produces one standard type of article. The result of the Last 4 months of the year
2008 are as follows:
Output (units)
September 2008 200
October 2008 300
Novembers 2008 400
December 2008 600
Prime cost is ` 10 per unit. Variable expenses are ` 2 per unit. Fixed expenses are
` 36,000 per annum. Find out cost per unit of each month.
[Ans. September ` 27, October ` 22, November ` 19.50, December ` 17.00]
2. From the following data prepare statements of cost according to both aborption costing
and marginal costing system:
Product P Product Q Product R
` ` `
Sales 30,000 60,000 80,000
Direct Material 12,000 25,000 36,000
Direct Labour 8,000 10,000 14,000
Factory Overheads:
Fixed 6,000 8,000 6,000
Variable 2,000 3,000 5,000
Administration Overheads Fixed 1,000 2,000 2,000
Selling Overheads
Fixed 2,000 2,000 3,000
Variable 1,000 3,000 3,000
[Ans. Absorption Costing-Profit (Loss) : Product P (` 2,000), Product
Q ` 7,000; Product R ` 11,000; Marginal Costing-Contribution;
Product P ` 7,000, Product Q ` 19,000, Product R ` 22,000]
3. Production costs of Oriental Enterprises Limited are as following:
Levels of activity
60% 70% 80%
Output (in units) 1,200 1,400 1,600
Cost (in `)
Direct Material 24,000 28,000 32,000
Direct Labour 7,200 8,400 9,600
Factory Overheads 12,800 13,600 14,400
Works Cost 44,000 50,000 56,000
Absorption Costing and Marginal Costing 59

A proposal to increase production to 90% of its capacity and produces 13,500 units NOTES
per annum. It operates a flexible budgetary control system. The following figures are
obtained from its budget:
[Ans. Prime Cost ` 46,800, Marginal Cost ` 54,000, Works Cost ` 62,000]
[Hint. Fixed overheads ` 8,000]
4. A company is at present working at 90% of its capacity and produces 13,500 units per
annum. It operates a flexible budgetary control system. The following figures are obtained
from is budget:
90% 100%
13,500 units 15,000 units
` `
Sales 15,00,000 16,00,000
Fixed Expenses 3,00,500 3,00,500
Semi-variable Expenses 97,500 1,00,500
Variable Expenses (other than material and labour) 1,45,000 1,49,500
Labour and material cost per unit remain the same under present conditions. Profit margin
has been 10% on sales.
(i) You are required to determine the differential cost of producing 1,500 units by
increasing capacity to 100%.
(ii) What would you suggest for an export price for these 1,500 units taking into
account that the overseas prices are lower than those of the home market?
[Ans. (i) ` 97,170 (ii) Cost per unit comes to ` 64.78. The selling price should not be less
than this price.]
[Hint: Cost of materials and labour of 13,500 units comes to ` 8,07,000 by working
backward.]
5. A firm has two factories, the product being the same in both cases. The following is the
relevant information about the two factories.
I II
Capacity p.a. 10,000 units 15,000 units
Variable Cost per unit ` 70 ` 55
Fixed Cost p.a. ` 4,00,000 ` 9,00,000
The demand is only 20,000 units. State how the capacity in two factories should be
utilized.
[Ans. Both factories have to be operated for meeting demand in full.
However, Factory II has a lower variable cost per unit. Hence, Factory II
should produce 15,000 units and Factory I should produce 5,000 units]
6. Sales of a product amount to 200 units per month at ` 10 per unit. Fixed overhead is
` 400 per month and variable cost 6 per unit. There is a proposal to reduce price by
10% Calculate the present and future P/V ratio and find by applying P/V ratios, how
many units must be sold to maintain total profit.
[Ans. Present P/V Ratio 40% Future P/V Ratio units to be sold 267]
60 Cost and Management Accounting

7. Merry Manufacturers Ltd., has supplied you the following information in respect of one
NOTES
of its products:
`
Total Fixed Costs 18,000
Total Variable Costs 30,000
Total Sales 60,000
Unit Sold 20,000
Find out (a) contribution per unit, (b) break-even point, (c) margin of safety, (d) profit,
and (e) volume of sales to earn a profit of ` 24,000.
[Ans. (a) ` 1.50, (b) 12,000 units, (c) 8,000 units or
` 24,000, (d) ` 12,000, (e) 28,000 units]
8. From the following data, calculate:
(i) Break-even point expressed in amount of sales in rupees.
(ii) Number of units that must be sold earn a profit of 60,000 per year.
(iii) How many units must be sold to earn a net income of 10% of sales?
Selling price ` 20 per unit
Variable manufacturing costs 11 per unit
Variable selling costs 3 per unit
Fixed factory overheads 5,40,000 per year
Fixed selling costs 2,52,000 per year
[Ans. (i) ` 26,40,000; (ii) 1,42,000 units; (iii) 1,98,000 units]
[Hint. For (iii) Presume x as the number of units to be sold.]
9. A Khan sells a popular brand of men’s sports shirts at an average price of ` 28/ each.
He purchases the shirts from a commission to his salesman at the rate of ` 1 for every
shirt sold through the particular salesman.
Required
(i) How many shirts must be sold in a year to break-even?
(ii) Compute the sales revenue at the break-even.
(iii) Compute the monthly sales revenue required to earn a net profit before tax of
` 45,000 in a year.
[Ans. (i) 6,000 shirts, (ii) ` 1, 68,000, (iii) ` 25,667 ]
10. (a) A company has fixed expenses of 90,000 with sales at ` 3,00,000 and a profit of
` 60,000. Calculate the profit/volume ratio. If in the next period, the company
suffered a loss of ` 30,000. Calculate the sales volume.
(b) What is the margin of safety for a profit of ` 60,000 in (a) above ?
[Ans. (a) 50% ` 1,20,000; (b) ` 1 ,80,000]
Absorption Costing and Marginal Costing 61

11. An analysis of Sultan Manufacturing Co. Ltd. Led to the following information: NOTES
Cost element Variable cost Fixed costs
(% of Sales) `
Direct Material 32.8
Direct Labour 28.4
Factory Overheads 12.6 1,89,900
Distribution Overheads 4.1 58,400
General Administration Overheads 1.1 66,700
Budgeted Sales are ` 18,50,000. You are required to determine :
(i) The break-even sales volume;
(ii) The profit at the budgeted sales volume; and
(iii) The profit if actual sales:
(a) drop by 10% and
(b) increase by 5% from budgeted sale
[Ans. (i) ` 15,00,000, (ii) ` 73,500, (iii) (a) ` 34,650, (b) ` 92,925]
12. Company X and Company Y, both under the same management, make and sell the same
type of product. Their budgeted Profit and Loss Account for January-June 1988 are as
under:
Company X Company Y
` ` `
Sales 3,00,000 3,00,000
Less: Variable cost 2,40,000 2,70,000
Fixed Cost 30,000 2,70,000 70,000 2,70,000
30,000 30,000
You are required to:
(i) Calculate the Break-even Point for each company.
(ii) Calculate the sales volume at which each of the two companies will profit by
` 10,000
(iii) Assess how the profitability will change with decrease or increase in volume:
[Ans. Company X Company Y]
(i) ` 1,50,000 (i) ` 2,10,000
(ii) ` 2,00,000 (ii) ` 2,40,000
(iii) P/V Ratio 20% (iii)]
13. The budgeted sales of three products of a company are as follows:
Products
P Q R
Budgeted sales in unit 10,000 15,000 20,000
Budgeted selling price per unit 4 4 4
Budgeted variable cost per unit 2.5 3 3.5
Budgeted fixed expenses (total) 2,000 9,000 7,500
62 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES From the information you are required to compute the following for each product:
(a) The budgeted profit.
(b) The budget break-even sales.
(c) The budgeted margin of safety in terms of sales value.
P Q R
[Ans. (a) ` 3,000 ` 6,000 ` 2,500
(b) ` 32,000 ` 36,000 ` 60,000
(c) ` 8,000 ` 24,000 ` 20,000
14. From the following information calculate the break-even point and the turnover required
to earn a profit of ` 36,000. Fixed overheads.
Fixed overheads ` 1,80,000
Variable cost per unit 2
Selling price 20
If the company is earning a profit of ` 36,000 express the ‘margin of safety available to
it.
[Ans. BEP 10,000 units. Turnover required for desired profit ` 2,40,000, Margin of Safety
` 40,000]
15. The Reliable Battery Co. Furnishes you the following information:
Year 1996
First half Second half
Sales ` 8,10,000 ` 10,26,000
Profit earned ` 21,600 ` 64,800
From the above you are required to compute the following assuming that the fixed cost
remains the same in both the period:
(i) Profit/Volume Ratio
(ii) Fixed cost.
(iii) The amount of profit or loss where sales are ` 6,48,000.
(iv) The amount of sales required to earn a profit of ` 1,08,000.
[Ans. (i) 20%; (ii) ` 1,40,400; (iii) Loss ` 10,800; (iv) ` 12,42,000.]
16. T Ltd. have been an installed capacity of 5,000 tractors per annum. They are presently operating
35 percent of installed capacity. For the coming year, they have budgeted as follows:
Production/Sales 4,000 units
Costs: ` (Crores)
Direct Materials 8.00
Direct Wages 0.60
Factory Expenses 0.80
Administration expenses 0.20
Selling Expenses 0.20
Profit 1.00
Absorption Costing and Marginal Costing 63

Factory expenses as well as selling expenses are variable to the extent of 20 per cent. NOTES
Calculate break-even capacity utilization percentage.
[Ans. BEP 2,000 units, BEP as a percentage of installed capacity 40%]
17. Calculate from the following data (i) the value of output at which the business break-
even, and (ii) the percentage capacity at which it break-even:
Budget for year Estimated
1990 based on shut-down
100% capacity expenditure
` `
Direct Wages 2,09,964 –
Direct Materials 2,44,552
Works Expenses 1,81,820 93,528
Selling and Distribution Expenses 61,188 40,188
Administration Expenses 30,000 20,508
Net Sales 8,40,000
[Ans. ` 4,85,746; (ii) 53.8%]
[Hint. Shut-down costs are Fixed Costs.]

18. From the following data, you are required to calculate the break-even point and net sales
value at this point:
`
Selling Price per unit 25
Direct Material Cost per unit 8
Direct Labour Cost per unit 5
Fixed Overheads 24,000
Variable Overheads @60% on direct labour Trade discount 4%
If sales are 15% and 20% above the break-even volume, determine the net profits.
[Ans. BEP (units) 3,000 B.E. Sales (Net) ` 72,000, Net Profit when Sales are above 15% of
B.E Volume ` 3,600, Net Profit when Sales are above 20% of B.E. Volume ` 4,80,000]
19. The Taylor Company produces two products, B and C. Expected data for the first year
of operations are:
B C
Expected Sales (units) 8,000 12,000
Selling Price ` 45 ` 55
Variable Costs ` 30 ` 35
Total fixed costs are expected to be ` 3,60,000 for the year. You are required to answer
the following:
(i) It sales, prices and costs are as expected, what will be the operating income and the
break-even volume in sales revenue?
64 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES (ii) Assume that prices and costs were as expected but Taylor sold 12,000 units of B
and 8,000 units of C. Calculate the operating income and the break-even volume
in sales revenue.
[Ans. (i) Operating Income Nil; Break-even Sales 10,20,000
(ii) Loss ` 20,000; Composite Break-even Sales ` 10,37,763 comprising
sales of Product B ` 6,22,658 and sales of Product C ` 4,15,105]
20. The Kisan’s Implements Factory which has been specialising in the production of a
patented plough-share finds its sales dropping due to increasing competition from other
concerns producing similar products. It is felt that the reduction of the selling price
from ` 3 per share to ` 2.50 will increase the volume of sales and enable the profit to
be maintained at the same level as in the previous year.
Assuming that the total fixed charges of the concern are ` 2,00,000 per annum, variable
cost per unit ` 1.50 and the volume of sales ` 4,50,000; indicate the number of units
that the concern should plan to produce and sell.
Tabulate the results of the previous year and the current year showing (a) the number
of units produced, (b) selling price realized, (c) cost price (including fixed and variable
costs), and (d) the profit at the end of the year.
[Ans. (a) Previous Year : 1,50,000 units, Current Year ` 5,62,500;

(b) Selling Price : Previous Year ` 4,50,000, Current Year ` 5,62,500;
(d) Profit : Previous Year ` 25,000; Current Year ` 25,000.]
21. The particulars of two plants producing an identical product with the selling price are
as under:
Plant P Plant Q
Capacity utilization 70% 60%
(` Lacs) (` Lacs)
Sales 150 90
Variable Costs 105 75
Fixed Costs 30 20
It has been decided to merge Plant ‘Q’ with Plant ‘P’. The additional fixed expenses
involved in the merger amount to ` 2 lacs.
Required:
(i) Find the break-even point of Plant ‘P’ and Plant ‘Q’ before merger’ and the break-
even point of the merged plant.
(ii) Find the capacity utilization of the integrated plant required to earn a profit of ` 18
lacs.
Ans. (i) Break-even point Plant P ` 100 lacs. Plant Q ` 120 lacs. Merged Plant ` 212. 16
lacs,
(ii) Sales for desired profit ` 285.6 1acs, capacity utilization 78.4%]
Absorption Costing and Marginal Costing 65

22. D. Ltd. furnishes you the following information relating to the half year ended 30th NOTES
June, 1990:
`
Fixed Expenses 45,000
Sales Value 1,50,000
Profit 30,000
During the second half of the year, the company has projected a loss of ` 10,000.
Calculate:
(i) The break-even point and margin of safety for six months ending 30th June, 1990.
(ii) Expected sales volume for second half of the year assuming that the P/V ratio and
fixed expenses remain constant in the second half year also.
(iii) The break-even point and margin of safety for the whole year 1990.
[Ans. BEP ` 90,000; M.S. ` 60,000; (ii) ` 70,000; (iii) BEP 1,80,000; M.S. ` 40,000]
23. The following estimated data are given:
(a) Cost of investigation of variance = ` 800
(b) Cost of correcting the out of control process = ` 2,000
(c) Cost of allowing the process to remain out of control = ` 10,000
(d) Probability of being in control = 0.95
(e) Probability of being out of control = 0.05
Calculate the expected values of investigating and not investigating.
[Ans. Cost of investigation and rectifying out of control situation ` 900, cost of rectification
without investigation ` 500. Hence, it is cheaper not to investigate but carry out the
rectification, whenever the process goes out of control.]
24. Draw a break-even chart on the basis of following data:
Plant capacity : 1,60,000 units per year
Fixed cost : ` 4,00,000 Variable cost : ` 5 per unit
Selling price : ` 10 per unit
[Ans. BEP 80,000 units]
25. From the following particulars draw a break-even chart and find out the break-even point:
`
Variable Cost per unit 15
Fixed Expenses 54,000
Selling Price per unit 20
We should be the selling price per unit, if the break-even point is to be brought down
to 6,000 units?
[Ans. Old BEP 10,800 units; New Selling Price ` 24 per unit]

66 Cost and Management Accounting

26. (a) Plot the following data on a graph and determine the break-even point:
NOTES
Direct labour ` 100 per unit
Direct material ` 40 per unit
Variable overheads 100% of direct labour
Fixed overheads ` 60,000
Selling price ` 400 per unit
(b) In order to increase efficiency in production, the concern instals improved machinery which
results in fixed overhead of ` 20,000 but the variable overhead is reduced by 40%.
You are required to plot the data on the above graph and to determine the new
break-even point assuming that there is no change is sale price.
[Ans. Old BEP at 50% capacity ` 1,50,000, New BEP ` 1,60,000]
27. From the following data, which product would you recommend to be manufactured in
a factory, time being the key factor?
Per unit of Per unit of
Product ‘P’ Product ‘Q’
Direct Material ` 24 ` 14
Direct labour at ` 1 per hour 2 3
Variable Overheads at ` 2 per hour 4 6
Selling Price 100 110
Standard Time to produce 2 hours 3 hours
[Ans. Product P recommended]
28. From the following data, recommend the most profitable product mix, presuming that
direct labour hours available are only 700:
Products
R S
Contribution per unit ` 30 ` 20
Direct Labour per unit 10 hrs. 5 hrs.
The maximum production possible for each of the products A and B 100 units.
The fixed overheads are ` 1,000
[Ans. Product R 20 units; Product S 100 units. Net profit ` 1,600]
29. (a) From the following data, which product would you recommend for manufacture in
the factory?
Per unit of Product P Product Q
Standard Manufacturing Time 2 hours 3 hours
Direct Materials ` 50 ` 30
Direct Labour @ 10 per hour 20 30
Variable Overheads @ 6 per hour 12 18
Selling Price 200 240
Total Machine Hours available in the factory are 60,000.
Absorption Costing and Marginal Costing 67
(b) Calculate the effect on profit of proposed change in ‘Sales Mix’ from the following data:
NOTES
Existing Sales mix M N O P Total
Sales (in) ` 80,000 1,00,000 40,000 20,000 2,40,000
Variable Cost (in) ` 48,000 68,000 32,000 8,000 1,56,000
Fixed Cost (in) ` – – – – –
Proposed Sales Mix `60,000 88,000 80,000 12,000 2,40,000
[Ans. (a) Product P is recommended (b) Decrease in Profit 8,640, Present Profit ` 25,200,
Proposed Profit 16,560]
30. Polestar Electronics decides to effect a 10% reduction in the price of its product because
it is felt that such a step may lead to a greater volume of sales.
It is anticipated that there are no prospects of a change in total fixed costs and variable
cost per unit. The directors wish to maintain the net profits at the present level.
Sales : 10,000 units ` 2,00,000
Variable Costs ` 15 per unit
Fixed Costs ` 40,000
How would management proceed to implement this decision?
[Ans. Profit ` 10,000; Units to be sold 16,667. Management should reduce selling price
only when it is sure of increasing sales by 6,667 units]
31. Evenkeel Limited manufactures and sells a single product X whose selling price is `40
per unit and the variable cost is 16 per unit.
(a) If the fixed costs for this year are ` 4,80,000 and the annual sales are at 50% margin of
safety, calculate the rate of net return on sales assuming an income-tax level of 40%
(b) For the next year, it is proposed to add another product line whose selling price
would be ` 50 per unit and the variable cost 10 per unit. The total fixed costs are
estimated at ` 6,66,600. The sales mix of X : Y would be 7 : 3. At what sales
next year, would Evenkeel Ltd. break-even; give separately for both X and Y the
break-even sales in rupees and quantities.
[Ans. (a) 4,32,000/20,00,000 = 21.6% (b) Break-even Sales ` 10,00,000. The mix would
consist of x 17,675 units of ` 7,07,000 y 6,065 units of ` 3,03,000]
32. With a view to increase the volume of sales, Ambitious Enterprises has in mind a
proposal to reduce the price of its products by 20% No change in total fixed costs or
variable costs per unit is estimated. The directors, however, desire the ‘present level of
profit to be maintained.
The following information has been provided:
Sales 50,000 units ` 5,00,000
Variable Costs ` 5 per unit
Fixed Costs ` 50,000
Advise management on the basis of the various calculations made from the data given
[Ans. Present P/V Ratio 50%, Future P/V Ratio 37.5% Sales required to maintain present
profit 6,66,667]
68 Cost and Management Accounting
33. Quality Products Ltd. manufactures and markets a single product. The following data
NOTES
are available :
Per unit ` 16
Materials 12
Conversion Costs (variable) 4
Dealer’s Margin 40
Selling Price ` 5 lakhs
Present Sales 90,000 units
Capacity utilization 60 percent
There is acute competition. Extra efforts are necessary to sell. Suggestions have been
made for increasing sales:
(a) By reducing sale price by 5 per cent
(b) By increasing dealer’s margin by 25 per cent over the existing rate.
Which of these two suggestions you would recommend, if the company desires to
maintain the present profit? Give reasons
[Ans. The second proposal, i.e., increasing dealer’s margin is recommended because of
higher contribution per unit and lower volume of sales required to earn the same profit]
[Hint. Contribution per unit is ` 6 in the (a) case as compared to ` 7 in the (b) case.]
34. Murugesan Ltd. manufacturing single product, is facing severe competition in selling
it at ` 50 per unit. The company is operating at 60% level of activity at which level
sales are ` 12,00,000. Variable costs are ` 30 per unit. Semi-variable costs may be
considered as fixed at ` 90,000 when output is nil and the variable element is 250 for
each additional 1% level of activity. Fixed costs are ` 1,50,000 at the present level of
activity, but at a level of activity of 80% or above these costs are expected to increase
by ` 50,000.
To cope with the competition, the management of the company is considering a proposal
to reduce the selling price by 5%. You are required to prepare a statement showing the
operating profit at levels of activity of 60%, 70%, and 80% assuming that:
(a) the selling price remains at ` 50
(b) the selling price is reduced 5%
Show also the number of units which will be required to be sold to maintain the present
profit if the company decided to reduce the selling price of the product by 5%.
[Ans. Capacity levels 60% 70% 80%
` ` `
(i) Profit at selling price of 50 2,25,000 3,02,500 3,30,000
(ii) Profit if selling price is reduced by 5% 1,65,000 2,32,500 2,50,000
(iii) Sales for desired profit of ` 2,25,000 : 27,556 units]
Absorption Costing and Marginal Costing 69
35. The trading results of Oxfam Ltd. for the first year of business which ended on 31st
NOTES
December, 1991 are:
` `
Sales (at ` 40 per unit) 32,00,000
Less :
Material 12,00,000
Labour 4,80,000
Variable Overhead 2,40,000
Fixed Overhead 5,00,000 24,20,000
7,80,000
During 1991 the factory has been working at 50% capacity and the marketing manager has
estimated that the quantity sold could be doubled in 1992 if the selling price was reduced
to 35 per unit. No change is anticipated in unit variable cost, but certain administration
change to cope with the additional volume of work would increase fixed overheads by
` 40,000.
You are required to:
(a) Evaluate the marketing manager’s proposal; and
(b) Assuming the selling price was reduced, as proposed, unit variable cost remaining
as in 1991, and fixed overhead increased by ` 40,000, calculate what quantity
would need to be sold in 1992, in order to yield a profit of ` 10,00,000.
[Ans. (a) The proposal should be accepted since this will increase profit by ` 4,40,000;
(b) ` 1,40,000 units]
70 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES UNIT 3: JOB ORDER COST SYSTEMS

Structure
3.0 Learning Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Job Costing
3.3 Cost Allocation and Activity - Based Costing
3.4 Process Cost System Normal Loss and Abnormal Loss
3.5 Joint product and By-products
3.6 Equivalent Production
3.7 Summary
3.8 Key Terms
3.9 Questions and Exercises

3.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:
 Describe job costing, objectives and its advantages and disadvantages.
 Distinction between job costing and process costing.
 Understand the importance of process costing.
 Normal and abnormal loss in process.
 Explain the by-products and joint products.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Job costing is that form of specific order costing under which each job is treated as a cost
unit and cost are accumulated and ascertained separately for each job. A job may consist of
a job, product, batch of products, contract, a service or any other specific order.
In the second system production takes place on the special order of the customer known as
specific order production. In job costing system production is done as per the special need
and requirement of the customer as per the customer’s choice and preference or liking. In
the specific costing goods are produced for each customer as per the special requirement,
design, size, or colour, price etc. as per the desire of customer. So the production cannot be
standardised. So specific costing is also known as order costing. Under this method cost of
production is accumulated and calculated as per the production need of the goods. CIMA,
London defines job costing as “that form of specific order costing which applies where work
is undertaken according to customer’s specification.”
Specific order costing can be (1) Job costing (2) Batch costing (3) Contract costing.
Job Order Cost Systems 71

3.2 JOB COSTING NOTES

(i) Objectives of Job Costing:

(i) It helps to find out the cost of production for each job or order.
(ii) Comparison is possible for actual cost and estimated cost to help to find out the
efficiency or inefficiency in execution of jobs carried out.
(iii) Future quotation for similar jobs may becomes easier for the management on the
basis of cost Data.
(iv) Valuation of work in progress becomes easier for each job.
(v) To calculate accurate cost of production for each job is possible because identity
number of job.

(ii) Advantages of Job Costing:

(i) It helps to find out cost of production of each job as per the elements of cost like
material, labour, direct expenses and other overheads are recorded for each job
separately.
(ii) Accurate recording of cost for each job is possible as each job has distinct identity
number and thus control on cost is easier.
(iii) Application of Budgetary Control system is possible as predetermined overhead
rate is applied for absorbing overheads for each job.
(iv) Jobs which are profitable and jobs which are not profitable can be distinguished for
managerial control decision.
(v) Job costing helps in identifying spoilage and defective work with each job and this
helps in fixing responsibility of the concerned department or person in the department.
(vi) Fixation of selling price or quotation price of the jobs becomes easier for the
management.
(vii) Job costing helps in the application of cost plus pricing of the jobs undertaken as
per the agreement between the buyer and the producer.

(iii) Disadvantages or Weaknesses of Job Costing:

The following may be the disadvantages of the system:
(i) The job Costing ascertain the cost after the job is complete and thus it is Historical
Cost. So the cost of production cannot be controlled during the production process.
(ii) Comparison of one job with another job may not be possible as the job differs in
their nature and there are changes either in cost or in method of production.
(iii) Job costing involves a lot of clerical work in daily recording of cost so chances of
errors are more and the system becomes expensive.
(iv) At every stage of production each job needs separate identity to be maintained
which is very difficult so many times.
(v) So many pre-requisites are needed for job costing for getting the accurate results.
These pre-requisites may be like time-booking, rate of recovery of overheads, clearly
defined material issue method etc.
72 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES (iv) Procedure of Job Order Cost Accounting:

The system adopted should help to calculate, and provide cost data for the job performed.
The cost components for each job should be discussed in detail on the Cost Sheet which is
prepared for every order or job. The production procedure requires special planning, routing,
scheduling and controlling system.
There may be the following points for a job:
(i) Receiving an Enquiry: First of all various enquires about the job to be performed are
sought by the customer from the producer. These enquires may relate to quantity
of output quality of product, price of the product, time needed to fulfill the order,
packing, delivery terms etc.
(ii) Estimation of the Cost: Estimation of cost is required for arriving at the price of
the job to be quoted to the customer by adding profit to the cost of production.
These estimates of the cost, element wise are recorded on the cost sheet. Estimated
cost are also compared with actual to calculate the variances if there is any and to
control these variances.
(iii) Receiving of Order: If the customer is satisfied with the various terms and conditions
of the producer regarding quality, price, delivery date etc. then the customer will
place the order with supplier.
(iv) Job Order Number: When the order is placed by the customer then job number
like 101, 102, 103, etc. are allotted to each job to maintain separate identity and
for recording various items of expenses for the concerned job.
(v) Production Order or Job Order: When a job ordered by the customer is accepted
then Production Planning Department prepares a production or job Order. It is a
written order to the production department or manufacturing department to carry
out the job as per the special requirement or specifications of the customers. It
is containing all the information to the former regarding job i.e. material, labour,
departments, routing, scheduling, tools etc.:
(vi) Recording of Cost: For each job costs are collected and recorded. For this purpose a
job Cost Sheet (or job Cost Card) is prepared for each job. In the job cost card the
record for material, labour and other overheads is maintained to calculate the cost
of production. Completion Report is sent to the Costing Department for recording,
analysis of cost in its ledger and to fix the selling price.
(vii) Profit or Loss on Job: It is the difference in the selling price and the cost of job
completed in the production Department.
(viii) Completion of Job: When the job is completed a report known as Job. Cost Sheet
or Job Report is prepared.
Illustration 3.1
The following information is given from cost record of a factory for Job No. 103.
Direct Material ` 8,020
Wages:
Department A : 120 Hrs.@ ` per Hour
Department B : 80 Hrs.@ ` per Hour
Department C : 40 Hrs.@ ` 5 per Hour
Job Order Cost Systems 73
The variable overheads are as follows: NOTES
Department A : ` 5,000 for 5000 Hours.
Department B : ` 3,000 for 1500 Hours.
Department C : ` 2,000 for 500 Hours.
Fixed expenses estimated at ` 20,000 for 10,000 working hours. Calculate the cost for Job
No. 103 and the price for the job to give a profit of 25% on the selling price.
Solution:
Job Cost Sheet (Job No. 103)
Particulars Amount (`)
Material 8,020
Wages
Deptt. A 120 × 4 = 480
Deptt. B 80 × 3 = 240
Deptt. C 40 × 5 = 200
Overheads-variable 920
Deptt A 120 × 1 = 120 Prime cost 8,940
Deptt. B 80 × 2 = 160
Deptt. C 40 × 4 = 160 440
Overheads Fixed 240 × 2 480
9,860
Profit (25% on S.P. or 33.3% on cost) 3,287
Selling Price 13.147

Working Notes:
(i) Variable overhead rates have been calculated as follows:
Variable Overheads
V.O.R. =
Direct Labour Hours

5, 000
Deptt. A = = ` 1
5, 000

3, 000
Deptt. B = = ` 2
1, 500

2, 000
Deptt. C = = ` 4
500
(ii) Fixed overhead rate has been calculated
Fixed Expenses 20, 000
F.O.R . = = = ` 2
Working Hours 10, 000

Total hours for job = 120 + 80 + 40 = 240

Total fixed overheads 240 × 2 = ` 480 (hrs × Rate per hour)
74 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES Illustration 3.2

The following information relates to job No.123 ordered by Dinesh.
Particulars Deptt. A Deptt. B Deptt. C
Material consumed ( Rupee) 6, 000 2, 000 3, 000
Direct Labourwage Rate per hour ( Rupee) 4 5 6
Direct Labour Hours 400 300 500

Fixed Factory overheads are to be charged ` 6 per direct labour hour.
Office overheads 60% of factory cost
Profit : 20% on selling price.
Calculate the total cost and quotation of Job No.123.
Solution:       Cost Sheet (Job No. 123)
Particulars Amount (`)
Deptt. A Deptt. B Deptt. C
Material (`) 6,000 + 2,000 + 3,000 = 11,000 11,000
Direct Labour 1,600 + 1,500 + 3,000 = 6,100 6,100
400 × 4
300 × 5
500 × 6
Prime Cost 17,100
Add: Fixed factory overheads @ ` 6 for 1200 hours 7,200
Works Cost 24,300
Add: Office overheads (60% of FC or WC) 14,850
Cost of Production 38,880
Add : Profit (20% on S.P. or a 25% on cost) 9,720
Quotation Price 48,600

Illustration 3.3
X Co. Ltd. had absorbed overheads by means of a blanket rate based on direct labour hours.
As from 1st January, 2014, it decides to adopt separate rates for the three main activities
– storekeeping and material handling, machining and assembly. The estimates of costs and
absorption rates for selling and distribution costs remain unchanged.
Overhead absorption rates are:
Prior to 1st January, 2014:
Production overhead – ` 0.50 per direct labour hour.
Selling and distribution overhead – 25% of production cost.
From 1st January, 2014:
Production overhead:
Storekeeping and material handling – 10% of direct material cost.
Machinery - ` 0.75 per machine hour.
Assembly – ` 0.30 per labour hour.
Job Order Cost Systems 75

Selling and distribution overhead – 25% of production cost. NOTES

Direct costs of job 101 have been: `
Direct Material Cost 90
Direct Wages:
Machinery 200 hours @ ` 0.60 120
Assembly 100 hours @ ` 0.40 40
250
Contract price of the job is ` 525 and it requires 180 machine hours to complete.
Show the job cost sheet for job 101:
(a) as it would appear if the job had been completed prior to 1st January, 2014
(b) as it would appear if the job were completed in January, 2014.
Solution:
(a) Job Cost Sheet for Job 101
Date of completion: 31. 12. 2013
Particulars Amount (`)
Direct Material Cost 90
Direct Wages:
Machinery 200 hours @ ` 0.60 120
Assembly 100 hours @ ` 0.40 40
Prime Cost 250
Production overhead 300 hours @ ` 0.50 150
Production Cost 400
Selling & Distribution overhead 25% of ` 400 100
Total Cost 500
Profit 25
Selling Price 525
(b) Job Cost Sheet for Job 101
Date of completion : Jan. 2014
Particulars Amount (`)
Direct Material Cost 90
Storekeeping & Material handling 10% of ` 90 9
Machinery:
Direct wages 200 hours @ ` 0.60 = 120 255
Assembly:
Direct wages 100 hours @ ` 0.40 = 40 70
Overhead 100 hours @ ` 0.30 = 30 424
Production Cost 106
Selling & Distribution overhaed 25% of ` 424 530
Total cost 5
Selling price 525
76 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES 3.3 COST ALLOCATION AND ACTIVITY BASED-COSTING

Allocation
After the overheads are collected from various sources they are to be identified to a particular
product, process, job, cost centre for which these have been incurred. If it can be (The
department) identified easily for which these overheads relate then they are charged to that
department. This process of charging the overhead to a particular department is known as
allocation.

Allocation of Overhead
Allocation of overhead is the process of charging the full amount of an item of cost directly to a
cost centre for which the item of cost was incurred. According to I.C.M.A., "Allocation means
the allotment of whole item of cost to cost centre or cost unit".
Thus, allocation of cost means charging the full amount of a cost to a cost centre. The nature
of the expenses is such that it can be easily identified and allocated to the cost centre or to
the cost unit of production. As repair to machinery, repair to factory etc. are production
overhead these are to be allocated to production centre. Salary to sales manager is a selling
overhead and so on.
Activity - Based Cost Allocation
Activity - Based Costing (ABC) is a method of charging overheads to cost units (such as
products, services or customers) on the basis of activities performed for the cost unit. There are
different activities involved in manufacturing a product or rendering of services. Each activity
consumes some resources of the organization which incur costs. Thus, cost of resources is
all allocated to each product/service on the basis of activities in manufacturing product or
providing service.
The CIMA technology defines ABC as a "cost attribution to cost units on the basis of benefit
received from indirect activities"
Thus, ABC is the process of tracing costs first from resources to activities and then from activities
to specific products. The technique of ABC lays the importance of different costs for different
purposes and the identification of just those costs which are relevant to a particular decision

3.4 PROCESS COST SYSTEM: NORMAL AND ABNORMAL LOSS

(i) Rules/Principles of Process Cost Accounting:

The following principles or rules are generally applied to calculate process costing for each
process carried out in the organisation:
(i) A separate account for each process is opened and each process is considered as
a separate department or cost centre to calculate cost of each process.
(ii) All the direct and indirect expenses related to a specific process are shown in debit
of the concerned process.
(iii) All the losses which takes place in a process are shown in the credit of that process
account.
(iv) If there is any by-product in any process and the by-product has any sale price or
market price then it is shown on the credit of the process concerned.
(v) The output of the previous process is transferred to the next process, and the final
product is then transferred to Finished Stock account.
Job Order Cost Systems 77
(vi) When total cost of the process is divided by the units produced in that process it NOTES
results into per unit cost of that process.
(vii) In process costing system the units produced in each process are also recorded and
hence there is a separate column for units introduced and units produced in every
process. The normal loss, abnormal loss or abnormal effective are also recorded
in units in the process account as the case may be.
(viii) If the half manufactured goods or work in progress is sold during any process then
it is shown in the credit of the concerned process account.
(ix) If the product of one process is transferred to another process by adding profit then
the goods transferred in the credit by adding profit in that and the profit is shown
in the debit of the process account.
Difference between Job Costing and Process Costing

Basis Job Costing Process Costing

In Job costing work is performed Work, in process costing is performed

1. Performance generally inside the factory or at the within the factory premises.
work site.
In process costing work is
Production Generally work is started after receiving
2. performed for stock purpose on the
Order the special order from the customer.
continuous basis.
In process costing work of the next
In the Job costing every contract is
process depends on the work of the
3. Transfer separate and independent from each
previous process. So the processes are
job.
interrelated to each other.
Cost Control Being every job is separate and each Being each process is standardised
job has special characteristics and the and stable and can be predetermined
4.
job is not standardised so cost control is so control is easier.
difficult.
In process costing, costs are calculated
Cost In contract costing actual cost can be
5. on the basis of period after the
Calculation known only after the Job is complete.
completion of the process.
In process costing, per unit cost
In Job costing, the total cost of each Job
6. Per unit cost is calculated after the process is
is calculated.
complete.
In process costing, as the process is a
Separate In Job costing, every Job is a separate
7. continuous process so the products
Entity entity.
lose their separate identity.
Production is homogenous and
8. Nature Each job may be different.
standardized.
9. Cost Centre The cost centre is a job. The cost centre is a process.
Work-in There may or may not be work-in- There is always some work in process
10.
progress progress. being production is continuous,
Lower degree of control is required
Degree of Higher degree of control is required
11. because of homogenous products and
control because of homogenous job.
standardized process.
78 Cost and Management Accounting
Illustration 3.4
NOTES
The product of a process has to pass through three processes known as X, Y and Z. The cost
books reveals the following information.
Process X Y Z
Direct Material 15,000 9,000 7,000
Direct Labour 7,000 6,000 4,000
Direct Expenses 4,000 5,000 3,000
The indirect expenses were ` 5,100 for the period. The by-product of process Y was sold
for ` 600 and the residue of process Z for ` 400. The output was of 500 units during the
period. Prepare Process account.
Solution:
Process X Account (output 500 units)
Particulars Amount Particulars Amount
(`) (`)
To Direct Material 15,000 By Process Y 28,100
To Direct Labour 7,000 @ ` 56,20
To Direct Expenses 4,000 (Output Transferred)
To Indirect Expenses 2,100
28,100 28,100
Process Y Account
Particulars Amount Particulars Amount
(`) (`)
To Process X 28,100 By Sale of by-product 600
To Direct Material 9,000 By Process Z 49,300
To Direct Labour 6,000 @ ` 98.60
To Direct Expenses 6,000 (Output Transferred)
To Indirect Expenses 1,800
49,900 49,900
Process Z Account

Amount Amount
Particulars Particulars
(`) (`)
To Process Y 49,300 By Sale of Residue 400
To Direct Material 7,000 By Finished Stock A/c 64,100
To Direct Labour 4,000 @ ` 128.20
To Direct Expenses 3,000
To Indirect Expenses 1,200
64,500 64,500
Working Note: Indirect expenses have been apportioned in the ratio of direct labour.

Loss in Weight and Sale of Scrap

In so many industries when the goods are in manufacturing process there can be loss in
weight of the input of material due to evaporation, moisture like chemicals, spirit, alcohol,
Job Order Cost Systems 79
essence etc. There can be weight loss also in the material because of working as furniture NOTES
making from wood, or boring and drilling on iron bars etc. This is known as scrap. The
scrap sometime is sold at a nominal value in the market or may not having any value. But it
results into weight loss of the quantity in output. This loss is shown in the credit of process
account. This loss increases the cost of production of the product produced in the process. If
the scrap is sold then the sale value of scrap is also shown on the credit of process account
which results into decreasing the cost of production.
Illustration 3.5
The Bengal Chemical Co. Ltd. produced three chemicals during the month of July 2014 by
the consecutive processes. In each process 2% of the total weight put in is lost and 10% is
scrap which from process I and II realise ` 100 per ton and from process III ` 20 per ton.
The products of three processes are dealt with as follows:
Process I II III
Passed to the Next process 75% 50% -
Stock Kept for sale 25% 50% 100%
Expenses Incurred
Process I Process II Process III
(`) Tons (`) Tons (`) Tons
Raw Material 1,20,000 1,000 28,000 140 1,07,840 1,348
Manufacturing and General 30,800 28,760 18,100 –
Expenses
Prepare process cost accounts showing the cost per ton of each product.

Solution:
Process I Account
Amount Amount
Particular Tons Particular Tons
(`) (`)

To Material issued 1,000 1,20,000 By Loss in weight  1000 × 2  20 –

 100 

30,800 By sales of scrap  1000 × 10  100 10,000

 100 
By Transfer to Stock 220 35,200
25
(1000 − 100 − 20) = 880 ×
100
@ ` 160 per ton
660 1,05,600
By Process II 1,000 1,50,800
1,000 1,50,800
880 – 220 = 660 tons@ ` 160

Total Cost − Sale of Scrap 1, 50, 800 − 10, 000

Note: Cost per ton = = = ` 160 per ton.
Output in units 880
80 Cost and Management Accounting
Process II Account
NOTES
Particular Tons Amount Particular Tons Amount
(`) (`)
To Process I 660 1,05,600 By Loss in weight (2% of 800 ton) 16 –
2
800 ×
100 80 8,000
To Material Issued 140 28,000
By sales of scrap 800 × 10
To Manufacturing – 100
Exp. 25,760 By Transfer to Stock 352 76,680

50
(800 − 16 − 80) 704 × 352 76,680
100
800 1,59,360 By Transfer to Process III @ 215 per ton 800 1,59,360

1, 59, 360 − 8000

Note : Cost per ton = = ` 215 per ton.
704

Process III Account

Particular Tons Amount Particular Tons Amount
(`) (`)
To Transfer from 352 75,580 By Loss in Weight 34 -
Process II (2% of 1700 tons)

To Material Issued 1346 1,07,840 By Sale of Scrap 170 3,400

(10% of 1700 tons)
To Manufacturing - 18,100 By Transfer to Stocks 1,496 1,98,220
Expenses 1,700 2,01,620 1,700 2,01,620

2, 01, 620 − 3400

Note: Cost per ton = = `132.50 per ton.
1496

Loss in Production
During production process there may be some losses in processing of raw material into
finished foods. This loss sometime may be natural or inherent (due to the nature of product)
or unnatural. The loss in production results into loss in weight of the output then input. This
loss can be of two types:
(i) Normal Loss; (ii) Abnormal Loss
(i) Normal Loss: The loss which is expected in advance by the management due to the nature
of product, process or the loss which cannot be controlled or the loss which cannot
be prevented or the loss which is to take place during production process is known as
Normal Loss. As for example some cloth is wasted while dress is prepared from a piece
of cloth, some leather pieces remain unutilised while preparing shoes from leather or
wood pieces are left unused while doors, windows or furniture are made by the carpenter.
All this is a natural phenomenon while production take place. This loss decreases the
output. This loss may have sale value process account. The normal loss increases the
cost of the useable goods (or good units produced) in the process. As for example.
Job Order Cost Systems 81
In a process 2,000 units of raw material @ ` 8 per unit are used. The normal loss is expected NOTES
10% the market value of the normal loss is ` 3 per unit. Then
Input = 2,000 units
Less: Normal Loss 10% = 200 units
Normal output = 1,800 units
Cost of the Input = 2000 × 8 = ` 16,000
Sale value of the normal loss 200 × 3 = 600
Cost of the normal output = 15,400
15, 400
Cost per unit of output = = ` 8.55
1800
If there is no sale value of the normal loss in the market then the cost per unit of the good
16, 000
units produced will be = = ` 8.88
1800 units

Note: Thus the sale price, if there is any of the normal loss, helps to reduce the cost of
production of the good units produced.
Some special features of the normal loss:
(a) This loss is expected to take place in advance on the basis of past experience.
(b) This loss cannot be prevented or avoided or it cannot be controlled.
(c) Normal loss in production results into increase in cost of production.
(d) This loss is shown in the credit of the related process account.
(e) This loss may have; or may not have some sale value in the market.
Accounting treatment of Natural Loss
1. For realizable value of normal loss Normal Loss A/c Dr.
( Units of normal loss × recovery price per unit ) To Pr ocess A/c
2. For adjustment of abnormal gain against normal loss
Abnormal gain A/c Dr.
( Units of abnormal gain × sale price of normal loss per
To Normal Loss A/c
unit in the same process)
3. For closing the normal loss account and the balance Cash/Debtors A/c Dr.
transferred to Cash / Debitors A/c To Normal Loss A/c

(ii) Abnormal Loss: It is an avoidable loss which occurs due to abnormal reasons like
using sub-standard materials, carelessness of workers, breakdown of machinery, poor or
defective design of plant etc. Such losses are in excess of predetermined normal losses.
Such losses cannot be estimated in advance. Such losses arise when actual losses are
more than the expected losses, i.e., normal losses.
Units of abnormal loss = Units of actual Loss – Units of normal Loss
Or
       = Expected output (i.e., Input – Normal loss) – Actual Output

Normal cos t of normal Output

Value of Abnormal loss = × Units of abnormal loss
normal output
82 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES Total cos t incurred − Scrap value of normal loss

   = × Units of abnormal loss
Total input − Units of normal Loss
Illustration 3.6
From the following prepare process account and abnormal loss account.
Material Issued 8,000 units @ ` 12 per unit.
Labour Charges ` 44,000.
Other Expenses ` 25,000.
Normal Loss 10% of units introduced.
Sale price of normal loss @ 6 per unit.
Actual output 6,900 units.
Solution:
Process Account
Amount Amount
Particulars Units Particulars Units
(`) (`)

To Material @ ` 12 8,000 96,000 By Normal Loss 10% 800 4,800

per unit By Abnormal Loss @ ` 22.25 300 6,675
To Labour 44,000 per unit
(8,000 – 800 ) = 72,000
To Other Expenses 25,000 7200 – 6900 = 300 units
By Next Process @ ` 22.25 per 6900 1,53,525
8,000 1,65,000 unit 8,000 1,65,000

Working Notes:
Abnormal Loss = (9,000 – 800 – 6900) = 300 unit
Normal Cost of Normal output = 1,65,000 – 4,8000 = ` 1,60,200
Normal output = 8,000 – 800 = 7200 units
Normal Cost of Normal Output
Cost of Abnormal Loss = × Abnormal Loss of Units
Normal Output

1, 60, 200
= × 300 = ` 6,675
7, 200

1, 53, 525
Cost per unit of good units produced = = ` 22.25
6900

Abnormal Loss Account

Amount Amount
Particulars Units Particulars Units
(`) (`)

To Process A/c 300 6,675 By Cash Sale price of 300 units

@ `6 per unit 300 1,800
300 6,675 By Profit & Loss A/c 4,875
300 6,675
Job Order Cost Systems 83

Abnormal Gain or Abnormal Effective: NOTES

When the actual output is more than the expected output or when the actual loss is less than
the normal loss the difference between the two is known as abnormal gain. This situation may
arise due to various reasons like extra efficiency of the workers, better working environment,
satisfied staff, or when due recognition is given for better performance of the workers.
Cost of Abnormal Gain: The cost calculation is important as the benefit of this extra efficiency
should not be absorbed in the process but it should be separately accounted for, and hence
the profit due to abnormal gain should be credited to Costing profit and loss account.

Normal Cost of the Normal Output

Cost of Abnormal Gain = × Abnormal Gain (in units)
Normal Output

Illustration 3.7
Mandex Ltd. Process a patent material used in buildings. The material is produced in three
grades namely, soft, medium and hard. Figures are given for year 2010 as follows:
Process I process II Process III
Raw material used 1,000 tonnes
Cost per tonne ` 200
Wages & Manufacturing Exp. ` 72,500 ` 40,800 ` 10,710
Weight lost 5% 10% 20%
Scrap Sold at ` 50 per tonne 50 tonnes 30 tonnes 51 tonnes
Sale Price of the Product per tonne ` 350 ` 500 ` 800
Management expenses were ` 17,500, selling expenses ` 10,000 and interest on borrowed
capital ` 4,000.
2/3rd of process I and ½ of process II are passed on to the next process and the balance
are sold.
Prepare the process account in suitable form to be presented to directors in the next meeting.
Solution:
Process I Account
Amount Amount
Particulars Tonnes Particulars Tonnes
(`) (`)
To Material @ 1,000 2,00,000 By Sale of scrap@ ` 50 per 50 2,500
` 200 per tone 72,500 tone
To Wages & - By Loss in Weight 5% 50 –
Salaries By Transfer to stock A/c @ 900 2,70,000
1,000 2,72,500 ` 300 per tonne 1,000 2,72,500

Stock Account Process I

Amount Amount
Particulars Tonnes Particulars Tonnes
(`) (`)
To Process I 900 2,70,000 By Sale @ ` 350 per 300 1,05,000
tonne
To Profit @ ` 50 - 15,000
per tonne on 300 By Process II 900 × 2/3 900 1,80,000
tonne 900 2,85,000 900 2,85,000
84 Cost and Management Accounting
Process II Account
NOTES
Amount Amount
Particulars Tonnes Particulars Tonnes
(`) (`)
To Process I 600 1,80,000 By Sale of scrap @ ` 50 per tonne 30 1,500
Stock A/c By Loss in Weight 10% 60 -
To Wages & - 40,800 By Stock A/c @ ` 430 per tonne 510 2,19,300
Expenses
600 2,20,800 600 2,20,800

Stock Account
Amount Amount
Particulars Tonnes Particulars Tonnes
(`) (`)
To Process II 510 2,19,300 By Sale @ ` 500 per tonne 255 1,27,500

To Profit @ ` 70 per - 17,850 By Process III 510×½ 255 1,09,650

tronne on 225 tonne
510 2,37,150 510 2,37,150

Process III Account

Amount Amount
Particulars Tonnes Particulars Tonnes
(`) (`)
To Process I Stock A/c 255 1,09,650 By Sale of scrap @ ` 51 2,550
To Wages & Expenses 10,710 50 per tone
- By Loss in Weight 20% 51 -
By Stock A/c @ ` 770 153 1,17,810
per tonne
255 1,20,360 255 1,20,360

Stock Account
Amount Amount
Particulars Tonnes Particulars Tonnes
(`) (`)
To Process III 153 1,17,810 By Sale @ ` 800 per 153 1,22,400
tone
To Profit @ ` 30 per - 4,590
tonne
153 1,22,400 153 1,22,400

Profit and Loss Account

Amount Amount
Particulars Particulars
` `
To Management Expenses 17,500 By Process I Stock A/c 15,000
To Selling Expenses 10,000 By Process II Stock A/c 17,800
To Interest on Capital 4,000 By Process III Stock A/c 4,500
To Net Profit 5,940
37,440 37,440
Job Order Cost Systems 85

3.5 JOINT PRODUCTS AND BY-PRODUCTS NOTES

Sometime when the production of a product is process there may be the production of two
or more than two products produced simultaneously from the same row material and in the
same process.
When the two or more products simultaneously are of equal marketable value they are known
as joint products. These products may be saleable without further processing or after further
processing.

Methods of Apportioning Joint Costs over Joint Products

So the basic and fundamental problem in Joint Product is that of the Apportioning Joint Cost.
The methods used for the purpose can be:
1. Physical Unit method
2. Physical Unit Cost Method
3. Market Price Method
(a) At Point of Separation
(b) After Further Processing
4. Sales Value Method
5. Survey Method/Weight Point Value Method
6. Contribution Margin Method
7. Net Realisable Value Method
8. Reverse Cost Method

1. Physical Unit Method

Under this system the joint expenses prior to split off point are distributed among the products
on the basis of some physical units like quantity of material or weight of material etc. consumes
40% material and product B consumes 60% material then the joint expenses between A and
B will be divided in the ratio of 4 : 6. In this method it is presumed that material is of vital
importance as far as the cost of production is concerned.
Suitability: This method is suitable where the physical units of Joint products are same.
Illustration 3.8
Apportion the Joint Cost of the products X, Y and Z from the following data under physical
unit method. The joint cost are ` 1,20,000.
Product Raw Material units used
X 10,000
Y 15,000
Z 15,000
40,000
Solution:
Cost per unit of raw material will be calculated by the method
Joint Cost (Total) 1,20,000
= = = ` 3
Total of Material units consumed 40, 000
86 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES Product Raw Material units used Cost per unit (`) Joint Expenses(`)
X 10,000 3 30,000
Y 15,000 3 45,000
Z 15,000 3 45,000
1,20,000
2. Physical Unit Cost method
Under this method the joint cost before the point of split off are divided by the total units
produced to find out the average cost per unit produced. This method thus is applied where
the units produced are of the standard quality and the units are of the same nature.
Illustration 3.9
Apportion the joint expenses on the basis of physical unit cost method from the following
data. Joint expenses ` 90,000.
Product Units produced
A 2,000
B 1,000
C 3,000
6,000
Solution:
90, 000
Average joint cost per unit = = `15 per unit
6, 000(units)

Product Units Produced Cost per unit (`) Joint Cost (`)
A 2,000 15 30,000
B 1,000 15 15,000
C 3,000 15 45,000
90,000

3. Market Price Method

(a) At the point of Separation: The products produced if are saleable in the market at the
point of separation then the joint cost may be apportioned on the basis of market-price
of the product at the separation point
Illustration 3.10
From the following information apportion the joint cost of ` 1,35,000 under the market price
method at the point of separation
Product Units Produced Market Price
A 6,000 30
B 2,000 20
C 5,000 40
Solution:
Market Price Method
Joint Cost Cost Per Unit
Product Units Produced Market Price (`)
(`) (3 : 2: 4) (`)
A 6,000 30 45,000 7.50
B 2,000 20 30,000 15.00
C 5,000 40 60,000 12.00
Job Order Cost Systems 87

(b) After Further Processing: This method is more useful and practical as selling price may NOTES
be easily available from the market when the product is saleable and ready as a finished
product. Further processing costs are deducted from the sales value in order to calculate the
ratio in which the joint cost are apportioned.
Illustration 3.11
Asha Ltd. Manufactures two joint products X and Y and sells them at ` 12 and ` 8 per unit
respectively during a particular period. 800 units of X and 1,000 units of Y were produced
and sold. The joint cost incurred was ` 7,000 and the further processing cost for product X
and Y were ` 4,600 and ` 4,000. Apportion the joint expenses.
Solution:
Product Units Selling Sales Less further Sales Value Ratio Joint
Produced Price per (`) Processing less further Cost
unit (`) Cost (`) Processing (`)
Cost (`)
X 800 12 9,600 4,600 5,000 5/9 4,000
Y 1,000 8 8,000 4,000 4,000 4/9 3,200
9,000 7,200

4. Sales Value Method

Under this method the joint cost before the point of split off can be apportioned among the
products on the basis of the sales value of the product. This method is easy and popular for
the absorption of these expenses (joint expenses) into the products.
Illustration 3.12
From the following information apportion the joint expenses of 1,20,000 under the Sales Value
Method.
Product Units Produced Market Price per Unit (`)
A 6,000 40
B 2,000 30
C 3,000 20

Solution:
Product Units Market Price Sales Value Apportioning of Joint Joint Cost per
Produced per Unit (`) (`) Cost (`) 1,20,000 unit (`)
24:6:6
A 6,000 40 2,40,000 80,000 13.33
B 2,000 30 60,000 20,000 16.00
C 3,000 20 20,000 20,000 6.66

5. Survey Method/Weight Point Value Method

Under this method all the important factors related to product like quantity, quality, selling price
demand, advertisement, method or products and other technical aspect etc. are estimated and
collected by conducting a survey. Point value is given to each product and cost is apportioned
on the basis of these points. These survey are conducted regularly to revise and include then
necessary changes as per the time.
Illustration 3.13
The joint cost for a period for product A, B and C are ` 34,800
Production during the period were
88 Cost and Management Accounting
Product
NOTES
A - 800 units
B - 1,000 units
C - 1,200 units
As per technical survey the points allotted to product A, B and C are 5, 4 and 3 respectively.
Apportion the joint cost and calculate cost per unit.
Solution:
Product Units Technical Point value Ratio Apportionment Cost per
Point ` 34,800 Units (`)
A 800 5 4,000 10 12,000 15
B 1,000 4 4,000 10 12,000 12
C 1,200 3 3,600 9 10,800 9
Total 34,800

6. Contribution Margin Method

Under this method the marginal cost (variable cost) of the joint cost are apportioned on
the basis of weight or quantity of each product and fixed cost on the basis of marginal
contribution made by each of the products. This method helps to provide useful information
to the management for taking various managerial decisions like maximization of profit or
deciding about sales mix or to discontinue a specific product or not.
Illustration 3.14
JRS Enterprises operates a chemical process which produce four products P.Q.P and S from
a basic raw material and provides you the following data.
1. Basic raw material 1,25,000 units @ ` 2
2. Initial processing wages ` 1,50,000
3. Initial processing overheads ` 1,00,000
4. Output, selling prices and additional processing costs.

Products Output Selling per unit at Selling price per unit Additional Processing
(units) split –off point (`) after further processing Costs after split off (`)
(`)
P 10,000 40 70 2,50,000
Q 20,000 30 65 3,00,000
R 30,000 20 40 7,50,000
S 40,000 10 20 2,00,000
You are required to:
(a) Prepare a statement showing the apportionment of joint costs on the basis of net
realizable value at split off point.
(b) Prepare a statement showing the product wise and total profitability if all the products
are sold at split-off point.
(c) Prepare a statement showing the product-wise and total profitability if all the products
are sold after further processing.
Solution:
(a) Statement showing the Apportionment of Joint Costs
Job Order Cost Systems 89

Products Output Selling price Sales Value Further Net Joint cost NOTES
(units) per units (`) processing Realizable apportioned
after further Costs (`) value at (in the ratio of
processing Split off 45:100:45:60)
(`) point (`) (`)
A B C=A*B D E=CD F
P 10,000 70 7,00,000 2,50,000 4,50,000 90,000
Q 20,000 65 13,00,000 3,00,000 10,00,000 2,00,000
R 30,000 40 12,00,000 7,50,000 4,50,000 90,000
S 40,000 20 8,00,000 2,00,000 6,00,000 1,20,000
25,00,000 5,00,000

(b) Statement showing the profitability

(If all products are sold at split off point)
Products Output Sales Value Selling price per Joint Cost Profit
(units) (`) units after further Apportioned
processing (`) (`)
A B C D=B-C
P 10,000 4,00,000 70 90,000 3,10,000
Q 20,000 6,00,000 65 2,00,000 4,00,000
R 30,000 6,00,000 40 90,000 5,10,000
S 40,000 4,00,000 20 1,20,000 2,80,000
20,00,000 5,00,000 15,00,000

(c) Statement showing the Profitability

(If all products are sold after further processing)
Products Output Selling value Joint costs Further Total Costs Profit (loss)
(units) after further apportioned processing (`) (`)
processing (`) (`) Costs (`)
A B C D E=C+D F=B-E
P 10,000 7,00,000 90,000 2,50,000 3,40,000 3,60,000
Q 20,000 13,00,000 2,00,000 3,00,000 5,00,000 8,00,000
R 30,000 12,00,000 90,000 7,50,000 8,40,000 3,60,000
S 40,000 8,00,000 1,20,000 2,00,000 3,20,000 4,80,000
40,00,000 5,00,000 15,00,000 2000,000 20,00,000

8. Reverse Cost Method

Illustration 3.15
In processing a basic raw materials, three joint products, P, Q,R are produced after incurring
joint costs of ` 5,10,000. All the three products are processed further after separation and
sold as per details given below:

Particulars P Q R
Output (units) 10,000 20,000 30,000
Selling price per unit ` 30 ` 20 ` 10
Further processing costs `7 `6 `2
Estimated profit as % of sales 10% 20% 30%

Assume the selling expenses are apportioned over the products as a percentage to cost of sales.
90 Cost and Management Accounting
You are required to:
NOTES
(a) Prepare a statement showing the apportionment of joint costs.
(b) Prepare a statement showing product wise and total cost of production, cost of sales and
profitability.
Solution:
(a) statement showing the Apportionment of Joint Costs
Particulars P (`) Q (`) R (`) Total (`)
A. Sales value after further processing 3,00,00 4,00,000 3,00,000 10,00,000
B. Less: Estimated profit 30,000 80,000 90,000 2,00,000
C. Total Cost of Sales (A-B) 2,70,000 3,20,000 2,10,000 8,00,000
D. Less: Selling and Distribution expenses 13,500 16,000 10,500 40,000
@5%
E. Total Cost of goods sold (C-D) 2,56,500 3,04, 000 1,99,500 7,60,000
F. Less: Further processing costs 70,000 1,20,000 60,000 2,50,000
G. Net value (E-F) 1,86,800 1,84,000 1,39,500 5,10,000

(b) Statement showing the Cost of Production. Cost of Sales and Profitability
Particulars P(`) Q(`) R(`) Total (`)
A. Joint Costs 1,86,500 1,84,000 1,39,000 5,10,000
B. Further processing costs 70,000 1,20,000 60,000 2,50,000
C. Cost of production (A+B) 2,56,500 3,04,000 1,99,500 7,50,000
D. Selling Expenses 13,500 16,000 10,500 40,000
E. Cost of Sales (C+D) 2,70,000 3,20, 000 2,10,000 8,00,000
F. Sales 3,00,000 4,00,000 60,000 10,00,000
G. Profit (F-E) 30,000 60,000 1,39,500 2,00,000

Working Note: Calculation of selling expenses

A. Total cost of sales (Total Sales- Total Profit) 8,00,000
B. Less: Total cost of production (joint Cost + Further Processing Costs)
(5,10,000 + 2,50,000) 7,60,000
C. Selling Expenses 40,000
40, 000
D. Selling expenses as % of cost of sales = × 100 = 5%
8, 00, 000

3.6 EQUIVALENT PRODUCTION

In a manufacturing unit generally it is not possible to complete the work on all the units on
which work has been started. Along with the completed units in all respect at the end of the
specific period (may be the month or six months (or a year) there may remain some unit on
which work has been started and may be finished upto an advance stage in respect of material
labour or overheads but which are not fully complete.
Job Order Cost Systems 91
Thus, incomplete production units represent those production units on which percentage of NOTES
completion with regard to all elements of cost is not 100%. Such incomplete production
units are known as work-in-progress. Work-in-progress is valued in terms of equivalent or
effective units. In other words, equivalent production units represent incomplete production
units expressed in terms of equivalent completed units.
Illustration 3.16
In December 2016 the following is available relating to process-2
Opening WIP 9,000 units (60% of work completed),
Units produced during the period -40,000 units,
Closing WIP -5,000 units (70% of work completed),
Calculate equivalent production units under different methods.
Solution:
Method-1

Particulars Units
3,600
 40 
Opening WIP  9, 000 × 
 100 
35,000
Add: Units introduced and completed (40,000 – 5,000)

 70  3,500
Add: Closing WIP  5, 000 × 
 100 
Equivalent Units 42,100

Method-2

Particulars Units
Units completed during the period (40,000 + 9,000 – 5,000) 44,000

 70  3,500
Add: Closing WIP  5, 000 × 
 100 

 60  5,400
Add: Opening WIP  9, 000 × 
 100 
Equivalent Units 42,100

Method-3

Particulars Units
3,600
 40 
Opening WIP  9, 000 × 
 100  40,000
Add: Units introduced
1,500
 30 
Add: Closing WIP  5, 000 × 
 100  42,100
Equivalent Units
92 Cost and Management Accounting
Steps Involved in the Preparation of Process Account when there is WIP
NOTES
Step-1: Prepare Statement of Equivalent production.
(To find out equivalent production units for the period)
Step-2: Prepare Statement of cost per Equivalent unit
(To calculate cost per unit for each element of cost)
Step-3: Prepare Statement of evaluation
(To find out the cost of equivalent units of opening stock, completed units and closing
stock)
Step-4: Prepare Process Account.
Preparation of Process Account when there are both Opening Stock and Closing Stock
of Work-in-Progress and FIFO Method is used
The following points are worth noting in this regard:
(a) Equivalent units of opening work-in-progress are calculated with reference to the percentage
of work needed to complete the unfinished work of the previous period. For example,
if there are 800 units of opening WIP which are 100% completed as to materials. 60%
as to labour and 40% as to overheads, then equivalent units will be Nil as to materials
(since there is no incomplete work as to materials), 320 units (i.e., 40% of 800 unit) as
to labour and 480 units (i.e.60% of 800 units) as to overheads.
(b) Complete Cost units of opening WIP is calculated as follows:
= Cost of opening WIP incurred during previous period + Proportionate cost incurred during
current period to complete the incomplete work of previous period.
(c) Completed cost of units completed and transferred is calculated as follows:
= Completed cost of units of Opening WIP + Cost of units introduced and completed during
the current period.

Illustration 3.17
From the following data calculate:
(i) Equivalent Production
(ii) Cost per unit
(iii) Statement of Evaluation
Units Introduced in the process 2,000
Units completed and transferred to next process 1,500
Units work in Progress 400
Level of completion of work in progress
Materials 80%
Labour 70%
Overheads 70%
Normal Loss has a scrap value of ` 15 per unit `
Cost of Material 91,500
Wages 1,20,000
Overheads 72,000
Job Order Cost Systems 93
Solution: NOTES
Statement of Equivalent Production
Particulars Total Materials Labour Overheads
Units Units % Units % Units %
Completed Units 1,500 1,500 100% 1,500 100% 1500 100%
Closing Work in Progress 400 320 80% 280 70% 280 70%
Normal Loss 100 - - - - - -
Equivalent Units 2,00 1,820 1,780 1,780
Statement of Cost

Element of Cost Cost (`) Equivalent Units Cost per Unit(`)

Material 91,500
Loss: Scrap Sold (100 × 15) 1,500
90,000 1,820 49.45
Labour 1,20,000 1,780 67.42
Overheads 72,000 1,780
40.45
2,82,000 157.32

Statement of Evaluation

Particulars `
Finished goods 1500×157.32 2,35,980
Work in Progress
Material 320×49.45 = 15.824
Labour 280×67.42 = 18.878 46,028
Overhead 280×40.45 = 11.326
2,82,008
Illustration 3.18
From the following information prepare: (a) Statement of Equivalent production, (b) Statement
of Cost per Equivalent unit, (c) Statement of Evaluation, (d) Process Account
1. Opening work-in-progress: 800 units valued as under
Material ` 3,200, Labour ` 960, Overheads ` 320
2. Input Materials: 9,200 units
3. Current cost incurred in process: Material ` 36,800
Labour ` 16,740
Overhead ` 7,930
4. Normal loss: 8% of total input (i.e., opening WIP + units put in)
5. Scrap realized @ ` 40 per10 units
6. Closing Work-in-progress: 900 units
7. Transfer to next process: 7,900 units
8. Degree of completion
Elements Opening stock(%) Closing Stock (%) Scrapped units (%)
Material 100 100 100
Labour 60 70 80
Overheads 40 30 20
94 Cost and Management Accounting
9. Method of valuation: FIFO
NOTES
Solution:
(a) Statement of Equivalent Production
Material Labour Overheads
Output Units % Units % Units % Units
Completion Completion Completion
A. Opening WIP 800 - - 40 320 60 480
B. Units introduced & 7,100 100 7,100 100 7,100 100 710
completely processed
(7,900-800)
C. Closing WIP 900 100 900 70 630 30 270
D. Abnormal Loss 400 100 400 80 320 20 80
E. Equivalent Units 9,200 8,400 8,370 7,930
(A+B C+D)

(b) Statement of Cost per Equivalent Unit

Element of Cost Cost (`) Equivalent Units Cost per Equivalent Unit (`)
Net material Cost 33,600 8,400 4
Labour Cost 16,740 8,370 2
Overheads 7,930 7,930 1
*Net Material Cost = ` 36,800 – ` 3,200 = ` 33,600

(c) Statement of Evaluation

Particulars Elements Equivalent Cost per Cost of Total
of Cost Units Equivalent Equivalent
Unit (`) Units (`)
Opening WIP (800 units) 4,480
Cost introduced during Material - - -
previous period Labour 320 2 640
Cost incurred during Overhead 480 1 480
current period 1,120

Units introduced and Material 7,100 4 28,400

completed (7,100 units) Labour 7,100 2 14,200
Overhead 7,100 1 7,100 49,700
55,300
Total cost of 7,900 units to Material 900 4 3,600
next process: Labour 630 2 1,260
Closing WIP (900 units) Overhead 270 1 270 5,130

Abnormal Gain Material 400 4 1,600

(400 units) Labour 320 2 640
Overhead 80 1 80 2,320
Job Order Cost Systems 95
(d) Process I Account NOTES
Particulars Units ` Particulars ` `
To opening WIP 800 4,480 By Normal Loss 800 3,200
To Direct Material 9,200 36,800 By Abnormal Loss A/c 400(B/F) 2,320
To Direct Labour - 16,740 By Process #A/c
(transfer to next process) 7,900 55,300

To Overheads - 7,930 By Closing WIP 900 5,130

10,000 65,950 10,000 65,950
Abnormal Loss Account

Particulars Units ` Particulars ` `

By Process I 400 2,320 By Bank A/c 400 1,600
By Costing P & LA/c 720
(B/F)
400 2,320 400 2,320

3.7 SUMMARY
 A job may consist of a job, product, batch of products, contract a service or any other
specific order.
 Specific order costing can be job costing, batch costing, contract costing.
 Process costing as that from of operation costing which applies where standardized goods
are produced.
 When two or more products produced at a time are of equal marketable value they are
known as joint products.
 When two or more products are produced simultaneously from the same raw materials
from the same process but one product is having very very high value in the market in
comparison to other products is known as by-products.

3.8 KEY TERMS

 Normal loss: the loss which is expected in advance by the management due to the nature
of product, process is known as Normal loss.
 Abnormal Gain: when the actual output is more than the expected output or when the
actual loss is less than the normal loss the difference between the two is known as
abnormal gain.
 Abnormal loss: It is an avoidable loss which occurs due to abnormal reasons like using
sub-standard materials, carelessness of workers etc.
 Equivalent Production: Equivalent production units represent incomplete production units
expressed in terms of equivalent completed units.
 Job Costing: It helps to find out cost of production of each job as per the elements of
cost.
96 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES 3.9 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

1. What is ‘Job Costing’? What are its objectives?
2. What are the main features of job costing? Give a proforma of cost sheet under this
system.
3. What are the characteristics of process costing system?
4. What is process costing? Give an example.
5. What are the reasons for process losses ?
6. What is a normal process losses?
7. What are inter-process profits?
8. What is meant by equivalent production? How is it Computed?
9. What are the two most common methods of apportioning joint costs?
10. Explain the term ‘Abnormal Effectives’.
11. Distinguish between ‘Job Costing’ and ‘Process’.
12. How would you deal with by-products in costing:
(i) When they are of small total value?
(ii) Where they are of considerable total value?
(iii) Where they require further processing?
13. Explain the following types of processing with illustrations:
(i) Continuous Sequential Processing
(ii) Discontinuous Processing
(iii) Parallel Processing
(iv) Selective Processing
14. Write short notes on:
(i) Equivalent Production
(ii) Joint products and by-products
(iii) Abnormal gain in process costing
15. List out various methods of accounting for by-products.
16. ‘The value of scrap generated in a process should be credited to the process account.’
Do you agree?

PRACTICAL PROBLEMS

Job Costing
1. B factory uses a job costing system. The following data are available from the books sit
(he year ending 31st March, 1998:
`
Direct Material 9,00,000
Direct Wages 7,50,000
Profit 6.09,000
Job Order Cost Systems 97
Selling and Distribution Overhead 5,25,000 NOTES
Administrative Overhead 4,20,000
Factory Overhead 4,50,000
Required
(a) Prepare a Cost Sheet indicating the Prime Cost, Works Cost, Production Cost, Cost
of Sales and Sales Value.
(b) In 1998-99, the factory has received an order for a number of jobs. It is estimated that
the direct materials would be ` 12,00,000 and direct labour would cost ` 7,50,000.
What would be the price for these jobs if the factory intends to earn the same rate
of profit on sales, assuming that the selling and distribution overhead has gone up
by 15% ? The factory recovers factory overheads as a percentage of direct wages
and administrative and selling and distribution overhead as a percentage of works
cost, based on the cost rates prevalent in the previous year.
[Ans. (a) Prime cost ` 16,50,000; Works Cost ` 21,000; Production Cost ` 25,20,000;
Cost of Sales ` 30,45,000; Sales ` 36,54,000. (b) Prime Cost ` 19,50,000; Works
Cost ` 24,00,000; Production Cost ` 28,80,000; Cost of Sales ` 35,70,000; Sales
` 42,84,000]
2. Combers Limited is engaged in job work that varies with the nature of customer’s orders.
During the last week of March 1998, it completed a job with the following details
regarding its factory cost:
Raw Materials ` 4,000
Direct Labour Hours 20,000 and 8,000 hours
Machine Hours 3,800
The information obtained from its annual budget is given below:
`
Direct Labour Cost 6,00,000
Direct Labour Hours 2,00,000
Machine Hours 90,000
Manufacturing Costs:
`
Direct Materials 2,00,000
Direct Labour 6,00,000
Indirect Labour 1,00,000
Electric Power 40,000
Machine Maintenance and Repair 15,200
Municipal Taxes 22,800
Factory Supplies 6,000
Factory Heat and Light 4,000
Depreciation and Insurance
Factory Building 1,30,000
Machinery 4,02,000
Total 15,20,000
98 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES It is required to:

(i) Prepare a Cost Sheet showing the Factory Cost of the job Completed during the last
week of March 1992 using the method, that you consider appropriate on the basis
of the information available, for the absorption of its share of factory overheads,
and
(ii) Explain the reasons for the selection of the method of absorption.
[Ans. Total cost of the job ` 52,800. Labour plays a dominant part in production,
Hence direct labour hour rate has been used absorption of factory overheads. The
rate comes to ` 3.60 per hour.]
3. The following information for the year ending December 31, 1998 is obtained from the
books and records of a factory:
Completed Jobs Work-in-progress
` `
Raw materials supplied from stores 90,000 30,000
Wages 1,00,000 40,000
Chargeable Expenses 10,000 4,000
Materials transferred to work-in-progress 2,000 4,000
Materials returned to stores 1,000 2,000
Factory overheads is 80% of wages and office overheads 25% of factory cost. The value
of executed contracts during 1998 was 4,10,000. Prepare (i) Consolidated Completed
jobs Account and (ii) Consolidated Work-in-progress Account.
[Ans . (i) Profit ` 63,750; (ii) Balance ` 1,35,000]
4. Budgeted figures :
Estimated Factory Overheads for the year ` 1,16,000.
Estimated Direct Labour Hours for the year 2,69,200.
Estimated Direct Labour Cost for the year ` 1,95,600
Estimated Machine Hours 1,01,00.
Prepare a comparative statement of cost showing the result of application of above rates
to job No. 101 from the data given below:
Cost of Material Consumed ` 840
Direct Labour Wages ` 9,000
Direct Labour Hours 300
Machine Hours 200
[Ans. Percentage of factory overhead to wages 59.3, Labour hour rate ` 0.43. Machine
hour rate, `1.15; Comparative statement of cost under these rates ` 2,273.70; ` 1,869;
` 1,970]
5. A company uses job costing system. The following information has been collected for jobs
101,102 for the purpose of quoting the price to a customer:
Job 10 Job 11
Materials ` 200 ` 300
Job Order Cost Systems 99
   Labour hours required in each department NOTES
  Machine Department 60 30
  Assembly Department 20 30
   Finishing Department 10 20
Rates of Pay for direct labour:
  Machine Department ` 1.30 per hour
  Assembly Department ` 0.90 per hour
   Finishing Department ` 1.20 per hour
Machine hours required in each department:
  Machine Department 100 80
  Assembly Department 10 10
Factory overheads are recovered on the following basis:
   Machine Department ` 50. per machine hour
  Assembly Department ` 2.50 per direct labour hour
   Finishing Department ` 2.00 per direct labour hour
20% of factory cost is added for general administration and a further 10% of total cost is
added for profit. You are required to calculate the prices to be quoted for the jobs.
[Ans. price for job 10 ` 696.96 job 11 ` 869.88]
6. The following particular are drawn from the costing books of a contract for the month of
December 1997:
(a) Stores Abstract: ` `
Balance on 30th November, 1998 21,146
Purchases 4,360
From Job No. 11 342 25,848
Issued to Job No. 12 2,112
Balance on 31 December, 1998 23,736
(b) Wages Abstract:
Job No. 11 230
Job No. 12 2,876 3,106
Establishment 256
3,362
On 30th November, 1998 Jobs Nos. 11 and 12 showed balances of ` 1, 28,632 and ` 56,746
respectively. A certificate of completion was obtained for job No. 11, of the balance
on this account standing on 30th November, 1998 ` 24,600 specially bought for this
job was sold for ` 800 during December, 1998 Of the balance of Plant and Machinery
` 16,000 worth had been utilized on the job 8 month and the rest for 6 months. Of the
former, half was transferred to Job No. 12 and the whole of the remaining plant was
returned to stores. The price for Job No. 11 was fixed at ` 1,50,000.
100 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES Prepare Job Accounts and work out the profit made on the Job certified as completed,
allowing depreciation on Machinery at 15% per annum. Assume 10% for establishment
charges on cost of wages and materials consumed.
[Ans. Profit on Job No.11 : ` 32,208; Balance of work in progress on job 12 : 68,934]
[Hint. Establishment cost charged to Job No. 11 @ 10% of material and wages ` 10,392;

Job No. 12 has not been changed with establishment charges since it is incomplete. Plant
transferred from Job 11 to job 12 ` 7,200 and to stores ` 13, 120.]
Process Losses
7. From the following figures show the cost of three processes of manufacture. The production
of each process is passed on to the next process immediately on completion.
Process Process Process
` ` `
ABC Wages and materials 30,400 12,000 29,250
Works Overheads 5,600 5,250 6,000
Production in units 36,000 37,000 48,000
Process – 1st July, 1998 4,000 16,5000
Stock (units from precess – 31st July, 1998)
[Ans. Cost per unit of finished goods ` 2.25]
8. In Process 4,100 units of raw materials were introduced at a cost of ` 1,000. The other
expenditure incurred by the process was ` 600. Of the units introduced, 10% are normally
lost in the course of manufacture, and they possess a scrap value of ` 3 each. The output
of Process was only 75 units. Calculate the value of abnormal loss.
[Ans. Abnormal Loss 262]
9. In a certain month 6,000 kg of raw material A costing ` 150 per kg. Were processed
through unit No. 3 for manufacture of solvent X. The total operating cost of unit No. 3
for the month was ` 12,00,000. Out of the output 10% was unusable and was disposed
of at ` 25 per kg.
Prepare an account for the month’s Operation Unit No 3 assuming that the spoilage was
(i) Part of normal production process.
(ii) An abnormal loss due to poor quality material.
[Ans. (i) Cost per unit ` 386; (ii) Cost per unit ` 350]
10. (a) The Neodrug manufactures process a product ‘plant food’ through three distinct
processes, the product of one process Raw materials, labour and direct expenses
incurred on each of the processes are given below:

Process P Process Q Process R
` ` `
Raw Materials 1,000 800 200
Labour 500 600 700
Direct Expenses 150 250 500
Job Order Cost Systems 101
The overhead expenses for the period amounted to 3,600 and is to be distributed NOTES
to the processes on the... basis of labour wages.
There were no stocks in any of the processes at the beginning or at the close
of the period. Ignore wastages. Assuming that the output was 1,000 kilos, show
the process accounts P Q and R indicating also the unit cost per kilo under each
element of cost and the output in each process.
(b) If 10% of the output is estimated to be lost in the course of sale and sampling, what
should be the selling price per unit (correct to two decimal places) so as provide
or gross profit of 33-1.3% on selling price.
[Ans. Cost of Process – P ` 2.65 per Unit
Q – ` 5.50 per Unit
R – ` 8.30 per Unit
Selling Price ` 13.83 per Unit]
11. A Product process through three Processes I, II, and III. The Normal wastage of each
process is as follows:
Process I : 3% Process II :5% and Process III 8% Wastage of Process I was sold at 25
paise per unit that of Process at 50 Paise per unit and that of Process III at ` 1 per
unit. 10,000 units were issued to Process/ at the beginning of June 1995 at a cost ` 1
per unit. The other expenses were as follows:
I II III
` ` `
Sundry Materials 1,000 1,500 500
Labour 5,000 8,000 6,500
Direct Expenses 1,050 1,118 2,009
Actual Output 9,500 9,100 8,100
Prepare the process accounts assuming that there was no opening or closing stock.
[Ans. Process I. Abnormal loss 200 units @ `1.75 per unit.
Process II, Abnormal effectives 75 units @ 3 per unit and
Process III. Abnormal loss 272 units @ ` 4.25 per unit. Total cost ` 34,435
12. A product passes through three processes – P, Q and R. The details of expenses incurred
on the three processes during the year 1998 were as under:
P Q R
Process
Unit issued/introduced 10,000
Cost per unit `100
` ` `
Sundry Materials 10,000 15,000 5,000
Labour 30,000 80,000 65,000
Direct Expenses 6,000 13,150 27,200
Selling price per unit of output 120 165 250
Management expenses during the year were ` 80,000 and selling expenses were ` 50,000.
These are not allocable to the processes.
102 Cost and Management Accounting
Actual output of the three processes was:
NOTES
P : 9,300 units; 5 : 5,400 units; and R 2,100 units. Two-thirds of the output of Process)
and one-half the output of Process Q was passed on the next process and the balance
was sold. The entire output of Process R was sold.
The normal loss of the three processes, calculated on the input of every process was :
Process P : 5% Q : 15% and R: 20%.
The loss of Process P was sold at ` 2 per unit, that of Q at ` 5 per unit and of Process
R at 10 per unit.
Prepare the three Processes Accounts and the Profit and Loss Account.
[Ans. Profit (Loss) : Process P : ` 31,000 Process Q : ` 40,500; Process R : ` 42,000.
Total after charging Management and Selling Expenses (` 32,450)]
13. The finished product of a factory has to pass through three processes (A, B and C). The
normal wastage of each process is 2% in A, 5% in B and 10% in C. The percentage of
wastage is computed on the number of units entering each process. The scrap values of
wastage of processes, A, B, and C are ` 10, ` 40 and ` 20 per 100 units respectively.
The output of each process is transferred to the next process and the finished products
are transferred from process C into stock. The following is the further information
obtained:
` ` `
Raw Materials 12,000 4,000 4,000
Direct Labour 8,000 6,000 2,000
Manufacturing Expenses 2,000 4,000 2,000
20,000 units were put into process A at a cost of ` 16,000. The output of each process
has been : A – 19,600 units, 5– 18,400 units and C – 16,700 units. There was no stock
of work-in-progress in any process. Prepare the process account.
[Ans. Process, A – ` 37,960; B – ` 50,959; C– ` 63,120]
14. The product of a company passes through three distinct processes to completion. From
past experience, it is ascertained that wastage is incurred in each process as under:
The wastage of process A and B is sold at ` 20 per 100 units and that of process C
at ` 160 per 100 units. Following is the information regarding the production in
March, 1997:
Process A Process B Process C
` ` `
Materials 24,000 16,000 8,000
Direct Labour 32,000 24,000 12,000
Other Factory Expenses 7,000 7,600 8,400
20,000 units have been issued to process A at a cost of ` 40,000. The output of each
process has been as under:
Process A 19,500 units, Process B 18,800, and Process C 16,000. There was no stock in
any process in the beginning and at the end of March. Prepare process cost accounts.
[Ans. Process A : Abnormal wastage 100 units @ ` 5.46 per units, Process B : Abnormal
effectives 275 units @ ` 8.52 per unit, and Process C : Abnormal wastage 920 units
@ ` 11.32 per unit]
Job Order Cost Systems 103
15. A Product is obtained after it passes through three distinct processes. You are required NOTES
to prepare Process Accounts from the following information :
Process A Process B Process C
Particulars ` ` `
Materials 7,300 6,060 7,900
Direct wages 6,750 8,750 10,750
Direct expenses 940 840 750
Manufacturing Expenses 3,375 4,375 5,375
2,000 units at ` 10 per unit were introduced in Process A. Other details are:
Process Actual Output Normal Loss Value of scrap per unit
A 1,880 5% 5.00
B 1,690 10% 10.00
C 1,530 10% 15.00
Also prepare abnormal loss or gain account if it arises in any process.
[Ans. Process A : Abnormal loss 20 units @ ` 19.928 per unit; Process B : Abnormal
loss 2 units @ `32.886 per unit Process C : Abnormal gain 9 units `51 per unit]
16. You are given the following information Input, 3,800 units; output 3,000 units; closing
work-in-progress 800 units.
Degree of Completion Process Costs
`
Materials 80% 14,560
Labour 70% 21,360
Overhead 70% 14,240
Find out (a) Equivalent production, (b) Cost per unit of equivalent production and
(c) Prepare Process Account assuming that there is no opening work-in-progress and
process loss.
[Ans. Equivalent units : Materials 3,640; Labour and Overhead 3,560 each; Cost per
unit : Materials ` 4, Labour 6 Overhead ` 4]
17. Units put into process 2,500
Units Completed 2,000
Work-in progress at close 500
Process costs: `
Materials 22,500
Labour 6,750
Overhead 2,250
Work-in-progress is completed 40% as to materials, labour and overhead. Find out the
(i) Equivalent production, (ii) cost per unit of equivalent production, and Process Account.
[Ans. Equivalent units : Materials, labour and overhead 2,200 unit each; Materials ` 10,227,
Labour ` 3.068 and Overhead ` 1.022 per unit]
104 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES 18. In a given period, the production data and costs for a process
Production 2,100 units fully complete.
Production 700 units partly complete
The degree of completion of the partly complete units was:
Materials 80% complete.
Labour 60% complete.
Overheads 50% complete.
The costs for the period were:
`
Materials 24,800
Labour 16,750
Overhead 36,200
Calculate the total equivalent production, the cost per complete unit and the value of the
W.I.P.
[Ans. Materials, Labour and Overhead Equivalent Units : 2,660, 2,520 and 2,450 each;
Cost per unit 9,32,6,65 and ` 14.77 each. W.I.P. ` 13,181]
19. A manufacturing concern engaged in mass production, produces standardized electic
motors in one of its departments. From the following particulars of a job of 50 motors,
you are required to value the work-in-progress and finished goods:
`
(a) Cost incurred as per job card:
Direct materials 75,000
Direct labour 20,000
Overheads 60,000
(b) Selling and distribution expenses are at 30% of sales value.
(c) Selling price per motor ` 4,500.
(d) 25 motors are complete and transferred to finished goods.
(e) Completion stage of work-in-progress:
Direct materials 100%
Direct labour and overheads 60%
[Ans. Equivalent units: Materials 50, labour and Overheads 40 each; Cost per unit
` 1,500, 500, ` 1,500; Value of finished goods at close 25 units valued at ` 3,150 each
(cost or market value whichever is lower) ` 78,750; Material component of WIP value
at ` 1,500 each 25 units and labour overhead 15 units at ` 1,650 each (market value);
Total value of stock at Close ` 1,41,000]
20. XYZ Company has a single process:
Work-in-progress (opening) 8,000 units
Cost : Material ` 29,600
Wages ` 6,600
Overheads ` 5,800
During the period the input was 32,000 units.
Job Order Cost Systems 105

Additional costs were: Material ` 1,12,400; Wages ` 33,400; Overhead ` 30,200. At NOTES
the end of the year 28,000 units were fully processed and 12,000 units were in process.
The value of the closing stock includes the full cost of materials and only-third of the
cost of wages and overheads.
Tabulate the production and cost figures to give quantities.’ unit value, total value of
completed output and detailed value for the closing work-in-progress.
[Ans. Rate per completed unit as regards materials ` 3.55 per unit, as regards wages
` 1.25, as regards overhead ` 1.125]
[Hint. Apply Average Method]
21. From the following data of Kiran Processing Industry Ltd., calculate (a) Equivalent
Production, (b) Cost per unit of Equivalent Production and (c) Cost of units completed
and awaiting completion:
Number of units introduced in the process 4,000
Number of units completed and transferred to next process 3,000
Number of units process at the end of the period 800
Stage of Completion:
Material 80%
Labour 70%
Overheads 70%
Normal process loss at the end of the process 200 units
Value of scrap ` 1 per unit
Value of raw materials ` 7,480
Wages ` 10,680
Overheads ` 7,120
[Ans. (a) Materials 3,640; Labour 3,560; Overhead 3,650 units; (b) ` 2, ` 3 and ` 2
respectively (c) ` 21,000; ` 4,080]

By-Products and Joint Products

22. The following details are extracted from the costing records of an oil mill for the year
ended 31st March, 1994:
Purchase of 500 tonnes copra ` 2,00,000
Crushing Refining Finishing
` ` `
Cost of labour 2,500 1,000 1,500
Electric power 600 360 240
Sundry materials 100 2,000 –
Steam 600 450 450
Repairs of machinery 280 330 140
Factory expenses 1,320 660 220
Cost of casks 7,500
106 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES 300 tonnes of crude oil were produced.

250 tonnes of oil were produced by the refining process.
248 tonnes of refined oil were finished for delivery.
Copra sacks sold for ` 400
175 tonnes of copra residue sold for ` 11,000.
Loss in weight in crushing 25 tonnes.
45 tonnes of by-products obtained from refining process ` 6,750.
You are required to show the accounts in respect of each of the following stages of
manufacture for the purpose of arriving at the cost per tonne of each process and the
total cost per tonne of the finished oil:
(a) Copra crushing process.
(b) Refining process.
(c) Finishing process including casking.
[Ans. Cost per tonne : (a) ` 646,67; (b) ` 768,20; (c) ` 814.92 (including casking)]
23. A factory is engaged in the production of a chemical X and in the course of its manufacture
a by-product Y. is produced, which after a separate process has a commercial value. For
the month of January, 1998, the following are the summarized costing data:
Joint Expenses Separate Expenses
` ` `
X Y
Materials 19,200 7,360 780
Labour 11,700 7,680 2,642
Overhead 3,450 1,500 544
The output of the month was 142 tonnes of A” and 49 tonnes of Y and the selling price
of Y averaged 280 per tonne. Assuming that the profit on Y is estimated at 50% of the
selling price, prepare an account showing the cost of A per tonne.
[Ans. Cost of X per tonne `338; of Y `140 per tonne]
24. A factory produces three products A, B and C which originate from a joint process. The
joint processing costs amount to `1,40,000. The output of A, B and C is 30,000, 32,000
and 20,000 units. Apportion the joint costs amongst the products according to the survey
method, assuming that the joint products are weighted as follows:
Product A 3 points
Product B 2 points
Product C 4 points
[Ans. Product A = ` 53, 846; Product B = ` 38, 290; Product C = ` 47,864]
25. Product X Yields by-products Y and Z. The joint expenses to manufacture are: Materials
10,000, Labour 8,000, Overhead 9,000 (Total 27,000). Subsequent expenses are as
follows:
Job Order Cost Systems 107

X Y Z NOTES
` ` `
Materials 2,000 1,600 1,800
Labour 2,400 1,400 1,700
Overhead 2,600 1,000 1,500
7.000 4,000 5,000
The selling prices are 42,000 20,000 18,000
The estimated profits on : Sales are 50% 50% 33.33%
Show how you would apportion the joint expenses of manufacture.
[Ans. Share in joint expenses ` 14,000; ` 6,000; ` 7,000]
26. In an Oil Mill four products emerge from a refining process. The total cost of input
during the quarter ending March 1998 is ` 1,48,000. The output sales and additional
processing costs are as under:
Product Output in Additional Processing Total value
litres cost after split-off point
` ` `
AOXE 8,000 43,000 1,72,500
BOXE 4,000 9,000 15,000
COXE 2,000 – 6,000
DOXE 4,000 1,500 45,000
In case these products were disposed of at the split-off point, that is, before further
processing, the selling prices would have been:
AOXE BOXE COXE DOXE
` 15.00 ` 6.00 ` 3.00 ` 7.50
Prepare a statement of profitability based on:
(i) If the products are sold after further processing is carried out in the mill. (ii) If they
are sold at the split-off point.
[Ans. (i) Profit ` 37,000 (ii) Profit ` 32,000]
27. Three joint products are produced by passing chemicals through two consecutive processes.
Output from process/ is transferred to process from which the three joint products are
produced and immediately sold. The data regarding the processes for April, 1998 is
given below:
Process I Process II
Direct Materials 2,500 kilos at ` 4 per kilo ` 10,000 ` 6,900
Direct Labour ` 6,250 ` 6,900
Overheads ` 4,500 ` 6,900
Normal Loss 10% of input Nil
Scrap Value of Loss ` 2 per kilo –
Output 2,300 kilos Joint-products
A : 900 Kilos
B : 800 Kilos
C : 600 Kilos
108 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES There were no opening or closing stocks in either process and the selling prices of the
output from process II were :
Joint Product A ` 24 per Kilo
Joint Product B ` 18 per Kilo
Joint Product C ` 12 per Kilo
Required:
(a) Prepare an account for process/ together with any Loss or Gain Account you consider
necessary to record the month’s activities.
(b) Calculate the profit attributable to each of the Joint Products by apportioning the
total costs from process II :
(i) According to weight of output;
(ii) By the market value of production
[Ans. (a) Transfer from Process I to Process II, 2,300 kg of 20,700; (b) (i) Profit (Loss) :
A : ` 8,100, B : ` 2,400, (c) : (` 1,800), (b) (ii) Profit (Loss) A : ` 4,350, B : ` 2,900,
C: ` 1,450]
28. The Modern Metals and Minerals operates a silver mine which yields copper and silver
as joint products A summary of expenses and the turnover for the year 1998 is given
below:
`
Opening Stock of ores at cost 5,00,000
Opening Stock of material in process 8,00,000
Excavation Costs 78,00,000
Milling and Concentrations 57,00,000
Melting 75,00,000
Closing Stock of ores 7,00,000
Closing Stock of metals-in-process 9,00,000
Estimated value of depletion 1,80,00,000
Further expenses on silver extraction and refinement 42,35,000
Further expenses on further processing of residual for copper 11,35,000
Further expenses on joint product (before split-off) 1,00,000
General Expenses on silver extraction 75,000
Selling and Distribution Expenses:
Silver 45,000
Copper 30,000
Gross Realization on the sales of the total output of Silver 5,84,59,000
Copper 72,46,000
Required a consolidated Statement of the (1) Cost of production; (2) Cost of sales, and
(3) Net profits (subject to taxation for both silver and copper.
Job Order Cost Systems 109

Silver Copper NOTES

[Ans.] (1) ` 3,92,000; ` 50,90,000;
(2) ` 3,93,25,000; ` 51,20,000;
(3) ` 1,91,34,000; ` 21,26,000]
[Hint. Joint-costs apportioned according to sales value at Split-off Point. Share in Joint
Costs silver 90% Copper 10%]
29. JB Limited produces four joint products, A, B, C, and D, all of which emerge from the
processing of one raw material. The following are the relevant data:
Production for the period:
Joint Product Number of Units Selling Price per unit
`
A 500 18.00
B 900 8.00
C 400 4.00
D 200 11.00
The company budgets for a profit of 10% on sales value. The other estimated costs are:
Carriage Inwards ` 1,000 Manufacturing Overhead ` 2,000
Direct Wages ` 3,000 Administration Overhead 10 % of the sales value
You are required to:
(a) Calculate the maximum price that may be paid for the raw material.
(b) Prepare a comprehensive cost statement for each of the products allocating the
materials and other costs based upon; (i) number of units, (ii) sales value.
[Ans. (a) ` 10,000; (b) (i) Total cost A. ` 4.500; B : 8,100; C : 3,000, D : ` 1,800;
(ii) Total Cost A. ` 8100, S480, C. ` 1,440, D ` 1,980 ]
110 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES UNIT 4: SEGMENT PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS

Structure
4.0 Learning Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Responsibility Accounting System
4.3 Variance Analysis
4.3.1 Evaluation of Cost and Sales Variances
4.4 Summary
4.5 Key Terms
4.6 Questions and Exercises

4.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:
 Explain material variance.
 Meaning material cost variance.
 Explain meaning of labour variance.
 Explain idle time variance.
 Explain Responsibility Accounting System.
 Explain Responsibility centres.
 Meaning of overhead cost variance.
 Explain Disposition of variances

4.1 INTRODUCTION
At regular intervals, actual cost of material, labour and overheads are compared with the standard
cost of respective elements. Deviations of actual cost from standard cost are investigated
and reported to appropriate executive for necessary action. In the language of cost accounting,
these deviations are usually known as variances. The act of computing and interrupting variances
is called variance analysis.
Thus variance analysis is the process of analysing variances by subdividing the total variance in
such a way that management can assign responsibility for any deviation from the standard fixed.
According to CIMA, London, “Variance analysis is the process of computing the amount of
variance and isolating the cause of variance between actual and standard.”
For example, if the standard cost specified is ` 15,000 and the actual cost incurred is ` 13,500,
then such difference of ` 1,500 (i.e. ` 15,000 – ` 13,500} is treated as variance. There can be
cost variances, profit variances and sales value variances.
Segment Performance Analysis 111

4.2 RESPONSIBILITY ACCOUNTING SYSTEM NOTES

Meaning
The concept of responsibility centers is very useful for the better understanding of zero based
budgeting and performance budgeting. Responsibility accounting is an underlying concept
of accounting performance measurement systems. The basic idea is that large diversified
organizations are difficult, to manage as a single segment, if not impossible. Thus they must
be decentralized or separated into manageable parts. Responsibility centres have their root in
what is called responsibility accounting. It is a system of control in which costs are identified
with the person responsible for them. It lays emphasis upon the decision of an organization
among different centres in such a way that each level/centre becomes the responsibility of an
individual manager. Each manager is held responsible for these activities which are under his
direct control. Thus it is an accounting system which collects and reports both planned and
actual accounting data in terms of sub units which are recognized as responsibility centers.
These segments arc referred to as responsibility centers that include:
1. Revenue centers,
2. Cost centers,
3. Profit centers and
4. Investment centers.
This approach allows responsibility to be assigned to the segment managers that have the
greatest amount of influence over the key elements to be managed. These elements include
revenue for a revenue center (a segment that mainly generates revenue with relatively little
costs), costs for a cost center (a segment that generates costs, but no revenue), a measure of
profitability for a profit center (a segment that generates both revenue and costs) and return
of investment for an investment center.

Definition: According to Charles, T. Horngren

“Responsibility accounting recognizes various decision centres throughout organization and
traces costs to the individual managers who are primarily responsible for making decision
about the costs in question.”

STEPS INVOLVED IN RESPONSIBILITY ACCOUNTING

The objective of responsibility accounting is to communicate the correct information to the
right person at the right time. It is a control device over the people who incur the expenses
instead of controlling the costs. The steps to be followed are us follows:
1. Targets are set and communicated to each manager.
2. Actual performance is continuously appraised and the results are conveyed to the manager
of the concerned responsibility centre.
3. The variances are reported to higher management along with the names of the managers
of the responsibility centres.
4 Corrective measures are taken and the same is communicated to the concerned managers
of the centres.
112 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES Responsibility Centres

As a system of control, responsibility accounting focuses attention on the responsibility
centres. Any unit of an organization which is headed by a responsible manager is referred to
as responsibility centre. An organization has four types of responsibility centres established
in an organization which are as follows:
(a) Revenue centre: It is a smallest segment of activity for which revenues are accumulated.
The responsibility of the manager of revenue centre is to generate sales revenue only.
He does not have any control over other activities such cost of product or investment
in an asset. Marketing department is considered as u revenue centre as it is concerned
with raising sales revenue.
(b) Expense centre: It is a cost centre which is a smaller segment of activity for which costs
can be accumulated. It records only the cost incurred and not the revenue earned. All
production centres and service centres are called separate cost centres.
(c) Profit centre: It is a big segment of activity for which both revenues and costs arc
accumulated. This centre takes into account the expenses incurred and revenue it earns.
Most of the responsibility centres are viewed as profit centres as they take the difference
between revenue and expenses as profit and the manager of this centre take both cost
and revenue.
(d) Investment centre: Investment centre is a segment of activity in which the manager is
held responsible for the use of assets and profit. It is his responsibility for maintaining
a satisfactory return on investment in his responsibility centre.

4.3 VARIANCE ANALYSIS

Variances may be classified into:
(i) Favourable and Unfavourable Variances, and
(ii) Controllable and Uncontrollable Variances
(i) Favourable and Unfavourable Variances: When the actual cost incurred is less than
the standard cost, the deviation is known as 'favourable variance' whereas, when
the actual cost incurred is more than the standard cost, the variance is treated
as 'unfavourable* or 'adverse*. A favourable variance reflects the efficiency while
unfavourable variance indicates inefficiency. Favourable variance is also known as
positive ( + ) or credit variance and viewed only as profits whereas adverse variance
is known as negative (–) or debit variance and is viewed as losses. In other words,
any variance which increases the actual profit is favourable variances and any variance
which decreases the actual profit is unavoidable variable. Favourable variance is
designated by (F) and unfavourable or adverse by (A).
(ii) Controllable and Uncontrollable Variances: A variance is said to be controllable if
primary responsibility of a specified person or department can be identified. For
example, excess usage of materials by production department is controllable being
the responsibility of the foreman of the said department. On the other hand, when
variance is due to the factors beyond the control of the concerned person, it is
said to be uncontrollable. For example, increase in wage rate of workers on account
of strike or government policy, etc. No individual person or department can be held
responsible for uncontrollable variances.
Variance analysis is a process of analysing variances by sub-dividing the total cost variance in
such a way that the management of the concern can assign the responsibility for off standard
Segment Performance Analysis 113
performance. It also leads to ascertain the magnitude of each of the variances and reasons
NOTES
thereof. In variance analysis, the attention of the management is drawn not only to the monetary
value of unfavourable and favourable managerial performance but also the responsibility and
reasons for the same.
Material Variances
Material forms a very high percentage of the total cost. It is very important to study its cost variance.
Material variances consist of the following variances:
(1) Material Cost Variance (MCV)
(2) Material Price Variance (MPV)
(3) Material Usage/Quantity/Volume Variance (MQV)
(4) Material Mix Variance (MMV)
(5) Material sub-usage Variance/Revised Material Quantity Variance {RMQV}
(6) Material Yield Variance (MYV)
Classification of Cost Variances
(1) Material Cost Variance (MCV): "Material cost variance is the difference between the
standard cost of materials specified for the actual output and actual cost of materials
used." —I.C.M.A., London
It is expressed as:
MCV = Standard Cost of Material for Actual Output – Actual Cost of Material
or (SQ × SP) – (AQ × AP)
SQ stands for Standard Quantity for Actual Output
SP stands for Standard Price
AQ stands for Actual Quantity
AP stands for Actual Price
Standard Quantity for Actual Output is computed as follows

Standard Quantity
× Acual output
Standard Output

(2) Material Price Variance (MPV): Material price variance is the portion of the Material
Cost Variance which arises due to the difference between the standard price specified
and actual price paid. It can be expressed as:
Material Price Variance – Actual Quantity (Standard Price – Actual Price) or MPV = AQ
(SP – AP)
The reasons for the material price variance may be the following:
(i) Change in market price
(ii) Change in quantity of purchase
(iii) Change in quality of material purchased
(iv) Emergency purchases leading to higher prices
(v) Discounts not availed
(vi) Rush order to meet shortage of supply, etc.
114 Cost and Management Accounting
(3) Material Usage/Quantity/Volume Variance: Material usage variance is the difference
NOTES
between the standard quantity specified and the actual quantity used. This variance may
arise due to the following reasons:
(i) Use of inferior material
(ii) Poor inspection of material
(iii) Lack of due care in the handling of materials
(iv) Abnormal wastage, theft, pilferage of materials
(v) Setting of improper standards
(vi) Improper maintenance of machine, etc.
It may be expressed as:
Material Usage Variance = Standard Price (Standard Quantity for Actual Output – Actual
Quantity)
or MUV = SP(SQ – AQ)
Relationship among MCV, MPV and MUV:
MCV = MPV + MUV
Illustration 4.1
The standard material required for production is 5,200 kg. A price of ` 2 per kg has
been fixed for the materials. The actual quantity of materials used for the product is
5,600 kg. A sum of ` 14,000 has been paid for the materials.
Calculate: (a) Material Cost Variance; (b) Material Price Variance; (c) Material Usage
Variance.
Solution:
Standard Quantity = 5,200 kg
Standard Price = ` 2 per kg
Actual Quantity = 5,600 kg
14, 000
Actual Price = = ` 2.50 per kg
5, 600
(a) Material Cost Variance (MCV):
MCV = (SQ × SP) − (AQ × AP)
= (5,200 ×2) − (5,600 × 2.50)
= ` 10,400 − ` 14,000 = ` 3,600 (Adverse)
(b) Material Price Variance (MPV):
MPV = AQ {SP – AP} = 5,600 {2 – 2.50}= 5600 × (–0.50) = ` 2,800 (Adverse)
(c) Material usage variance (MUV):
MUV = SP (SQ – AQ)
= 2 (5,200 – 5,600)
= 2 × (–400) = ` 800 (Adverse)
Segment Performance Analysis 115
Verification:

NOTES
MCV = MPV + MUV = ` 3,600 (Adv.) = 2,800 (Adv.) + 800 (Adv.)
Illustration 4.2
In a brass foundry, the standard mixture consists of 60% Copper and 40% Zinc. The standard
loss of production is10% on input. From the actual production in a month calculate the Material
Cost Variance and analyse it:
Copper 50kg @ ` 30 per kg (standard 60kg)
Zinc 50 kg @ ` 20 per kg (Standard 40 kg)
Actual Output: 86 kg
SP and AP are the same
Solution:

Standard Mix Actual Mix

SQ (kg) SP (`) Std. Cost (`) AQ (kg) AP (`) Actual Cost (`)
Copper 60 30 1800 50 30 1,500
Zinc 40 20 800 50 20 1,000
100 2,600 100 2,500
Less (10%) 10 14
(Loss) 90 86

Material Cost Variance (MCV) = (Std. Cost – Actual Cost)

Std. Cost – (SQ for Actual Output × SP)
SQ for Actual Output will be computed as follows:
60
Copper = × 86 = 57.33
90

40
Zinc = × 86 = 38.22
90

Now, MCV for Copper = (57.33 × 30) – (50 × 30) = ` 220 (Fav.)

MCV for = (38.22 × 20) – (50 × 20) = ` 236 (Adv.)

= ` 16 (Adv.)

This is explained by
(i) Material Price Variance = Nil
(ii) Material Mix Variance = (SQ – AQ) × SP
Copper = (60 – 50) × 30 = ` 300 (Fav.)
Zinc = (40 – 50) × 20 = ` 200 (Fav.)
= ` 100 (Fav.)
116 Cost and Management Accounting
(iii) Material Yield Variance = (AY – SY) × SC per unit
NOTES
= (86 – 90) × 28.89*
= ` 116 (Adv.)
2600
*SC = = ` 28.89
90
Verification
MCV = MPV + MMV + MYV
` 16 (Adv.) = Nil + ` 100 (Fav.) + ` 116(Adv.)
` 16 (Adv.) = ` 16(Adv.)
Note: Since SPO and AP are the same and Standard Total Quantity and actual Total Quantity
are the same, there will be no Material Price variance and Material Usage Variance.
Illustration 4.3
The standard material cost for a normal mix of one tonne of chemical Z is based on:

Chemical Usage (Kg) Price Per Kg. (`)

A 240 6
B 400 12
C 640 10

During a month, 12.5 tonnes of Z were produced from:

Chemical Consumption (Tonnes) Cost (`)

A 3.2 22,400
B 4.8 60,000
C 9.0 94,500

Analyse the Variances:

Solution:
(i) SQ for Actual output:
A = 240×12.5 = 3,000 Kg
B = 400 × 12.5 = 5,000 Kg
C = 640 × 12.5 = 8,000 Kg
Total SQ = 16,000Kg
(ii) Total AQ = 3.200 + 4,800 + 9,000 = 17,000 Kg.
(iii) RSQ

3, 000
A=
× 17, 000 = 3, 187.5 Kg.
16, 000

5, 000
B=
× 17, 000 = 5, 312.5 Kg.
16, 000

8, 000
C=
× 17, 000 = 8, 500 Kg.
16, 000
Segment Performance Analysis 117

Computation of Material Cost Variances NOTES

Material SQ for SP (`) SQ + SP AQ AP AQ× AP RSQ RSQ× SP
AQ (`) (`) (`) (`)
A 3,000 6 18,000 3,200 7.0 22,400 3,187.5 19,125
B 5,000 12 60,000 4,800 12.5 60,000 5,312.5 63,750
C 8,000 10 80,000 9,000 10.5 94,500 8,500.00 85,000
16,000 17,000
Loss 3,500 4,500

12,500 1,58,000 12,500 1,76,900 1,67,875

(1) Material Cost Variance (MCV) = (SQ × SP) – (AQ × AP)
= ` 1,58,000 – ` 1,76,000
= ` 18,000 (A)
(2) Material Price Variance (MPV) = AQ (SP – AP)
A = 3,200 (6 – 7) = ` 3,200 (A)
B = 4,800 (12 – 12.5) = ` 2,400 (A)
C = 9,000 (10 – 10.5) = ` 4,500(A)
MPV = ` 10,100 (A)
(3) Material Usage Variance (MUV) = SP (SQ – AQ)
A = 6 (3,000 – 3,200) = ` 1,200 (A)
B = 12 (5,000 – 4,800) = ` 2,400 (F)
C = 10 (8,000 – 9,000) = ` 10,000 (A)
MUV = 8,800(A)
(4) Material Mix Variance (MMV) = SP (RSQ – AQ)
A = 6 (3,187.5 – 3,200) = ` 75 (A)
B = 12 (5,312.5 – 4,800) = ` 6,150 (A)
C = 10 (8,500 – 9,000) = 5,000 (A)
MMV = ` 1,075 (F)
(5) Material Yield Variance (MYV)
MYV = (Actual Yield – Std. Yield) × SC per unit
Actual Yield = 12,500
Standard Yield = (12,500/16,000) × 17,000 = 13,281
Standard Cost = 1,58,000/12,500 = 12.64
MYV = (12,500 – 13.281) × 12.64 = ` 9,875 (A)
Alternatively, MYV = SP(SQ – RSQ)
MYV = (SQ × SP) – (RSQ × SP)
= (1,58,000 – 1,67,875)
= ` 9,875 (A)
118 Cost and Management Accounting
Verification:
NOTES
1. MCV = MPV + MUV
18,900 (A) = 10,100(A) + 8,800 (A)
18,900(A) = 18,900 (A)
2. MUV = MMV + MYV
8,800(A) = 1,075(F) + 9,875 (A)
8,800 (A) = 8,800 (A)
Labour Variances
These may be two main reasons of the occurrence of deviations in cost of direct labour:
(i) Difference in actual rates and standard rates of labour and
(ii) The variation in the actual time taken by the workers and standard time allowed to
them for performing a job or an operation.
The various labour variances may be arranged as follows:
(1) Labour Cost Variance (LCV): It is the difference between the standard labour cost
and actual labour cost of the product.
LCV = (Standard Rate × Standard Time for Actual Output*) – (Actual Rate ×
Actual Time)

Standard Time
* × Actual output
Standard Output

LCV = (SR × ST) − (AR × AT)

Labour cost variance may be analysed further as (i) Labour rate variance, and
(ii) Labour efficiency variance.
(2) Labour Rate Variance (LRV): It is that portion of labour cost variance which is due to
the difference between the standard rate specified and the actual rate paid. It would occur
due to the following reasons:
(i) Employment of one or more workers of different grade than the standard grade,
(ii) Excessive overtime,
(iii) Overtime work in excess of that provided in the standard,
(iv) New workers not being allowed full wage rates, etc. The formula for calculating LRV
is as under: Labour Rate Variance (LRV) = Actual Time × {Standard Rate – Actual
Rate)
or LRV = AT (SR − AR )

(3) Total Labour Time/Efficiency Variance (TLEV): It is that portion of labour cost variance
which arises due to the difference between the Standard Labour hours specified and the
actual labour hours spent. It may arise due to the following reasons:
(i) Wrong selection of workers,
(ii) Higher labour turnover,
(iii) Lack of supervision,
(iv) Poor working conditions,
Segment Performance Analysis 119
(v) Defective machinery, tools and equipment,
NOTES
(vi) Use of non-standardised materials,
(vii) Inefficiency of workers, etc.
TLEV = Standard Rate × {Standard Time for Actual Output* – Actual Time)
Standard Time
* × Actual output
Standard Output
TLEV = SR × (ST – AT) TLEV can be divided into three parts:
(i) Simple LEV = SR × (ST for Actual output – AT worked*)
* AT Allowed - Idle Time – Holiday Time
(ii) Idle Time Variance* = Idle Time × SR
Note: Idle time is always adverse,

(iii) Holiday/Calendar Variance – Holiday Time × SR
Note: Holiday/Calendar Variance is always adverse.
TLEV = SLEV + Idle Time Variance + Holiday Variance
Labour Idle Time Variance: It is that portion of labour efficiency variance which
may arise due to abnormal wastage of time on account of strikes, power out, non-
availability of raw-material, breakdown of machinery etc.

Idle Time Variance = Idle Time (Hours) × Standard Rate

(4) Labour Mix Variance (LMV): Where workers of two or more than two types are engaged
in the difference between the standard composition of workers and the actual gang (or
group) of workers is known as ‘Labour Mix Variance’. It is calculated as under:

LMV = Labour Mix Variance (LMV) = SR (RST − AT)

Standard Time
Revised Standard Time (RST) = × Total Actual Time
Total Standard Time
(5) Labour Yield Variance (LYV): It is that portion of labour efficiency variance which
arises due to the difference between actual output of worker and standard output of
worker specified. It is calculated as follows:
(LYV) = SC × (Actual Yield – Revised Standard Yield*)
SC stands for standard cost of Labour per unit of standard output
SC is calculated as follows:
Standard Cost of Labour
SC =
Standard Output

Standard Yield Actual mix of Labour before

*Revised Standard Yield = ×
Standard Mix of Labour Idle and Holiday Time
before Idle and Holidayy Time
120 Cost and Management Accounting
Illustration 4.4
NOTES
From the following information, compute labour cost variance, labour efficiency variance and
labour rate variance.
Standard
Workers Hours Rate per hour (`) Total Amount (`)
A 10 3.00 30.00
B 15 4.00 60.00

Actual
A 20 3.00 60.00
B 5 4.50 22.50

Solution:
(a) Labour Cost Variance (LCV):
LCV = (ST × SR) – (AT × AR)
Worker A = (10 × 3) – (20 × 3) = ` 30 (Adv.)
Worker B = (15 × 4) – (5 × 4.50) = ` 37.50 (Fav.)
= ` 7.50 (Fav.)
(b) Labour Efficiency Variance (LEV):
LEV = (ST – AT) × SR
A = (10 – 20) × 3 = ` 30 (Adv.)
B = (15 – 5) × 4 = ` 40 (Fav.)
= ` 10 (Fav.)
(c) Labour Rate Variance (LRV):
LRV = (SR – AR) × AT
A = (3 – 3) ×20 = 0
B = (4 – 4.50) × 5 = ` 2.50 (Av.)
= ` 2.50 (Adv.)
Verification:
LRV = LEV + LRV
7.50 (Fav) = 10 (Fav.) + 2.50 (Adv.)
` 7.50 (Fav.) = ` 7.50 (Fav.)
Illustration 4.5
Calculate Labour Variance from the following information:
Labour Rate = ` 1 per hour
Hours as Standard per unit = 12 Hours
Actual Date:
Units Produced = 1,000
Actual Labour Cost = ` 10,000
Hours Worked actually = 12,500 Hours
Solution:
Standard Time (ST) = 1000 × 12 = 12,000 Hours
Standard Cost = 12,000 × 1 = ` 12,000
Segment Performance Analysis 121
Labour Cost Variance (LCV) = (Standard Cost – Actual Cost)
NOTES
= (12,000 – 10,000)
= ` 2,000 (Fav.)
Labour Rate Variance (LRV) = (SR – AR) × AT
(1.00 – 0.80) × 12,500 = ` 2,500 (Fav)
10, 000
Actual Rate = = ` 0.80 per hour
12, 500
Labour Efficiency Variance (LEV): (ST – AT) × AT
LEV = (12,000 – 12,500) × 1
= ` 500 (Adv.)
Verification:
LCV = LRV + LEV
` 2,000(Fav.) = ` 2,500 (Fav.) + ` 500 (Adv.)
` 2,000 (Fav.) = ` 2,000 (Fav.)
Illustration 4.6
From the following information, calculate labour variance
Standard wages:
Grade X: 90 Labourers at ` 2 per hour
Grade Y: 60 Labourers at ` 3 per hour
Actual Wages:
X: 80 Labourers at ` 2.50 per hour
Y: 70 Labourers at ` 2.00 per hour
Budgeted Hours = 1,000
Actual Hours = 900
Budgeted Gross Production = 5,000 units
Standard Loss = 20%
Actual loss = 900 units
Solution:
Standard Actual
Grade Time Rate Amount(`) Time (Hours) Rate (`) Amount
(Hours) (`) (`)
(80 × 900)
X(90 × 1000) 90,000 2 1,80,000 72,000 2.50 1,80,000
Y(60 × 1,000) 60,000 3 1,80,000 63,000 2.00 1,26,000
(70 × 900)
1,50,000 3,60,000 1,35,000 3,06,000

(i) Labour Cost Variance (LCV):

Standard Cost for actual production – actual Cost
Here actual production = 5,000 – 900 = 4,100 units
122 Cost and Management Accounting
So, Standard cost for actual Production:
NOTES
3, 60, 000
× 4, 100 = ` 3,69,000
4, 000
Standard Production (SP) = 5,000 – 1,000 = 4,000 units
LCV = ` 3,69,000 – ` 3,06,000
= ` 63,000 (Fav.)
(ii) Labour Rate Variance (LRV): AT (SR – AR)
Grade X = 72,000 (2 – 2.50) = ` 36,000 (Adv.)
Grade Y = 63,000 (3 – 2.00) = ` 63,000 (Fav.)
= 27,000 (Fav.)
(iii) Labour Efficiency Variance (LEV):
SR (ST for actual Output – Actual Time)
90, 000
ST for Grade X = × 4, 100 = 92, 250 hrs
4, 000

60, 000
ST for Grade Y = × 4, 100 = 61, 500 hrs
4, 000
LEV:
Grade X = 2(92,250 – 72.000) = ` 40,500 (Fav.)
Grade Y = 3(61,500 – 63,000) = ` 4,500 (Adv.)
= 36,000 (Fav.)
Labour efficiency Variance can be further analysed as follows:
(iv) Labour Mix Variance (LMV): SR (RST – Actual Time)
Standard Time
RST = × Total Actual Time
Total Standard Time

90, 000
Grade X = × 1, 35, 000 = 81, 000 hrs
1, 50, 000
60, 000
Grade Y = × 1, 35, 000 = 54, 000 hrs
1, 50, 000
LMV:
Grade X = 2(81,000 – 72,000) = ` 18,000 (Fav.)
Grade Y = 3(54,000 – 63,000) = ` 27,000 (Adv.)
= ` 9,000 (Adv.)
(v) Revised Efficiency Variance (REV):
SR (ST for actual Output – RST)
Grade X = 2(92,250- 81,000) = ` 22,500 (Fav.)
Grade Y = 3(61,500 – 54,000) = ` 22,500 (Fav.)
= ` 45,000 (Fav.)
Segment Performance Analysis 123
Verification:
NOTES
1. LEV = LMV + REV
` 36,000 (Fav.) = ` 9,000 (Adv.) + ` 45,000(Fav.)
` 36,000 (Fav.) = ` 36,000 (Fav.)
2. LCV = LRV + LEV
` 63,000 (Fav.) = ` 27,000 (Fav.) + ` 36,000 (Fav.)
` 63,000 (Fav.) = ` 63,000 (fav.)
Note: Revised Efficiency Variance (REV) is equal to Labour Yield variance:
Labour Yield Variance = Standard Cost per unit × (Standard Output for Actual Mix – Actual
Output)
3, 60, 000
Here, Standard Cost per unit = = ` 90
4, 000
standard Output
Standard Output for Actual Mix = × Acutal Mix
Standard Mix
4, 000
= × 1, 35, 000 = 3, 600
1, 50, 000

Labour Yield Variance = 90 (4,100 – 3,600) = ` 45,000 (Fav.)

Overhead Variances
Overhead variance is the difference between the standard overhead specified and actual
overhead incurred.
Overhead variance is divided into:
(A) Variable Overhead variance.
(B) Fixed Overhead Variance

(A) Variable Overhead Variance

Variable cost varies in proportion to the level of output, while cost is fixed per unit. As such
the standard cost per unit of these overheads remains the same irrespective of the level of
output attend.
(1) Variable Overhead Cost Variances. The variable overhead cost variance represents
the difference between the standard cost of variable overhead for actual output and
the actual variable overhead incurred during the period.
Variable Overhead Cost Variance
= (Actual Output × St. Variable Overhead Rate per unit) – Actual Variable Overhead
Cost
Or
= (St. Hours for Actual Output × St. Variable Overhead Rate per Hour)
− Actual Variable Overhead Cost
124 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES (2) Variable Overhead Expenditure Variance. It is the difference between the actual
variable overhead rate per hour and standard variable overhead rate per hour multiplied
by the actual hours worked. It is also known as 'Budget Variance'.
Variable Overhead Expenditure Variance
= (St. Variable Overhead Rate × Actual Hours) – Actual Variable Overheads
Or
= Recovered Variable Overheads – Actual Variable Overheads
(3) Variable Overhead Efficiency Variance. The variable overhead efficiency variance is
calculated by taking the difference in standard output and actual output multiplied by the
standard variable overhead rate.
Variable Overhead Efficiency Variable = St.Variable Overhead Rate × (St. Quantity
− Actual Quantity)
Or
= SVOR × (SHAO − AH)
Where SVOR = Standard Variable Overhead Rate per hour; SHAO = Standard Hours
for Actual Output;
AH = Actual Hours. Confirmation:
Variable Overhead Variance = V.O. Expenditure Variance + V.O. Efficiency Variance
Illustration 4.7
From the following information, calculate: (a) Variable Overhead Variance, (b) Variable
Overhead Expenditure Variance, and (c) Variable Overhead Efficiency Variance.
1. Standard hours per unit: 3; Variable Overhead per hour: `5
2. Actual Variable Overhead incurred: ` 4,20,000
3. Actual Output: 30,000 units
4. Actual Hours worked: 1,00,000 hours.
Solution:
(a) Variable Overhead Variance = Standard Variable Overhead – Actual Variable Overhead
= (3 × ` 5 × 30,000 units) −` 4,20,000
= ` 4,50,000 − ` 4,20,000 = ` 30,000 (F)
(b) Variable Overhead Expenditure Variance
= Standard Variable Overhead for Actual Time − Actual Variable Overhead = (Standard
Overhead Rate × Actual Hours) − A.V.O.
= (` 5 × 1,00,000 hours) − ` 4,20,000
= ` 5,00,000 − ` 4,20,000 = ` 80,000 (F)
(c) Variable Overhead Efficiency Variance = Standard Variable Overhead on Actual Production
− Standard Variable Overhead for Actual Time
= (3 × ` 5 × 30,000 units) − ( ` 5 × 1,00,000 hours)
= ` 4,50,000 − ` 5,00,000 = ` 50,000 (A)
Confirmation:
Variable Overhead Variance = V.O. Expenditure Variance + V.O. Efficiency Variance.
` 30,000 (F) = ` 80,000 (F) + ` 50,000 (A)
` 30,000 (F) = ` 30,000 (F).
Segment Performance Analysis 125

(B) Fixed Overhead Variance NOTES

Fixed overhead variance reveals all items of expenditure which are more or less remain
constant irrespective of level of output or number of hours worked. Fixed overhead
variance depends upon two factors, which are: (i) fixed expenses incurred and (ii) volume
of production obtained.
The volume of production depends upon (a) capacity at which the factory works,
(b) number of days factory works, and (c) efficiency at which factory works.

Classification of Fixed Overhead Variances

(1) Fixed Overhead Cost Variance. It shows the difference between the standard cost of
fixed overheads recovered for actual output and actual cost of fixed overheads incurred.
Fixed Overhead Cost Variance = Standard Fixed Overheads – Actual Fixed Overheads
Or
= (Actual Output x Standard Fixed Overhead Rate) − Actual Fixed Overheads Fixed
Overhead Cost Variance may be classified as:
(a) Fixed Overhead Expenditure Variance;
(b) Fixed Overhead Volume Variance.
(2) Fixed Overhead Expenditure Variance. It is that part of fixed overhead cost variance
which arises due to the difference between budgeted fixed overhead expenditure and the
actual fixed overhead expenditure relating to a specified period.
Fixed Overhead Expenditure Variance = Budgeted Fixed Overheads – Actual Fixed Overheads
Or
= (Standard Overhead Rate × Budgeted Output) – Actual Overhead Rate × Actual Output)
(3) Fixed Overhead Volume Variance. This variance reveals the difference between fixed
overhead recovered on actual output and fixed overheads on budgeted output. It is the
result of difference in volume of production multiplied by the standard rate. Fixed
Overhead Volume Variance = Recovered Fixed Overheads – Budgeted Fixed Overheads
Or
= (Actual Output × Standard Overhead Rate) – (Budgeted Output × Standard Overhead
Rate) Fixed overhead volume variance can further be analysed as (a) Fixed Overhead
Efficiency Variance, (b) Fixed Overhead Capacity Variance and (c) Fixed Overhead
Calendar Variance
126 Cost and Management Accounting
3 (a) Fixed Overhead Efficiency Variance. It is that part of fixed overhead volume variance
NOTES
which is due to the difference between the budgeted efficiency of production and
the actual efficiency attained. The actual quantity produced and standard quantity
fixed might be different because of higher or lower efficiency of workers employed
in manufacturing of goods. Fixed Overhead Efficiency Variance = Recovered Fixed
Overheads – Standard Overheads
Or
= Standard Overhead Rate (Actual Quantity – Standard Quantity)
(b) Fixed Overhead Capacity Variance. The variance which is related to the over or
under utilisation of plant capacity is known as fixed overhead capacity variance.
Strikes, lock-out, idle time, etc., lead to under-utilisation and overtime, extra shift,
etc., lead to over-utilisation. Fixed Overhead Capacity Variance = Standard Overhead
Rate per unit (Revised Budgeted Output - Budgeted Output)
Or
Hours = Standard Rate per hour (Revised Budgeted Hours – Budgeted Hours) Whereas,
Revised Budgeted Nos. = Actual Working days x Budgeted Hrs. per Day.
(c) Fixed Overhead Calendar Variance. It is that part of volume variance which arises
due to the difference between the number of working days anticipated in the budget
period and the actual working days in the budget period. The number of working
days in the budget are arrived at by dividing the number of annual days by twelve.
But the actual days of a month may be more or less than the standard days and
with the result there may be calendar variance. Fixed Overhead Calendar Variance
= possible Fixed Overheads – Budgeted Fixed Overheads
Or
= (Standard Rate of Overhead per hour × Possible Hours)
−(Standard Overhead Rate per hour × Budgeted Hours)
Possible Hours = Standard Working hours per day × Actual Number of Working days.
Or Fixed Overhead Calendar Revised Variance = (Standard Rate per hour/day) ×
(Excess or Deficit Hours/Days Worked)
Fixed Overhead Capacity Revised Variance = Standard Overhead – Possible Overhead
Illustration 4.8
From the following data calculate Fixed Overhead Variances
Budgeted Actual
Output 20,000 units 18,000 units
Number of Working Days 25 28
Fixed Overheads ` 40,000 ` 41,000
There was an increase of 10% in capacity
Solution:
Standard Fixed Overheads
Standard Overhead Rate =
Standard Output

40,000
= = ` 2.00
20,000 Units
Segment Performance Analysis 127
(a) Fixed Overhead Cost Variance
NOTES
= Standard Fixed Overheads – Actual Fixed Overheads
= (Actual Output × Standard Fixed Overhead Rate)
– Actual Fixed Overheads
FOCV = (18,000 units − ` 2.00) − ` 41,000 = ` 36,000 − ` 41,000
= ` 5,000 (A)
(b) Fixed Overhead Expenditure Variance
= Budgeted Fixed Overheads – Actual Fixed Overheads
FOE × V = ` 40,000 − ` 41,000 = ` 1,000 (A)
(c) Fixed Overhead Volume Variance
= Recovered Fixed Overheads – Budgeted Fixed Overheads
= (Actual Output × Standard Overhead Rate)
– (Budget Output × Standard Overhead Rate)
= (18,000 units × ` 2.00) − (20,000 units × ` 2.00)
FOW = ` 36,000 − ` 40,000 = ` 4,000 (A)
(d) Fixed Overhead Efficiency Variance
= Standard Overhead Rate (Actual Quantity – Standard Quantity) Standard
Quantity (without increase) = Budgeted Quantity
= 20,000 units
Increase in Capacity @ 10% = 2,000 units
∴ Standard Production = 22,000 units
(+) Standard Production for 3 days
 22, 000 units 
i.e (28 − 25) days  × 3 days = 2640 units
 25 days 
Thus, Standard Quantity after Increase of Capacity = 24.640 units
F.O.E.F.V = ` 3.00 (18,000 units − 24,640 units) = ` 13,280 (A)
(e) Fixed Overhead Capacity Variance
= Standard Overhead Rate (Standard Output for Actual Time − Budgeted Output)
= Standard Overhead Rate (Revised Budgeted units − Budgeted units)
10
= ` 2.00 [(20,000 + 20,000 × ) = 20,000 units]
100
∴ F.O.C.V = ` 2.00 (22.000 units – 20,000 units) = ` 4,000 (F)
(f) Fixed Overhead Calendar Variance
= Increase or Decrease in production due to more or less working days
× Standard Overhead Rate per unit with the increase in capacity
∴ F.O.C.V = 2,640 units × ` 2 = ` 5,280 (F)
Confirmation:
Fixed Overhead Cost Variance = F.O. Expenditure Variance + F.O. Volume Variance
` 5,000 (A) = ` 1,000 (A) + ` 4,000 (A)
` 5,000 (A) = ` 5.000 (A)
128 Cost and Management Accounting
Fixed Overhead Volume Variance
NOTES
= F.O. Efficiency Variance + F.O. Capacity Variance + F.O. Calendar Variance
` 4,000 (A) = ` 13,280(A) + ` 4,000 (F) + ` 5,280 (F)
` 4,000(A) = ` 13,280 (A) + ` 9,280 (F)
` 4,000 (A) = ` 4,000(A)
Illustration 4.9
Ankita Ltd. has furnished you the following data
Budgeted Actual (July, 2014)
Number of Working Days 25 27
Production ( in units) 20,000 22,000
Fixed Overheads (in `) 30,000 31,000

Budgeted Fixed Overhead Rate is ` 1.00 per hour. In July, 2014, the actual hours worked
were 31,500.
Calculate the following variances: (i) Efficiency Variance; (ii) capacity Variance; (iii) Calendar
Variance; (iv) Volume Variance; (v) Expenditure variance; (vi) Total Overheads Variance.
Solution:
Working Notes:

 30, 000 
St. Hrs. for Actual Output =  22, 000 × 20, 000  = 33,000 hrs

Budgeted Overheads = ` 30,000

Budgeted Overhead Rate per hour = ` 1.00
30, 000
Budgeted Hours = = 30,000
1.00
Budgeted Output = 20,000 units
30, 000
St. Time per unit of Output = = 1.5 hrs
20, 000

1.5Hours
St. Rate per unit of Output = = ` 1.50
1.0
Budgeted Days = 25
30, 000
Budgeted Hrs. Worked per day = =1200 Hrs
25

Calculation of First Overhead Variances:

(1) Efficiency Variance = St. Rate per hour (St. Hours – Actual Hours)
EV = ` 1.00 (33,000 – 31,500) = ` 1,500 (F)
(2) Capacity Variance = St. Rate per hour (Actual Hours – Revised Budgeted Hours)
CV = ` 1.00 (31,500 − 27 ×1.200) = ` 900 (A)
Segment Performance Analysis 129

Budgeted Overheads NOTES

(3) Calendar Variance = × (actual No. of Working Days
Budgeted Working Days
– Budgeted No. of Working Days)
30, 000
∴ CIV = (27 − 25) = ` 2,400 (F)
25
(4) Volume variance = Standard Rate per unit (Actual Output− Budgeted Output)
VV = ` 1.50 (22,000 – 20,000) = ` 3,000
(5) Expenditure Variance = Budgeted Overheads −Actual Overheads
Exp. V = ` 30,000 – ` 31,000 = ` 1,000 (A)
(6) Total Overhead Variance = (Actual Output × Standard Rate per unit) − Actual Overheads
= (22,000 units × ` 1.50} − ` 31,000
TOV = ` 33,000 − ` 31,000 – ` 2,000 (F)
Confirmation:
Total Overhead Variance = Expenditure Variance + Volume Variance
` 2,000 (F) = ` 1,000 (A) + ` 3,000 (F)
` 2,000 (F) = ` 2,000 (F)
Volume Variance = Efficiency Variance + Capacity Variance + Calendar Variance
` 3,000 (F) – ` 1,500 (F) + ` 900 (A) + ` 2,400 (F)
` 3,000 (F) = ` 3,000 (F)
Illustration 4.10
The following information is available from the cost records of a company for January, 2014:
(`)
Materials Purchased: 20,000 pieces 88,000
Materials Consumed: 19,000 pieces
Actual Wages Paid: 4,950 Hours 24,750
Factory Overheads Incurred 44,000
Factory Overheads Budgeted 40,000
Units Produced: 1,800
Standard Rates and Prices are:
Direct Material Rate ` 4 per piece
Standard Input 10 pieces per unit
Direct Labour Rate ` 4 per hour
Standard Requirement 2.5 hours per unit
Overhead ` 8 per labour hour

Required:
(a) Show the Standard Cost Card.
(b) Compute all Material, Labour and Overhead Variances for January, 2014.
130 Cost and Management Accounting
Solution:
NOTES
(a) Standard Cost Card

Per Unit m
Direct — 10 pieces @ ` 4 per piece 40
Material — 2.5 hrs @ ` 4 per hour 10
Direct — 2.5 hrs @ ` 8 per hour 20
Labour Total Standard Cost 70
Overheads
(b) Computation of Variances:
I. Material Variances
(1) Total Material Cost Variance = Standard Cost of Material for Actual Output
- Actual Material Cost
 19, 000 
= (1, 800 × 10 pieces ` 4) −  ` 88, 000 × 
 20, 000 

TMCV = ` 72,000 − ` 83,600 = ` 11600 (A)
(2) Material Price variance = Actual Qty. (St. Price – Actual Price)
` 88, 000 
MPV = 19,000 pieces  ` 4 − 
 20, 000 
= 19,000 pieces (` 4 – ` 4.40) = ` 7,600 (A)
(3) Material Usage Variance = St. Price (St. Qty. – A. Qty.)
MUV = ` 4.00 (18,000 − 19,000) = ` 4,000 (A)
Confirmation:
TMCV = MPV + MUV
` 11,600 (A) = ` 7,600 (A) + ` 4,000 (A)
` 11,600 (A) = ` 11,600 (A)
II. Labour Variances
(1) Total Labour Cost Variance — St. Cost of Labour for Actual Output
– Actual Labour Cost
= (` 1,800 × 2.5 hrs × ` 4) − ` 24,750
LTV = ` 18,000 − ` 24,750 = ` 6,750 (A)
(2) Labour Rate Variance = Actual hrs. (St. Rate per hour – Actual Rate per hour)

= 4,950 hrs.  ` 4 − ` 24, 750 

 4, 950 

= 4,950 hrs. (` 4 – ` 5)
LRV = ` 4,950 (A)
(3) Labour Efficiency Variance = St. Rate per hour (St. hrs. – A. hrs.)
= ` 4 [(1800 × 2.5 hrs) – 4,950 hrs.]
= ` 4 (4,500 hrs. – 4,950 hrs.)
LEV = ` 1,800 (A)
Segment Performance Analysis 131
Confirmation:
NOTES
TLCV = LRV + LEV
` 6,750 (A) = ` 4,950 (A) + ` 1,800 (A)
` 6,750 (A) = ` 6,750 (A)
III. Fixed Overhead Variances
(1) Total fixed Overhead Cost variance = Overhead Recovered on Actual Output
– Actual Factory Overheads
= (1,800 units × 2.5 hrs × 8) – 44,000
∴ TFOC = ` 36,000 – `44,000 = ` 8,000 (A)
(2) Fixed Overhead Expenditure Variance
– Budgeted Fixed Overheads – Actual Fixed Overheads
∴ F.O. Exp. V. = ` 40,000 – ` 44,000 = ` 4,000 (A)
(3) Fixed Overhead Efficiency Variance = St. F.O. Rate per hour
(St. hrs, for Actual Output – Actual hrs.)
= ` 8 [(2.5 hrs. × 1,800) − 4,950 hrs.]
F.O. Eff. V. = ` 8 (4,500 hrs. − 4,950 hrs.)
=` 3,600 (A)
(4) Fixed Overhead Capacity Variance = St. F.O. Rate per hour (Actual Capacity hrs.
– Budgeted Capacity hrs.)
 ` 40, 000 
= ` 8  4, 950 hrs − 
 8
= ` 8(4,950 hrs. − 5,000 hrs.)
F.O.C.V = ` 400 (A)
Confirmation:
TFOCV = F.O. Exp. V. + F.O. Capacity V
` 8,000 = ` 4,000 (A) + ` 3,600 (A) + ` 400 (A)
` 8.000(A) = ` 8,000 (A)

4.3.1 Evaluation of cost and sales variances

Sales Variances
Some companies are interested in calculating only cost variances relating to materials, labour
and overheads. These variances are of great significance to the business enterprises. But in
order to obtain the full advantages of standard costing system, many companies also calculate
safe variances. Sales variances affect a business in terms of changes in revenue.
Sales variances can be calculated by two methods:
(A) The Value or the Turnover Method, (B) The Profit or the Margin Method.
• (A) The Value or the Turnover Method
Under this method, variances are calculated with reference to their effect on sales or sales
value.
132 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES

Classification of Sales Variances Based on Turnover

(1) Sales Value Variance (SVV): It shows the difference between the actual sales and the
budgeted sales. If the actual sales exceed the budgeted sales the variance is treated as
favourable and vice-versa.
Sales Value Variance (SVV) = Actual Value of Sales – Budgeted Value of Sales
or
SVV – (Actual Quantity × Actual Selling Price) − (St. Quantity × St. Selling Price)
(2) Sales Price Variance (SPV): It is the that part of Sales Value Variance which arises due
to the difference between actual price and standard price of sales. If the actual price
attained is more than the standard price, the variance shall be favourable and vice-versa.
Sales Price Variance {SPV) = Actual Quantity (Actual Selling Price – St. Selling Price)
(3) Sales Volume Variance (S.Vlm. V): It is that part of Sales Value Variance which arises
due to the difference between the actual quantity sold and the standard quantity of sales.
Sales Volume Variance (S. Vlm. V) = St. Selling Price (Actual Quantity of Sales
− St. Quantity of Sales)
Sales Volume Variance can be further divided into:
3 (a) Sales Mix Variance (SMV): It is that part of Sales Volume Variance which arises
due to the difference between standard and actual composition of the sales mix. This
variance arises only when the business firm deals in more than one product. Sales
Mix Variance (SMV) = St. Value of Actual Mix – St. Value of Revised St. Mix
or
SMV = St. Selling Price (Actual Qty. – Revised St. Qty.)
3 (b) Sales Quantity Variance (SQV): It is that part of Sales Volume Variance which
is due to the difference between standard value of a actual sales at standard mix
and the budgeted sales.
Sales Quantity Variance (SQV) = Revised Standard Sales Value
– Budgeted Sales Value
or SQV — Standard Selling Price per unit (Standard Proportion for
Actual Sales Quantity – Budgeted Quantity of Sales)
or
SQV — St. Selling Price per unit (Revised St. Mix – St. Mix)
Segment Performance Analysis 133
Illustration 4.11
NOTES
The budgeted sales for one month and the actual results achieved are as under:

Product Budget Actual

Quantity Rate (`) Amount (`) Quantity Rate (`) Amount (`)
(units) (units)
M 1,000 10.00 10,000 1,200 12.50 15,000
N 700 20.00 14,000 800 15.00 12,000
O 500 30.00 15,000 600 30.00 18,000
P 300 50.00 15,000 400 60.00 24,000
Total 2,500 54,000 69,000

You are required to calculate in respect of each product, the Sales Variances.
Solution:
(1) Sales Value Variance = Actual Value of Sales – Budgeted Value of Sales
∴ SVV = ` 69,000 − ` 54,000 = ` 15,000 (F)
(2) Sales Price Variance = Actual Qty. (Actual Selling Price – St. Selling Price)
M = 1200 (` 12.50 − ` 10.00) = ` 3,000 (F)
N = 800 (` 15.00 − ` 20.00) = ` 4,000 (A)
O = 600 (` 30.00 – ` 30.00) = Nil
P = 400 (` 60.00 − ` 50.00) = ` 4000 (F)
∴ Total Sales Price Variance = ` 3.000 (F)
(3) Sales Volume Variance = St. Selling Price (Actual Qty. – St. Qty.)
M = ` 10.00 (1200 – 1000) = ` 2,000 (F)
N = ` 20.00 (800 – 700) = ` 2,000 (F)
O = ` 30.00 (600 – 500) = ` 3,000 (F)
P = ` 50.00 (400 – 300) = ` 5,000 (F)
∴ Total Sales Volume Variance = ` 12.000 (F)
(a) Sales Mix Variance = (St. Value of Actual Mix – St. Value of Revised St. Mix)
or SMV = St. Selling Price (Actual Qty. − Revised St. Qty.)
Total Actual Mix of Sales
Whereas, Revised St. Qty. = × St.Qty.
Total St. Mix of Sales
3, 000
Revised St. Qty. for product M = × 1000 = 1,200 units
2, 500
3, 000
Revised St. Qty. for product N = × 700 = 840 units
2, 500

3, 000
Revised St. Qty. for product O = × 500 = 600 units
2, 500

3, 000
Revised St. Qty. for product P = × 300 = 360 units
2, 500
134 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES Sales Quantity Variance M = ` 10.00 (1200 − 1200) = Nil

  N = ` 20.00 (800 − 840) = ` 800 (A)
  O = ` 30.00 (600 − 600) = Nil
  P = ` 50.00 (400 − 360) = ` 2,000 (F)
Total Sales Mix Variance = ` 1,200 (F)
(b) Sales Quantity Variance – St. Selling Price (Revised St. Qty. – St. Qty.)
  M = ` 10.00 (1200 − 1000) = ` 2,000 (F)
  N = ` 20.00 (840 − 700) = ` 2,800 (F)
  O = ` 30.00 (600 − 500) = ` 3.000 (F)
  P = ` 50.00 (360 − 300) = ` 3,000 (F)
∴ Total Sales Quantity Variance = ` 10.800 (F)
Confirmation:
Sales Value Variance = Sales Price Variance + Sales Volume Variance
` 15,000 (F) = ` 3,000 (F) + ` 12.000 (F)
` 15,000 (F) = ` 15,000 (F)
Sales Volume Variance = Sales Mix Variance + Sales Quantity Variance
` 12,000 (F) = ` 1200 (F) + ` 10,800 (F)
` 12,000(F) = ` 12,000(F)

• (B) The Profit or Margin Method

The sales variances based on profit are also known as Sales Margin Variances which indicates
the deviation or difference between actual profit and standard or budgeted profit.

Classification of Sales Variances based on Margin

(1)
Total Sales Margin Variance: This sales variance reveals the difference between
actual profit and standard or budgeted profit.
Total Sales Margin Variance = Actual Profit – Budgeted Profit
or = (Actual Qty. of Sales × Actual Profit per unit)
   – (Budgeted Qty. of Sales ×Budgeted Profit per unit)
(2) Sales Price Variance: It is that part of Total Sales Margin Variance per unit
which shows the difference between the standard price of the quantity of sales
effected and the actual price of those sales.
Segment Performance Analysis 135
Sales Price Variance = Actual Qty. of Sales (Actual Profit per unit – Budgeted Profit per unit) NOTES
or = (Actual Qty. of Sales × St. Price) – (Actual Qty. of Sales × Actual Price)
(3) Sales Volume Variance: It shows the difference between the actual units sold
and the budgeted quantity multiplied by either the standard profit per unit or
the standard contribution per unit.
Note: In Absorption Costing, standard profit per unit is used, but in Marginal Costing,
standard contribution per unit must be used,
Sales Volume Variance = St. Profit per unit (Actual Qty. of Sales – St. Qty. of Sales)
or = (St. Profit on Actual Qty. of Sales) – (St. Profit on St. Qty. of Sales)
Sales Volume Variance can be further divided into:
(a) Sales Mix Variance: This variance arises only when the firm manufactures and
sells more than one type of product. This variance will be due to variation
of actual mix and budgeted mix of sales.
Sales Mix Variance - St. Profit per unit (Actual Qty. of Sales – Revised St. Qty. of Sales)
or = Standard Profit – Revised Standard Profit
(b) Sales Quantity Variance: It is that part of Sales Volume Variance which arises
due to the difference between the standard profit and revised standard profit.
Sales Quantity Variance = St. Profit per unit (St. Proportion for Actual
Sales – Budgeted Qty. of Sales)
or = Revised St. Profit – Budgeted Profit
or = Budgeted Margin per unit on budgeted Mix × (Total Actual Qty. – Total
Budgeted Qty.)
Illustration 4.12
Rama Ltd. is manufacturing and selling three products X, Y and Z. The company has a
standard costing system and analysis the variances between the budget and the actuals
periodically. The summarised working results for 2013–14 were as follows:

Product Budget Actual

Selling Price Cost per unit No. of Units Selling Price Cost per unit No. of Units
p. u. (`) (`) Sold p. u. (`) (`) Sold
X 50.00 16.00 20,000 48.00 15.00 24,000

Y 40.00 12.00 28,000 42.00 12.50 24,000

Z 30.00 9.00 32,000 31.00 10.00 30,000
(a) Calculate variances in profit during the period.
(b) Analyse the variance in profit into: (1) Sales Price Variance; (2) Sales Volume
Variance; (3) Total Sales Margin Variance; (4) Sales in Quantity Variance; and
(5) Sales Margin Mix Variance.
Solution:
Working Notes:
1 (a) Actual Margin per unit = Actual Sales Price per unit – St. Cost per unit
X = ` (48 − 16) = ` 32
Y = ` (42 − 12) = ` 30
Z = ` {31 − 9} = ` 22
136 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES (b) Budgeted Margin per unit – Budgeted Selling Price per unit – St. Cost per unit
X = ` (50 − 16) = ` 34
Y = ` (40 − 12) = ` 28
Z = ` (30 − 9) = ` 21
2 (a) Actual Profit = Actual Quantity of Units Sold × Actual Margin per unit
X = 24,000 units × ` 32 = ` 7,68,000
Y = 24,000 units × ` 30 = ` 7,20,000
Z = 30.000 units × ` 22 = ` 6.60,000
Total = ` 21.48.000
(b) Budgeted Profit = Budgeted Quantity of Units Sold × Budgeted Profit per unit
X = 20,000 units × ` 34 = ` 6,80,000
Y = 28.000 units × ` 28 = ` 7,84,000
Z = 32,000 units × ` 21 = ` 6,72,000
Total = ` 21,36,000
3 (a) Budgeted Margin per unit on Actual Mix

=
(34 × 24, 000) + (28 × 24, 000) + (21 × 30, 000)

(24, 000 + 24, 000 + 30, 000) units

=
(8, 16, 000) + (6, 72, 000) + (6, 30, 000)
78, 000 units

21, 18, 000

= = ` 27.154
78, 000 units
(b) Budgeted Margin per unit on Budgeted Mix

=
(34 × 20, 000) + (28 × 28, 000) + (21 × 32, 000)

(20, 000 + 28, 000 + 32, 000) units

=
(6, 80, 000) + (7, 84, 000) + (6, 72, 000)
80, 000 units

21, 36, 000

= = ` 26.70
80, 000 units

Calculation of Sales Margin Variances:

(1) Sales Margin Price Variance = Actual Qty. {Actual Margin per unit − Budgeted Margin
per unit)
X = 24,000 units (` 32 − ` 34) = ` 48,000 (A)
Y = 24.000 units (` 30 − ` 28) = ` 48,000 (F)
Z = 30,000 units (` 22 − ` 21) = ` 30,000 (F)
Total Sales Margin Price Variance = ` 30.000 (F)
Segment Performance Analysis 137
(2) Sales Margin Volume Variance = Budgeted Margin per unit (Actual Qty. – Budgeted NOTES
Qty.)
X = ` 34 {24,000 units − 20,000 units = ` 1.36,000 (F)
Y = ` 28 (24,000 units − 28,000 units) = ` 1,12,000 (A)
Z = ` 21 {30,000 units − 32,000 units) = ` 42,000 (A)

∴ Total Sales Margin Volume Variance = ` 18,000 (A)

(3) Total Sales Margin Variance = Actual Profit – Budgeted Profit
= ` 21,48,000 − ` 21,36,000 = ` 12,000 (F)
(4) Sales Margin Quantity Variance = Budgeted Margin per unit on Budgeted Mix
(Total Actual Qty. − Total Budgeted Qty.)
= ` 26,70 (78,000 units - 80,000 units)
Total Sales Margin Qty. Variance = ` 53,400 (A)
(5) Sales Margin Mix Variance = Total Actual Qty. (Budgeted Margin per unit on Actual
Mix − Budgeted Margin per unit on Budgeted Mix)
= 78,000 units (` 27.154 − ` 26.70)

∴ Total Sales Margin Mix Variance = ` 35,412 or ` 35,400

Confirmation:
Total Sales Margin Variance = Sales Margin Price Variance + Sales Margin Volume Variance
` 12,000 (F) = ` 30,000 (F) + ` 18,000 (A)
` 12,000 (F) = ` 12,000 (F)
Sales Margin Volume Variance = Sales Margin Qty. Variance + Sales Margin Mix Variance
` 18.000 (A)
= ` 53.400 (A) + ` 35,400 (F)
` 18,000 (A) = ` 18,000 (A)

• Disposition of Variances
When standard costs are used by a business enterprise only as a statistical data and are not
entered in the books of account, the disposition of variances is not needed since no adjustments
are required for variances in such a case. But when standard costs are incorporated into
accounting system through work-in-progress, finished goods and cost of goods sold accounts,
the adjustment and disposition of variances is required. There is no hard and fast rule regarding
the disposition of variances nor there is any single way of dealing with them. Hence, the method
which will be adopted depends on the accountants attitude and the practice that is followed by
the business enterprise. However, the following methods may be usually applied:
(1) Transfer to Costing Profit and Loss Account: According to this method, the unfavourable
variances are debited to Costing Profit and Loss Account whereas favourable variances
are credited to Costing Profit and Loss Account, at the end of accounting period. Thus,
work-in-progress, finished goods, and cost of goods sold accounts are maintained at
standard cost. This method has the significance of quick and uniform valuation of stocks
and shows the different variances separately to enable the management to pay dual
attention quickly and correctly.
138 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES (2) Allocation of Variances to Stocks and Cost of Sales: According to this method,
cost variances are allocated among finished goods, work-in-progress and cost of sales
on the basis of units or value. As a result, the stocks and cost of sales will appear in
the books of actual cost.
(3) Transfer of Variances to Reserve Account: The variances, whether favourable or
unfavourable are transferred to a Reserve Account to be carried forward to the next
accounting period as deferred 'debits' or 'credits'. If variances are favourable, they
are shown on liability side of Balance Sheet. On the other hand, if variances are
unfavourable, they are shown on asset side of Balance Sheet.

4.4 SUMMARY
 Variances may be classified into two categories, “Favourable and unfavourable, Controllable
and uncontrollable variances.
 Variance is the Difference between standard and Actual is known as variance.
 Favourable variance will be designated by (F) and Adverse variance by (A).
 Revision variance represents the difference between the original standard cost and the
revised standard cost.
 Direct material mix variance is that portion of the material usage variance which is due to
the difference between standard and actual composition of materials.

4.5 KEY TERMS

 Actual production: is mean actual quantity produced during the actual hours worked.
 Standard Production: It means the quantity which have been produced during actual hours
worked.
 Budgeted cost: It means the budgeted quantity to be produced at the standard cost per
unit.
 Standard cost: It means the actual quantity produced at the standard cost per unit.
 Material cost variance: Material cost variance is the difference between the standard cost
of materials specified for the actual output and actual cost of materials used.
 Material price variance: Material price variance is the portion of the material cost variance
which arises due to the difference between the standard price specified and actual price
paid.
 Material usage variance: Material usage variance is the difference between the standard
quantity specified and the actual quantity used.
 Material mix variance: Material mix variance is that portion of material usage variance
which is due to the difference between the standard and actual composition of as mixture.
 Material yield variance: Material yield variance represents the portion of material usage
variance which is due to the difference between the standard yield specified and the
actual yield obtained.
 Labour cost variance: It is the difference between the standard labour cost and actual
labour cost of the product.
Segment Performance Analysis 139

4.6 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES NOTES

1. What is standard costing? Explain its advantages and disadvantages.
2. What is standard costing? Explain the requisites of standard costing method.
3. Explain the procedure for determining standards.
4. Distinguish between the following:
(a) Standard Cost and Estimated Cost, (b) Standard Costing and Budgetary Control.
5. What do you mean by variances? What are its different kinds and explain it?
6. What do you mean by ‘Analysis of Variances’? Explain briefly the various types of
variances.
7. “Standard Costing is always accompanied by a system of budgeting, but budgetary
control may be operated in business where standard costing would be impracticable.”
Comment.
Practical Problems:
1. Find out the material variances

Material Std. Qty. (units) Std. Price (`) Actual Qty. (`) Actual Price (`)
A 50 2 60 3
B 25 5 30 4
75 90
Ans: (i) MVC: A = ` 80 (Adv.); B = ` 5 (Fav.); (ii) MPV: A = ` 60 (Adv.);
B = ` 30 (Fav.) (iii) MUV: A = ` 20 (Adv.); B = ` 25 (Adv.); (iv) MMV = Nil;
(v) MSUV = ` 45 (Adv.)]
2. Calculate material variances from the following data:

Material Standard Actual

Std. Qty. Rate (`) Amount Qty. Rate (`) Amount
(kg) (`) (`)
A 10 2 20 5 3 15
B 20 3 60 10 6 60
C 20 6 120 15 5 75
50 200 30 150
[Ans: MCV = ` 50 (Fav.); MPV = ` 20 (Adv.); MUV = ` 70 (Fav.); MMV = ` 10 (Adv.);
MSUV = ` 80 (Fav.)]
3. The standard mix of product is as under:
Material A = 60 units @ ` 0.15 per unit.
Material B = 80 units @ ` 0.20 per unit
Material C = 100 units @ ` 0.25 per unit.
10 units of finished product should be obtained from the above mix.
During the month January 2010, 10 such mixes were completed and consumption was as
follows:
Material A = 640 units @ ` 0.20 per unit
Material B = 960 units @ ` 0.15 per unit
Material C = 840 units @ ` 0.30 per unit
140 Cost and Management Accounting
Actual output was 90 units.
NOTES
Calculate the various material variances.
[Ans: MCV = ` 74 (Adv.); MPV = ` 26 (Adv.); MUV = ` 48 (Adv.); MMV = ` 10.35
(Fav.) MYV = ` 58.35 (Adv.)]
4. The standard mix to produce one unit of product is as follows:
Material A = 60 units @ ` 15 per unit = ` 900
Material B = 80 units @ ` 20 per unit = ` 1,600
Material C = 100 units @ ` 25 per unit = ` 2,500
240 units = ` 5,000
During the month of February, 10 units were produced and the actual consumption was as
follows:
Material A = 640 units @ ` 17.50 per unit = ` 11,200
Material B = 950 units @ ` 18 per unit = 17.100
Material C = 870 units @ ` 27.50 per unit = `23.925
460 units = `52.225
Calculate:
(i) Material Cost Variance
(ii) Material Price Variance
(iii) Material Usage Variance
(iv) Material Mix Variance
(v) Material Yield Variance.
[Ans: (i) MCV = ` 2225 (Adv.); (ii) MPV = ` 1.875 (Adv); (iii) MUV = ` 350 (Adv.);
(iv) MMV = ` 900 (Fav.); (v) MYV = ` 1.250 (Adv.)]
5. The standard cost of a chemical mixture is as under:
4 ton of material X at ` 20 per ton.
6 ton of material Y at ` 30 per ton.
The actual cost for a period is as under:
4.5 tons of material X at ` 15 per ton
5.5 tons of material Y at ` 34 per ton.
The standard yield is 90% of input, whereas the actual yield is 9.1 tons.
Calculate:
(a) Material Cost Variance
(b) Material Price Variance
(c) Material Usage Variance
(d) Material Mix Variance
(e) Material Yield Variance.
[Ans: (a) MCV = ` 8.38 (Fav.); (b) MPV = ` 0.50 (Fav.)] (c) MUV = ` 7.88 (Fav.):
(d) MMV = ` 5 (Fav.); (e) MYV = ` 2.88 (Fav.)
Segment Performance Analysis 141
6. A company manufactures a single product. The standard mix is as under:
NOTES
Material A = 60% at ` 20 per kg
Material B = 40% at ` 10 per kg
Normal loss in production is 20% of input. Due to shortage of material A, the standard
mix was changed.
The actual results of February 2001 were:
Material A = 105 kg at ` 20 per kg
Material B = 95 kg at ` 9 per kg
Actual Output = 165 kg
Calculate the various material variances.
[Ans: MCV = ` 345 (Fav.); MPV = ` 95 (Fav.) MUV = ` 250 (Fav.); MMV = ` 150
(Fav.); MYV = ` 100 (Fav.)]

7. From the following calculate the material variances; Actual production during the period
192 units.
Material A Material B
Actual Price per ton ` 277,50 ` 308
Standard Price per ton ` 240.00 ` 320
Actual Weight 16 tons 13 tons
Budgeted Production during the period 400 units for which the standard quantity of materials
are 30 tons of A and 25 tons of B.
[Ans: MCV = ` 1,148 (Adv.); MPV = ` 444 (Adv.) MUV = ` 704 (Adv.)]
8. A company is engaged in producing a standard mix using 60 kg of Material X and 40 kg
of Material Y. The standard loss of production is 30%. The standard price of X is ` 5 per
kg and of Y is ` 10 per kg. During the period, the actual results were:
X = 80 kg @ ` 4.50 per kg and Y = 70 kg @ ` 8.00 per kg Actual Yield 115 kg Calculate
the various material variances.
[Ans: MCV = ` 230 (Fav.); MPV = ` 180 (Fav.); MUV = ` 50 (Fav.); MMV = ` 50 (Adv.)]
MYV = ` 100 (Fav.)]

Labour Variances
9. From the following information, calculate labour variances:
Actual wage paid - ` 6000; Standard hours - 3,200;
Standard hourly rate - ` 1.50; Actual hours paid - 3,000 hrs;
Idle Time - 100 hours (included in actual hours paid)
[Ans: LCV = ` 1200 (Adv.); LRV = ` 1500 (Adv); LEV = ` 450 (Fav.); Idle Time
Var. = ` 150 (Adv.)]
10. From the following information, calculate the different labour variances:
Standard
Workers No. of Workers Rate per hour Hrs. Worked Amount (`)
Men 100 3 100 30,000
Women 50 5 100 25,000
Boys 40 10 100 40,000
142 Cost and Management Accounting
Actual
NOTES
Workers No. of Workers Rate per hour Mrs. Worked Amount (`)
Men 80 2.50 120 24,000
Women 60 5 120 36,000
Boys 50 8 120 48,000
Actual Production = 190 units
Standard Production = 200 units
[Ans: LCV = ` 17,750 (Adv.); LRV = ` 16,800 (Fav.); lev = ` 34,550 (Adv);
LMV = ` 10,800 (Adv.); LYV = ` 23,750 (Adv.)]

11. The standard labour and the actual labour engaged during the month are given below:
Skilled Semi-skilled Unskilled
(a) Standard no. of workers in a group 30 10 10
(b) Standard Rate (in `) per hour 5 3 2
(c) Actual number of workers employed in the group 24 15 12
(d) Actual Rate (in `) per hour 6 2.5 2
During the month the group produced 200 hrs of work.
[Ans: LCV = ` 1,100 (Adv.); LRV = ` 3,300 (Adv.); LEV =` 2,200 (Fav.); LMV =
` 3,000 (Fav.); Idle Time Var. = ` 800 (Adv.)]

12. Calculate the Material Variances and Labour Variances from the following information:

Standard Actual
Materials Qty. Price Amount Qty. Price Amount
(kg) (`) (`) (kg) (`) (`)
AB
450 20 9,000 450 19 8,550
360 10 3.600 360 11 3,960
810 12,600 810 12,510
Loss 90 Loss 50
Yield 720 Yield 760
Standard Actual
Labour Hours Rate (`) Amount (`) Hours Rate (`) Amount (`)
Skilled 2,400 2 4,800 2,400 2.25 5,400
Unskilled 1.200 1 1.200 1.200 1.25 1.500
3,600 6,000 3,600 6,900

[Ans: MCV = ` 790 (Fav): LCV = ` 566.67(Adv.); MPV = ` 90 (Fav.); LYV = ` 900 (Adv.);
MYV = ` 700 (Fav.); LYV = ` 333.33 (Fav.); MUV = ` 700 (Fav.)]

13. Find out the different labour variances from the following information:
Standard Actual
Output: 1,000 units Output: 1,200 units
Rate of Payment: ` 6 per unit Wages Paid : ` 8,000
Time Taken: 50 hrs Time Taken: 40 hrs
[Ans: LCV = ` 800 (Adv.); LRV = ` 3,200 (Adv.); LEV = ` 2,400 (Fav.); LW = ` 2,400 (Fav.)]
Segment Performance Analysis 143
14. A gang of workers normally consists of 30 men, 15 women and 10 boys. They are paid
NOTES
at standard rate as under;
Men ` 0.80
Women ` 0.60
Boys ` 0.40
In a normal working week of 40 hours, the gang is expected to produce 2,000 units of
output.
During the week ended on 3Ist March 2014, the gang consisted of 40 men, 10 women and
5 boys. The actual wages paid were at the rate of ` 0.70, ` 0.65 and ` 0.30 respectively.
4 Hours were lost due to abnormal idle time and 1600 units were produced.
Calculate:
(i) Labour Cost Variance, (ii) Labour Rate Variance.
(iii) Labour Efficiency Variance, (iv) Labour Mix Variance,
(v) Labour Idle Time Variance, (vi) Labour Yield Variance.
[Ans: LCV = ` 256 (Adv.); LRV = ` 160(Fav.); LEV = ` 416 (Adv.); LMV = ` 120 (Adv.);
LITV = ` 148 (Adv.); LYV = ` 148 (Adv.)]
15. A gang of workers usually consists of 10 men, 5 women and 5 boys in a factory. They
are paid at a standard hourly rates of ` 1.25, ` 0.80, and ` 0.70 respectively. In a normal
working week of 40 hours, the gang is expected to produce 1,000 units of output.
In a certain week, the gang consists of 13 men, 4 women and 3 boys. The Actual wages
were paid at the rates of ` 1.20, ` 0.85 and ` 0.65 respectively. Two hours were lost
due to abnormal idle time and 960 units of output were produced. Calculate various
labour variances.
[Ans: LCV = ` 70 (Adv.); LRV = ` 24 (Fav.); LEV = ` 94 (Adv.) LMV = ` 62 (Adv.);
LITV = ` 40 (Adv.); LYV = ` 8 (Fav.)]
16. The standard cost of material and labour for making of 5 units of a certain product are
estimated as under:
Material: 80 kg at ` 1.50 per kg
Labour: 18 hrs at ` 1.25 per hour
On completion of the production, it was found that 75 kg of material costing ` 1.75 per
kg has been consumed and the time taken was 16 hours at the rate of ` 1.50 per hour,
You are required to analyse material and labour variances.
[Ans: MCV = ` 11.25 (Adv.); MPV = ` 18.75 (Adv.); MUV = ` 7.5 (Fav.)LCV = ` 1.50
(Adv.); LRV = ` 4.00 (Adv.); LEV = ` 2.50 (Fav.); Total Cost Variance = H2.75
(Adv.)]
17. The standard cost for one limit of a product shows the following costs for material and
labour:
Material : 4 pieces @ ` 5 Labour : 10 hours @ ` 1.25
11,400 limits of the product were manufactured during the month of March 2014 with the
following material and labour costs:
144 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES Material : 46,000 pieces @ ` 4.95

Labour : 1.13,600 hours @ ` 1.52. Calculate Material and Labour variances.
[Ans: MCV = 300 (F); MPV = 2,300 (F); MVV = 2,000 (A); LCV = 30,172 (A); LRV =
30,672 (A); LEV = 500 {F}]
Overhead Variances
18. You are given below the following data for the month of April, 2014:
Budgeted Actual
Fixed Overheads ` 20,000 ` 20,400
Units of Production 10,000 10,400
Standard Time for One unit 4 hours
Actual Hours Worked 40,200 hours
Calculate:
(i) Fixed Overhead Expenditure Variance; (ii) Fixed Overhead Volume Variance;
(iii) Fixed Overhead Cost Variance; (iv) Fixed Overhead Efficiency Variance; and
(v) Fixed Overhead Capacity Variance.
[Ans: (i) F.O. Exp. V.= ` 400 (A); (ii) F.O.V.V.= ` 800 (F); (iii) F.O. Cost V = ` 400 (F);
(iv) F.O. Eff. V. = ` 700 (F); (v) F.O. Capacity V = ` 100 (F)]
19. A company has normal capacity of 100 machines working 8 hours per day of 25 days in
a month. The budgeted fixed overheads are ` 1,50,000. The standard time to manufacture
one unit of product is 4 hours.
In a particular month, the company worked for 24 days of 750 machines hours per day and
produced 4,500 units of the product. The Actual Fixed Overheads incurred amounted to
` 1,45,000.
Compute: (a) Total Fixed Overhead Variance; (b) Expenditure Variance; (c) Volume Variance;
(d) Efficiency Variance; (e) Capacity Variance; and (f) Calendar Variance.
[Ans: (a) TFOV = ` 10,000 (A); (b) Exp. V = ` 5,000 (F); (c) Vol. V = ` 15,000 (A);
(d) Eff. V. = ` Nil; (e) Capacity V = ` 9,000 (A); (f) Calendar V. = ` 6,000 (A)]
[Hints:
(i) Budgeted Hrs. in a month = 8 × 25 ×100 machines - 20,000
(ii) Budgeted Hrs. per day = 8 hrs × 100 machines = 800
(iii) Budgeted Output in a month = 8 hrs- 4 hrs × 25 × 100 = 5,000 units
(iv) Budgeted Overhead per hour = ` 1,50,000 + 20,000 hrs = ` 7.50
(v) Budgeted Rate per unit = ` 7.50 × 4 hrs = ` 30
(vi) Budgeted F.O. per day = ` 1,50,000 + 25 days = ` 6,000]
20. Following information is available from the cost records of a manufacturing unit for
May, 2014:
Standard Actual
Production 10,000 tons 11,500 tons
Working days 25 24
Fixed Overheads ` 5,00,000 ` 6,00,000
Variable Overheads ` 2.50,000 ` 3,00,000
Segment Performance Analysis 145
Calculate the following variances: NOTES
(a) Total Variable Overheads Variance;
(b) Variable Overheads Expenditure Variance;
(c) Variable Overheads Efficiency Variance;
(d) Total Fixed Overheads Variance;
(e) Fixed Overheads Expenditure Variance;
(f) Fixed Overheads Volume Variance;
(g) Fixed Overheads Efficiency Variance; and
(h) Fixed Overheads Calendar Variance.
[Ans: (a) TVOV = ` 12,500 (A); (b) V.O. Exp. V = ` 50,000 (A); (c) V.O. Eff. V. = ` 37,500
(F); (d) TFOV = ` 25,000 (A); (e) F.O. Exp. V = ` 1,00,000 (A); (f) F.O.V.V. =
` 75,000 (F); (g) F.O. Eff. V.= ` 95,000 (F); (h) F.O.C1.V. = ` 20,000 (A)]
St.F.O. 5, 00, 000
Hint: (i St. F.O. per day = = = ` 20,000
St.W.Days 25 days
St.Output 10, 000 tons
(11) St. Production per day = = = 400 tons]
St.W.Days 25 days
21. V. Ltd. has furnished you the following information for the month of September, 2014:
Budgeted Actual
Production 30,000 units 32,500 units
Man Hours 30,000 Mrs. 33,000 hrs.
Fixed Overheads ` 45,000 ` 50,000
Variable Overheads ` 60,000 ` 68,000
Working Days 25 26
Calculate Overheads Variance.
[Ans: (I) Variable Overhead Variance = ` 3,000 (A) ; (II) Fixed Overheads Variance
= ` 1,250 (A);
(i) Expenditure Variance = ` 5,000 (A); (H) Volume Variance = ` 3,750 (F);(iii) Capacity
Variance = ` 2,700 (F); (iv) Calendar Variance = ` 1,800 (F) and (v) Efficiency
Variance = ` 750 (A)]
22. The following data has been collected from the cost records of a unit for computing the
various Fixed Overhead Variances for the month of June, 2014:
Number of budgeted working days 25
Budgeted man-hours per day 6,000
Budgeted Output per man hour (in units) 1
Budgeted Fixed Overheads (`) 1,50,000
Actual no. of Working days 27
Actual man-hours per day 6.300
Actual Output per man hour (in units) 0,9
Actual Fixed Overheads incurred ` 1.56.000
146 Cost and Management Accounting
Calculate:
NOTES
(1) Fixed Overhead Expenditure Variance;
(2) Calendar Variance;
(3) Capacity Variance;
(4) Efficiency Variance;
(5) Volume Variance; and
(6) Fixed Overhead Cost Variance.
[Ans: (1) F.O. Exp. V = ` 6,000 (A); (2) Calendar V = ` 12,000 (F); (3) Capacity V. =
` 8,100 (F); (4) Eff. V = ` 17,010 (A); (5) Vol. V = ` 3,090 (F); (6) F.O. C.V =
` 2,910 (A)]
23. The following information is received from the books of Mehta Manufacturing Company:
Normal Overhead Rate ` 3
Actual Hours Operated 20,000
Allowed Hours for Actual Production 21,000
Allowed Overheads for Budgeted Hours ` 70.000
Actual Overheads ` 72,000
Calculate:
(i) Overhead Budget Variance; (ii) Volume Variance: (iii) Efficiency Variance; (iv) Capacity
Variance; and (v) Total Overhead Cost Variance.
[Ans: (i) OBV = ` 2,000 (A); (ii) Vol. V = ` 7,000 (A}; (iii) Eft. V = ` 3,000 (F);
(iv) Capacity V = ` 10,000 (A); (v) TOCV = ` 9,000 (A)]
24. The following data are available with respect to particular department for weekly
operations:
(a) Standard Output for 40 Hours a week = 2 ,000 units
(b) Standard Fixed Overheads = ` 2,000
(c) Actual Output = 1 ,800 units
(d) Actual Hours Worked = 32 hours
(e) Actual Fixed Overheads = ` 2,250
Compute Overhead Variances.
[Ans: (i) O.C.V. = ` 450 (A); (ii) O. Exp. V. = ` 250 (A); (iii) O. VO1. V. = ` 200(A)
(iv) O. Eff. V. = ` 200 (F); (v) O. Capacity V. = ` 200(F); (v) O. Capacity
V. = ` 400 (A)]

Sales Variances
25. Green Star Ltd. has budgeted the following sales for the month of December, 2014:
Product Quantity (Units) Price per unit
A 7,000 8
B 9,000 10
C 5,000 6

As against this, Actual Sales were:

Segment Performance Analysis 147

Product Quantity (units) Price per unit (`) NOTES

A 6,000 9
B 10,000 8
C 5,500 7
You are required to calculate:
(i) Sales Value Variance; (ii) Sales Price Variance;
(iii) Sales Volume Variance; (iv) Sales Mix Variance; and
(v) Sales Quantity Variance.
[Ans: (i) SVV = ` 3,500 (A); (ii) SPV = ` 8,500 (A); (iii) SVV = ` 5,000 (F);
(iv) SMV = ` 810 (F); (v) SQV = ` 4,190 (F)]
26. Calculate Sales Margin Variances from the following data:
Budqeted Sales Actual Sales
Product Quantity (units) Price per unit (`) Quantity (Units) Price per unit (`)
Alfa 1,800 200 2,000 210
Beta 1,200 180 1,000 160
Gamma 1,000 210 1,200 200
The cost per unit of product Alfa, Beta and Gamma was ` 170; ` 150 and ` 175 respectively.
[Ans: (i) Sales Margin Variance = ` 5,000 (A); (ii) Sales Margin Price Variance = ` 12,000
(A); (iii) Sales Margin Volume Variance = ` 7,000 (F); (iv) Sales Margin Mix
Variance = ` 750 (F); and (v) Sales Margin Qty. Variance = ` 6,250 (F)]
27. Compute the missing data indicated by the question marks from the following:
Products
Particulars
R S
Sales Quantity:
Standard (in units) ? 400
Actual (in units) 500 ?
Price per unit:
Standard (in `) 12 15
Actual (in units) 15 20
Sales Price Variance ? ?
Sales Volume Variance (in `) 1200 ?
Sales Volume Variance ? ?
Sales Mix Variance for both the products together was? 450 (F).
[Ans: (i) Sales Price Variance for ‘R’ = ` 1,500 (F); (ii) Sales Value Variance for ‘R’
= ` 2.700 (F); (iii) Sales Volume Variance for ‘S’ = ` 6,000 (F); (iv) Sales Price
Variance for ‘S’ = ` 4,000 (F); (v) Sales Value Variance for ‘S’ = ` 10,000 (F);
(vi) Actual Qty. Sold for ‘S’ = 800 units; (vii) Standard Qty. Sold for ‘R’ = 400 units]
148 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES UNIT 5: BUDGETARY CONTROL

Structure
5.0 Lerning Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Meaning of Budget
5.2.1 Meaning of Budgetary Control
5.2.2 Budgetary Control as a Management Tool
5.2.3 Limitations of Budgetary Control
5.2.4 Forecasts and Budgets.
5.3 Budgetary Control System
5.3.1 Installation of Budgetary Control System.
5.3.2 Kinds of Budgets.
5.3.3 Functional Budgets.
5.3.4 Flexibility Budgets
5.3.5 Period Budgets
5.3.6 Condition Budgets
5.4 Zero-Base Budgeting Strategy
5.5 Balanced Scorecard
5.6 Summary
5.7 Key Terms
5.8 Questions and Exercises

5.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:
 Explain Budget, Budgeting.
 Explain Budgetary control and distinguish between Budget and forecast.
 Explain precautions in Budgeting.
 Explain the advantages of Budgetary control.
 Explain kinds of Budgets.
 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of zero-Base Budgeting.

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Budgetary Control is an important tool for the management to make optimum use of limited
business resources and to maximize the profits of business. In order to maximize the profits
of business effective control on cost is must. In budgetary control, plans are made in advance
Budgetary Control 149

for various business activities like purchases, sales and productions, etc. These plans are NOTES
termed as budget and the actual results are compared with the budgets and the variance are
discussed and analyzed.

5.2 MEANING OF BUDGET

“ Budget is a financial and/or quantitative statement, prepared prior to defined period of time,
of the policy to be pursued during that period for the propose of attaining a given objective.
It may include income, expenditure and the employment of capital.” —I.C.M.A London

5.2.1 Meaning of Budgetary Control

(i) “Budgetary control is the establishment of budgets relating to the responsibilities of executives
to the requirement of a policy and continuous comparison of actual with budget results,
either to secure by individual action of objectives of that policy to provide a solid basis
for its revision.”
(ii) “Budgetary control is the planning in advance of the various functions of a business so
that the business as a whole can be controlled.” —Wheldon

5.2.2 Budgetary Control as a Management Tool

• Advantages of Budgetary Control
(i) Definite Objectives: Under budgetary control, every department is given a target
to be achieved. The efforts are made to achieve the specific aims.
(ii) Reduction in Cost of Production: In budgetary control, the various departments
prepare the budgets and this results in reduction in cost of production. Moreover,
every businessmen tries to reduce the cost of production and opts for more profitable
combinations of products.
(iii) Coordination: The working of different departments is properly coordinated and a
'Master Budget is prepared for effective coordination and cooperation among various
departments of the organisation.
(iv) Maximum Profits: Under budgetary control, the resources are utilised efficiently
in an organisation as each person is aware of his task and the best way by
which it is to be performed,
(v) Reduces Uncertainty: Under budgetary control, the managers are forced to map out
future courses of action clearly. Thus, uncertainty is reduced to minimum.
(vi) Determining Weaknesses: The deviations in budgeted and actual performance will
enable the determination of weak spots. By pin-pointing responsibility for inefficient
performance, budgetary control helps managers trace weak spots early and take
remedial steps.
(vii) Economy: The planning of expenditure will be systematic and there will be economy
in spending. The resources are used to the best advantage. The benefits derived for
the enterprise will ultimately extend to industry and then to national economy.
(viii) Adoption of Standard Costing: The use of performance standards in financial matters
and operational activities help the adoption of standard costing.
(ix) Optimum use of Resources: The resources of the organisation are used to
the best advantage as the objectives are clear and each level of management is
150 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES aware of its task. It directs enterprise activity towards maximisation of efficiency,
productivity and profitability.
(x) Effective Control: It is a very important tool for effective control because under it
the actual performance is compared with the budgets and remedial steps are taken in
case of deviation, if any.
(xi) Successful Planning: Budgets are based on plans and all the departmental managers
are informed about the expectations from them. The extent of expenditure that
they can incur is [aid down in the budget alongwith the expected profits of their
department. The departmental managers make their utmost effort to achieve the
target and thus much help is obtained in the success of the plans.
(xii) Inculcates the feeling cost consciousness: Budgetary control inculcates the feeling
of cost consciousness among workers. Thus, it increases productivity and operating
economy.
(xiii) Introduction of Incentive schemes: Budgetary control system also enables the
introduction of incentives schemes of remuneration. The comparison of budgeted
and actual performance will enable the use of such schemes. Thus, efficient
workers become more efficient and inefficient workers start becoming efficient.
Thus it can be said that "Budgetary control improves planning, aids in coordination
and helps in having comprehensive control.

5.2.3 Limitations of Budgetary Control

To maximise the profit of the business and industry budgeting control is an important managerial
technique but the technique of the budgetary control has following limitations:
(i) Based on Estimates: Budgets are based on estimates regarding an event the success of
budget depends upon experience and estimates. Thus, these estimates cause the failure
of budgetary control system.
(ii) Co-operation: The success of the budgetary control system depends upon the co-operation
and co-ordination among the various levels of the management. The lack of co-ordination
and co-operation at the operating level results into failure of budgetary control.
(iii) Time Effect: The world is changing everyday like change in price, change in demand,
change in government policies, create problems in achieving the budgetary targets. So,
budget needs revision for their success but this revision is a very costly affair.
(iv) Excessive Cost of Budgetary System: To apply and implement budgetary control
system successfully needs heavy expenditure, which may not be possible for small scale
organisations.
(v) Internal Disputes: Each and every departmental head wants more and more financial
outlay for their respective departments which becomes a cause of contention (dispute)
among the various departments of the organisation.
(vi) Opposition of Budgets: Employees and Managerial personnel are of the view that
budgetary control will reveal their efficiency and inefficiency at the various levels and
hence because of fear of inefficiency they oppose the implementation of budgetary
control system.
Budgetary Control 151

(vii) Pressure Devices: Budgets are perceived by the work force as pressure devices NOTES
imposed by top management. This can have an adverse effect on labour relations.
(viii) Success Depends Upon the Support of Top Management: If the top management is
dynamic and enthusiastic then it will bring success to the budgetary control. On the
other hand, if the top management is dull and lethargic then the system will collapse.

5.2.4 Difference between Budget and Forecast

Basis Budget Forecast
Concept It relates to planned events and is the It is the estimate or inference about
quantitative expression of business plans and the future probable events which
policies for the future. may or may not be accurate.
Control It is an important control device for the It represents a probable event over
device management. which no control can be exercised.
Provision The difference between actual Here, there is no such provision-
for performance and budgeted performance can be
correction found out under budgetary control and necessary
steps taken to rectify the deficiencies, if any.
Period It is prepared separately for each It may covers a long period.
accounting period.
Sequence Budgeting begins where forecasting ends. Forecasting provides a logical basis
for preparing budgets.
Scope Budgets have limited scope. It can be made Forecasts are wider in scope and it
of phenomenon capable of being expressed can be made in those spheres also
quantitatively. where budgets cannot interfere

5.3 BUDGETARY CONTROL SYSTEM

5.3.1 Precautions in Budgeting/Budget Administration/Essentials/

Installation of Budgetary Control system
For the successful implementation of the budgetary control system, the following steps should
be considered:
(i) Objectives and Policy of Business: The budget is prepared for the achievement of the
business objectives. Therefore, the objectives of the business should be clear. Business policy
is made to attain the business objectives.
(ii) Budget Period: Budget period refers to the period of time for which the budget is prepared.
The budget period depends on the various factors such as nature of business, timing of
availability of finance, period required for manufacturing the products, etc. Generally there
are two types of budget - short term and long term budgets, cash budget, sales budget,
income and expenditure budget are short term budgets whereas capital expenditure budget,
research and development budget are long term budget.
(iii) Budget Committee: Budget committee will have the managers of various departments
like production, marketing, sales, finance, etc. The managers of each department prepare
152 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES budgets for their own department and submit it to the committee. The main functions of
this committee are as follows:
(a) To provide previous years data to departmental managers for making budgets,
(b) To determine business policy regarding budgets.
(c) To prepare master budget.
(d) To review the departmental budgets and to establish coordination among
them, etc.
(iv) Budget Centres: It is that part of the organisation which is selected for budgetary control
such as sales department, purchase department, production department, etc. Each budget
centre prepares a separate budget. A budget centre must be clearly demarcated to facilitate
the formulation of various budgets with the help of concerned departmental heads.
(v) Budget Manual: A budget manual helps in knowing in writing the role of every employees
and the ways of undertaking various tasks. It helps in avoiding ambiguity in time. Any
problem arising from the operation of a budgetary controls system can be settled through
the budget manual. Thus, Budget manual is a written document or booklets which covers
the following matters:
(a) It states the functions of various officials connected with the formulation of budgets.
(b) Duties, responsibilities' of various officials connected with the preparation of budgets.
(c) Objectives and benefits of budgetary control system.
(d) Length of various budget periods.
(e) Specimen forms and number of copies for preparing budget report.
(vi) Budget Key Factor: A factor which sets a limit to the total activity is known as budget
factor/key factor/limiting factor. There may be a limitation on the quantity of goods
a concern may sell. In this case, sales will be a key factor and all other budgets will
be prepared by keeping in view the amount of goods the concern will be able to sell.
The raw material supply may be limited; so, production, sales and cash budgets will
be decided according to raw materials budget. Similarly, plant capacity may be a
key factor if the supply of other factors is easily available. The key factors may not
necessarily remain the same. The sales may be increased by adding more salesmen and
advertisement. The raw material supply may be limited at one time and it may be
easily available at another time.
(vii) Organisation for Budgetary Control: For the successful preparation of budgets, a
proper organisation is a must. There must be cooperation among all the departments.
Therefore, keeping in mind the cooperation and coordination, an organisation chart
is prepared
(viii) Budget Officer: The chief executive appoints some person as budget officer. The
budget officer works as a coordinator among different departments. He determines
the deviations between actual performance and budgeted and takes necessary step to rectify
the deficiencies. He also informs the top management about the performance of different
departments.
Budgetary Control 153

5.3.2 Kinds of Budgets NOTES

(A) (B) (C) (D)
According to Functions According to According to According to
Flexibility Period Condition

1. Sales Budget 1. Fixed Budget 1. Long Period Budget 1. Basic Budget

2. Production Budget 2. Flexible Budget 2. Short Period Budget 2. Current Budget
3. Materials Budget
4. Labour Budget
5. Plant Budget
6. Overhead Budget
7. Research and Development Budget
8. Cash Budget
9. Master Budget

5.3.3 Functional Budgets

According to Functions
(1) Sales Budget: A sales budget is an estimate of expected sales during a budget period.
It is the most important budget and it is called the backbone of the enterprise.
A sales budget is the starting point on which other budgets are based.
In sales, budget expected sales are expressed in quantity as well as in value. A sales
manger is made responsible for preparing sales budget. The following factors should
be taken into account while preparing a sales budget:
(i) Past sales figures and facts; (ii) Availability of raw materials; (iii) Seasonal
fluctuations; (iv) Plant capacity; (v) State of competition in the market;
(vi) Availability of finance; (vii) Government policy; (viii) Selling price and quality
of the products of competitors; (ix) Development of market.
The following informations can be obtained with the help of sales budget:
(i) Sales target; (ii)Possibility of sales in different areas; (iii) What efforts should be
made for increasing sales in new areas? (iv) How much amount is required to
increase the sales?
Illustration 5.1
A company manufactures two types of products A and B and sells them in the markets of Ambala
and Panchkula. The following information is made available for the current year:

Market Product Budgeted Sales Actual Sales

Ambala : A 400 units at ` 9 each 500 units at ` 9 each

: B 300 units at ` 21 each 200 units at ` 21 each
Panchkula : A 600 units at ` 9 each 700 units at ` 9 each
: B 500 units at ` 21 each 400 units at ` 21 each
154 Cost and Management Accounting
Market studies reveal that product A is popular as it is under priced. It is observed that if its
NOTES
price is increased by 11 it will get a ready market. On the other hand, product B is overpriced
and market could absorb more sales if its selling price is reduced to ` 20. The management
has agreed to give effect to the above price changes.
On the above basis, the following estimates have been prepared by sales manager: Percentage
increase in Sales over Current Budget
Product Ambala Panchkula
A + 10% + 5%
B + 20% + 10%
With the help of an intensive advertisement campaign, the following additional sales above the
estimated sales:
Product Ambala Panchkula
A 60 units 70 units
B 40 units 50 units
You are required to prepare a budget for sales incorporating the above estimates.
Solution:
Sales Budget
Market Product Budget for Current Period Actual Sales Budget for Future
Qn. Price(`) Value (`) Qn. Price(`) Value(`) Qn. Price(`) Value(`)
A
400 9 3.600 500 9 4,500 500 10 5,000
Ambala B
300 21 6,300 200 21 4,200 400 20 8,000
Total 700 — 9,900 700 — 8,700 900 — 13.000
A 600 9 5,400 700 9 6,300 700 10 7,000
Panchkula
B 500 21 10,500 400 21 8,400 600 20 12,000
Total 1,100 15,900 — 14,700 1,300 19,000

Budgeted Sales for the future has been calculated as under:

Ambala Panchkula
Product A Product B Product A Product B
400 600 500
(10% of 400) (20% of 300) 60 (5% of 600) 30 (10% of 500) 50
40 360 630 550
440 40 70 50
60 400 700 600
500
(2) Production Budget: Production budget is a forecast of production and cost of production
for a budget period. A production manager is made responsible for preparing production
budget. A production budget is prepared on the basis of sales budget. The sales budget
presents demand while the production budget makes adequate arrangements for the
fulfilment of this demand. The object of this budget is to manufacture the product at
the minimum cost. A proper production planning is essential for preparing the production
budget.
The following factors should be taken into account while preparing production budget:
(i) The optimum plant capacity utilization
Budgetary Control 155
(ii) Avoidance of bottlenecks due to shortage of materials and labour NOTES
(iii) Key factors
(iv) Quantity of different products
(v) Opening stock, closing stock and estimated sales
(vi) Availability of physical resources
Example of Production Budget is as follows:
Production Budget

Products
Stock on 31st Dec. 2014 A B C
Units Units Units
5,000 10,000 15,000
Add: Budgeted Sales 50,000 60,000 70,000
Estimated Stock on 1st Jan., 55,000 70,000 85,000
2014 Production requirement 4,000 6,000 8,000
51,000 64,000 77,000
Illustration 5.2
From the following data, prepare a Production Budget for a company: Stocks for the budget
period:
Product as on 1st January 2014 as on 30th June 2014
A 8000 10,000
B 9000 8,000
C 10,000 14,000
Requirement to fulfill sales programme:
A 60,000 units
B 50,000 units
C 80,000 units
Solution:
Production Budget
Products
A B C
Units Units Units
Sales 60,000 50,000 80,000
Add: Stock on 30th June, 2014 10,000 8,000 14,000
70,000 58,000 94,000
Less: Stock on 1st January, 2014
8,000 9,000 10,000
Production requirement 62,000 49,000 84,000
(3) Materials Budget: Material budget is prepared for determining the requirement of
raw material for production. This budget depends upon sales and production budget.
The materials are purchased as per the requirements of production department.
The number of units to be produced multiplied by the rate of consumption of raw
materials will give the figure of materials required. The units of materials required
156 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES multiplied by the rate per unit of raw material will give a figure of material cost.
Total material required = (Quantity of material required per unit) × (Budgeted
output)
Material cost = (Units of material required) ×(Rate per unit of Raw material)
The raw materials budget will enable the fixation of minimum stock level, maximum
level and re-ordering level.
(4) Labour Budget: The labour required for manufacturing the product is known as direct
labour and the labour which cannot be specified with production is called indirect
labour. Labour budget is prepared for making possible the continuous availability
of labour for attaining the production targets. This budget is useful for anticipating
labour time required for production.
Labour Cost is determined as under:
Labour Cost = Labour hours × Rate of pay per hour
Labour budget provides the following information:
(i) Number and types of workers required,
(ii) Rate of remuneration payable to the workers of different categories and availability
of them.
(iii) Time and cost of training to be provided to the labourers.
The number of workers to be required more in the year.
(5) Plant Budget: In big enterprises where plants are valuable and most of the production is
carried out with the help of machinery, preparation of plant budget becomes essential.
Plant budget provides the following informations:
(i) Department wise the number of machines.
(ii) Original cost, depreciation and current value of machineries.
(iii) Work for which each machine is to be used.
(iv) Need to purchase new machines and amount required thereof.
Production capacity of machines.
Remaining life of machines, etc.
(6) Overheads Budget: Overheads budget is prepared for the estimation of indirect
expenses related to production, i.e., indirect material, indirect labour and other indirect
expenses. This budget is classified into following parts:
(i) Factory overheads Budget
(ii) Financial overheads Budget
(iii) Sales overheads Budget
(iv) Administrative Overheads Budget
(7) Research and Development Budget: It is a long term budget. It is prepared for the
expansion of business and to adopt new techniques of production. In this budget, the
estimates are made for expenses on current research programmes. Development starts
where research ends and development ends where actual production commences. Thus,
development is the stage between research and actual production.
(8) Cash Budget: Cash budget is a statement of estimates of cash position for the budget
Budgetary Control 157
period. It is a plan of estimated receipts and payments of cash for the budget period. It NOTES
can be prepared for any time period. Normal time period of cash budget is half year
which is further sub-divided into the months. It helps in planning and control of the
financial requirements of the organisation. Cash budget ensures that cash is available in
time for carrying out business activities and meeting financial obligations. If there is any
shortage of cash, then time by arrangements can be profitability used in temporary
investments. In cash budget, estimate regarding each item of cash receipt and payment is
made at the time of its preparation.
Cash-receipts items: Cash sales, credit sales having regard to credit collection policy,
interest, dividend, the amount received on shares and debentures, bank loan, the amount
of tax refund, rent receivable, etc.
Cash-payments items: Cash purchase of raw materials, payment made to suppliers of credit
purchases of raw materials, wages, salaries, manufacturing expenses, administrative
expenses, selling and distribution expenses, research and development expenses, repayment
of bank loans and public deposits, redemption of preference shares and debentures,
payment of taxes, interest and dividends.

• Importance of Cash Budget

The importance of preparing a cash-budget are as follows:
1. It serves as a device for planning and controlling of receipts and payments of cash to
ensure availability of cash in an adequate amount.
2. It enables the management to prepare borrowing and repayment schedule will in advance.
3. It enables the management to take advantages of cash discount.
4. It enables the management to plan for financing a new project and expansion modernization
of an existing project.
5. It enables the management to plan for dividend payment.

• Methods of Preparation of Cash Budget

(i) Receipt and Payment Method
(ii) Adjusted Profit and Loss Account Method
(iii) Projected Balance Sheet Method
(I) Receipt and Payment Method: In this method, estimated cash receipts and payments are
taken into consideration. Cash receipts and cash-payment items we have discussed earlier.
Illustration 5.3
Prepare a cash budget for the month of May, June and July 2014 on the basis of the following
information:
(1) Income and Expenditure Forecasts:

Credit Credit Manufac­turing Office Selling

Wages
Months Sales Purchases Expenses Expenses Expenses
(`)
(`) (`) (`) (`) (`)
March 60,000 36,000 9,000 4,000 2,000 4,000
April 62,000 38,000 8,000 3,000 1,500 5,000
May 64,000 33,000 10,000 4,500 2,500 4,500
June 58,000 35,000 8,500 3,500 2,000 3,500
158 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES July 56,000 39,000 9,500 4,000 1,000 4,500

August 60,000 34,000 8,000 3,000 1,500 4,500
(2) Cash balance on 1st May, 2014 ` 8,000.
(3) Plant costing ` 16,000 is due for delivery in July and payable 10% on delivery and
the balance after 3 months.
(4) Advance tax ` 8,000 each is payable in March and June.
(5) Period of credit allowed (i) by supplier – two months and (ii) to customers-one month.
(6) Lag in payment of manufacturing expenses – ½ month.
(7) Lag in payment of office and selling expenses – one month.
Solution:
Cash Budget

Particulars May 2014 (`) June 2014 (`) July 2014 (`)
Opening Balance 8,000 13,750 12,250
Add: Receipts
Credit Sales 62,000 64,000 58,000
70,000 77,750 70,250
Less: Payment
Credit Purchase 36,000 38,000 33,000
Wages 10,000 8,500 9,500
Manufacturing Expenses 3,750 4,000 3,750
Office Expenses 1,500 2,500 2,000
Selling Expenses 5,000 4,500 3,500
Plant - Payment on delivery — — 1,600
Advance Tax — 8,000
Total 56,250 65,500 53,350
Closing Balance 13,750 12,250 16,900
(i) Working Notes:
(i) Since the period of credit allowed by suppliers is two months, the payment for
credit purchases in March will be made in May and so on.
(ii) Since the period of credit allowed to customers is one month, the receipt for credit
sales in April will be in May and so on.
(iii) One half of the manufacturing expenses of April and one half of May will be paid in
May, i.e., (1/2 of ` 3,000) + (1/2 of ` 4,500) = ` 3,750 and so on.
(iv) Office and selling expenses of April shall be paid in May and so on.
(v) Opening balance of cash for the month of June has been ascertained after finding
out closing balance of May and for July after closing balance of June.
(ii) Adjusted Profit and Loss Method: In this method, the cash balance and net
profit disclosed by Profit and Loss Account and Balance Sheet does not represent
the fair amount of cash, since some such items take place in Profit and Loss Account
which do not affect the outflow and inflow of the cash. Therefore, all such non-cash
items are to be adjusted just to get the correct estimate of real cash. The formula for
calculating closing cash balance is given below:
Opening Cash Balance + Net Profit + Non – Cash expenses + Decrease in Current
Assets + Increase in Current Liabilities + Sales of Fixed Assets of Issue of Shares and
Budgetary Control 159
Debentures – Increase in Current Assets v Decrease in Current Liabilities – Payment of NOTES
Tax and Dividend – Purchase of Fixed assets – Redemption of Shares and debentures
etc. = Closing Cash Balance.
(iii) Balance Sheet Method: Under this method, a forecasted or budgeted balance sheet
is prepared at the end of the budget period. In this method, all assets and liabilities
(except Cash and Bank Balance) are shown. If the amount of budgeted liabilities exceeds
the budgeted assets, the difference will be cash or bank balance at the end of budget
period. If the amount of budgeted assets are in excess of liabilities, the difference will
be bank overdraft.
Illustration 5.4
From the following information prepare a Cash Budget by the Adjusted Profit and Loss
Method, for ABC Limited:
BALANCE SHEET
(as on 31st December, 2013)

Liabilities Amount Assets Amount

(`) (`)
Equity Share Capital 50,000 Cash 7,360
Debentures 29,400 Stock 24,760
Creditors 26,920 Debtors 19,600
ACC Depreciation 20,000 Investments 40,000
Profit & Loss A/c 53,400 Plant 88,000
1,79,720 1,79,720

Forecasted Profit and Loss Account

Particulars Amount Particulars Amount

(`) (`)
To ACC Depreciation A/c 8,800 By Gross Profit b/d 80,000
To Income Tax 2,000 By Profit on sale of Investment 800
To Interest 1,200 By Interest 4,000
To Admn. and Selling Exp. 4,000
To Loss on Sale of Plant 3,200
To Net Profit c/d 65,600
84.800 84,800
To Dividend 4,000 By Net Profit b/d 65,600
To Balance c/d 61 ,600
65,600 65,600
Additional Information:
(i) Investment Costing ` 4,000 were sold for ` 4,800.
(ii) New Plant Costing ` 32,000 was purchased during the year.
(iii) An old plant costing ` 24,000 and accumulated depreciation of ` 16,800 was sold
for ` 4,000.
Balance on 31st December, 2014:
Stock ` 37,000; Debtors ` 33,280;
160 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES Creditors v 40,000; Debentures ` 20,000;

Equity shares issued during the year ` 20,000
Solution:
CASH BUDGET
(Adjusted Profit and Loss Method)
Particulars Amount (`) Amount (`)
Opening Cash Balance 7,360
Add: Budgeted Net Profit 65,600
Depreciation written off 8,800
Increase in Creditors 13,080
Loss on sale of Plant 3,200
Sale of Investment 4,800
Issue of Shares 20,000
Sale of old Plant 4,000 1,19,480
1,26,840
Less: Purchase of Plant 32,000
Redemption of Debentures 9,400
Payment of Dividend 4,000
Profit on sale of Investment 800
Increase in Debtors 13,680
Increase in Stock 12,240 72,120
Closing Balance of Cash 54 720

Illustration 5.5
By using the data of Illustration 5.4, prepare a Cash Budget showing Cash at Bank on
31st December, 2014, under 'Balance Sheet Method'.
Solution:
Budgeted Balance Sheet
(On 31st December, 2014)
Amount Amount
Liabilities (`) Assets (`)
Equity Share Capital 70,000 Plant Investment Stock 96,000
Profit and Loss A/c (53,400 + 61 ,600) 1,15,000 Debtors Cash at Bank 36,000
Debentures Ace. 20,000 (Bal. Figure) 37,000
Depreciation (20,000 + 8,800 - 16,800) 12,000 33,280
Creditors 40,000 54,720
2,57,000 2,57,000
9. Master Budget: A master budget is prepared for the business as a whole, combining all the
budgets for a period into this budget. It is the summary of all subsidiary functional budgets,
prepared by the concern. Before preparing a master budget, it is necessary to prepare sales
budget, purchase budget, cash budget, production budget, overheads budget, etc. Thus,
the master budget is a summary budget which incorporates all functional budgets in a
capsule form. It shows budgeted income statement for the budget period and budgeted
balance sheet at the end of the budget period. The master budget requires the approval
of the budget committee before it is put into action. The master budget co-ordinates the
budgets of all the departments.
Budgetary Control 161

5.3.4 Flexibility Budgets NOTES

On the basis of flexibility, budgets can be classified as follows:
(1) Fixed Budget: According to I.C.M.A., London, "Fixed budget is a budget which is
designed to remain unchanged irrespective of the level of activity attained."
It does not change with the change in level of activity actually attained. It is prepared for a
given level of activity and does not take note of changes in the circumstances. Therefore, it
becomes useless for comparison with actual performance when level of activity changes.
(2) Flexible Budget; According to I.C.M.A., London, "A flexible budget is a budget
designed to change in accordance with the level of activity actually attained."
A flexible budget provides budgeted costs at different levels of activity. It varies with the
level of activity attained. Flexible budget is desirable in the following cases:
(i) Where the business is new or estimation of demand is not possible.
(ii) Where the business is subject to the vagaries of nature such as soft drinks, etc.
(iii) Where sales are unpredictable.
(iv) Where the demands for the product keep changing due to change in fashion and
tastes of customers.
(v) Where production cannot be estimated due to irregular supply of necessary material
and labour.
Illustration 5.6
Prepare a Flexible Budget for the production at 80% and 100% activity on the basis of
following information:
Production at 50% capacity 5,000 units
Raw Material ` 80 per unit
Direct labour ` 50 per unit
Direct Expenses ` 15 per unit
Factory Overhead ` 50,000 (50% fixed)
Administration Overhead ` 60,000(60% variable)
Solution:
Flexible Budget
Particulars 50% Capacity 80% Capacity 100% Capacity
5,000 units (`) 8,000 units (`) 10,000 units (`)
Per unit Total Per unit Total Per unit Total
Raw Material 80 4,00,000 80 6.40.000 80 8,00,000
Direct Labour 50 2,50,000 50 4,00,000 50 5,00,000
Direct Expenses 15 75,000 15 1,20,000 15 1,50,000
Prime Cost
145 7,25,000 145 11,60,000 145 14.50,000
Factory Expenses: (Fixed 50%) 5 25,000 3.125 25.000 2.50 25,000
(Variable 50%) Works Cost 5 25,000 5 40.000 5 50,000
155 7,75,000 153.125 12,25,000 152.50 15,25,000
Administration Exps. 4.80 24,000 3.00 24,000 2.40 24,000
Fixed (40%) Variable (60%) 7.20 36,000 7.20 57,600 7.20 72,000
Total Cost
167 8,35,000 163.325 13,06,600 162.10 16,21,000
Note: 1. Variable cost per unit and total fixed costs remain constant irrespective of
162 Cost and Management Accounting
changes on activity levels.
NOTES
2. Total variable cost and fixed cost per unit vary with the changes in the activity levels.

5.3.5 Period Budgets

(i) Long Period Budgets: Long period budgets are those budgets which incorporate
planning for five to ten years and even more. Research and development budget
is an example of long period budget.
(ii) Short Period Budgets: Short period budgets are prepared for the period less than one
year. Material budget, Cash budget, etc. are the examples of short period budgets.

5.3.6 Condition Budgets

(i) Basic Budget: A basic budget is one which is established for use unaltered over a
long period of time. Current circumstances are not considered while preparing this
budget.
(ii) Current Budget: A current budget is one which is established for use over a short
period of time and it is related to current conditions. This budget is more useful than
basic budget.
Illustration 5.7
ABC Ltd. prepared the budget for the production of one lakh unit of the one type of commodity
manufactured by them for a costing period as under:-
Raw Material Z 2.52 per unit
Direct Labour ` 0.75 per unit
Direct Expenses ` 0.10 per unit
Works overheads (60% Fixed) ` 2.50 per unit
Admn. overheads (80% Fixed) ` 0.40 per unit
Selling overheads (50% Fixed) ` 0.20 per unit
Actual production during the period was only 60,000 units. Calculate the budget cost per unit.
Solution:
Flexible Budget
1,00,000 Units 60,000 Units
Particulars Per unit Amount (`) Per unit Amount (`)
Raw Material 2.52 2,52.000 2.52 1,51,200
Direct Labour 0.75 75,000 0.75 45,000
Direct expenses 0.10 10,000 0,10 6,000
Prime Cost 3.37 3,37,000 3.37 2,02,200
Works Cost: (60% Fixed) 1.50 1,50,000 2.50 1,50,000
(40% Variable) 1.00 1 ,00,000 1.00 60,000
Admn. Overheads: (80% Fixed) 0.32 32,000 0.53 32,000
(20% Variable) 0.08 8,000 0.08 4,800
Cost of Production 6.27 6,27,000 7.48 4,49,000
Selling Overheads:
50% Fixed 0.10 10,000 0.17 10,000
50% Variable 0.10 10,000 0.10 6,000
Total Cost 6.47 6,47,000 7.75 4,65,000
• Programme Budgeting
Budgetary Control 163
Programme budgeting was firstly used by Department of Defence in U.S.A. in 1961. It
NOTES
focuses on process of allocating funds.

5.4 ZERO-BASE BUDGETING STRATEGY (ZBB)

Zero-base budgeting is also known as "De nova budgeting", i.e., budgeting from beginning.
In other words, it is beginning from zero base, assuming that nothing is happened in the
past. The concept of zero base budgeting can be applied from a home budget to the national
budget. In a home budget, a housewife prepares the budget of next month after ignoring the
current and past budget (expenditures) altogether.

1. According to Certified Institute of Management Accountants, London, "Zero

base budgeting is a method of budgeting whereby all activities are re-evaluated each time
a budget is set. Discrete levels of each activity are valued and a combination chosen to
match funds available."

2. According to Peter A Pyher, "A planning and budgeting process which requires each
manager to justify his entire budget request in detail from scratch (hence zero base)
and shifts the burden of proof to each manager to justify why he should spend money
at all. The approach requires that all activities be analysed in decision packages which
are evaluated by systematic analysis and ranked in order of importance." Peter Pyher is
known as the father of Zero Base Budgeting as he introduced ZBB at Texas Instruments
in USA in 1969.

Thus we can say that in zero base budgeting, every year is taken as a new year and previous
year is not taken as a base. It starts from a “Zero base” and every function within an organization
is analysed for its needs and costs. Budgets are then built around what is needed for the
upcoming period, regardless of whether the budget is higher or lower than the previous one.

Steps Involved in the Process of Zero Base Budgeting

For implementing zero base budgeting, following necessary steps are taken

1. Determining the objectives of zero base budgeting.

2, Developing decision unit i.e., a department of an organization where decisions are taken.
Decision units are developed for cost benefit analysis.

3. Development decision packages: Decision package summaries the scope of work requirement,
anticipated benefits, time schedule etc.

4. Ranking of decision packages on the basis of benefits to the organization.

5. Allocation of resources on the basis of ranking of decision packages.

Advantages of Zero-Base Budgeting
1. Efficient allocation of resources, as it is based on needs and benefits rather than history.
2. It helps in identifying and eliminating wasteful and obsolete operations.
3. It helps in detecting inflated budgets.
4. It increases communication and coordination within the organization.
5. It enables the management to find cost effective ways to improve operations.
164 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES 6. Responsibility and accountability are more specifically fixed under zero based budgeting
as compared to traditional budgeting.
7. It increases staff motivation by providing greater initiative and responsibility in decision
making.
8. It is useful in Government department where all expenditure are incurred on the basis of
budgets.
9. It focuses on cost benefit analysis to reach on maximization of profit of the company.
10. It can be used for implementation of “Management by objective’ (MBO). Thus it can
be used not only for fulfillment of the objective, but also for variety of the purpose.
11. It identifies activities involving wasteful expenditure.
12. It involves rational decision making.
13. It promotes operating efficiency.
Limitations of zero-Base Budgeting
1. It is more time consuming than traditional budgeting as every single item is paid attention
to afresh.
2. It requires specific training due to increased complexity as compared to traditional budgeting.
3. It increases paper work.
4. Cost of preparing the decision package may be very high.
5. There is a problem in defining decision units and decision packages.
6. Wrong cost-benefit analysis may hamper the future growth of the organization. For
example, cutting present advertisement cost may effect future sales. Similarly, cutting
research and development cost may effect the future growth and cost effectiveness of
the organization.
7. The concept ZBB needs clarity at top management level otherwise conflict among
departments may affect the overall profitability of the organizations.
ZBB is highly relevant in ‘continuous improvement’ environment because of its nature
of continuous evaluation of costs and benefits. This technique is relevant for effective
utilization of resources and increasing the profitability of the organizations. So ZBB can
be implemented as a planning device in the overall corporate strategy.

STRATEGIC MEASUREMENT MODEL

In permance measurement, what is difficult is measuring the right things and learning to
ignore other interesting data that do not help us become more successful. As one can see in
the model in Exhibit 5.1, we begin by defining what an organisation does and what is the
vision for the future. Next, an organisation should identify the strategies and the key success
factors it needs to concentrate on to differentiate itself from competitors. During this phase,
the organi­zation also identifies important business fundamentals on which it must focus to
maintain its success. Business fundamentals tend to be issues that all organizations in the
Budgetary Control 165
industry need to concentrate on, such as profitability, growth, or regulation. Selecting the key NOTES
success factors for an organization is a major part of a business strategy, because then the
organizations can concentrate on the selected areas of performance. These could be strengths
What the organization is.
The future goal(s) of the organization.
What the organization stands for.

To identify and formulate strategies i.e. how an organization is

planning to accomplish vision.

What the organization needs to focus on to beat its competitors and

achieve its vision.

A balanced scorecard: Past-Present-Future

The desired annual and long-term levels for each metric.

Activities implemented to achieve the goals.

Monitor performance and activities to ensure their compliance.

What follow up reports are to be prepared and how.

Exhibit 5.1. Strategic Measurement Model

they will continue to exploit or weaknesses that need to be corrected. From the key success
factors and business fundamentals come the measures, or metrics. Once the organization has
defined all of the important measures on its scorecard, specific goals or objectives need to
be set for each metric. Goals are based upon research and should help the organization to
achieve its overall vision. Care must be taken to make sure that all the goals link up well
with each other, so that improved performance on one measure does not cause deterioration
of performance on another measure. Once the goals or objectives have been identified, action
plans need to be identified that will allow to achieve them. Finally, performance and activities
are to be monitored and supervised to ensure their compliance with the goals and objectives.
Performance reports and follow up reports are also required to be prepared with relevant and
useful contents.

5.5 BALANCED SCORECARD

Balanced Scorecard is a technique of performance measurement developed by Robert Kaplan,
a Harvard Professor and David Norton, a consultant.
Kaplan and Norton comment on balanced scorecard (BSC) as follows:
“The Balanced Scorecard (BSC) provides managers with the instrumentation they need to
navigate to future competitive success. The Balanced Scorecard translates an organisation's
mission and strategy into a comprehensive set of performance measures that provides the
166 Cost and Management Accounting
framework for a strategic measurement and management system. The balanced scorecard retains
NOTES
an emphasis on achieving financial objectives, but also includes the performance drivers of these
financial objectives. The scorecard measures organisational performance across four balanced
perspectives: financial, customers, internal business processes and learning and growth. The
BSC enables companies to track financial results while simultaneously monitoring progress
in building the capabilities and acquiring the intangible assets they need for future growth."
Strategy: BALANCED SCORECARD EXAMPLE To be the leading organisation in our
industry through constant innovation and adaptation to our environment. We will measure
success in terms of value creation for our shareholders and customers, by the learning and
growth of our employees, and by our good corporate citizenship.
Objectives Initiatives Performance Measure Target
Financial Perspective
Increase share holder wealth Develop new products Return on assets 25%
Provide growth Increase online sales Percentage growth in sales 30%
Customer Perspective
Increase market share Increase advertising Percentage market share 10%
Increase customer Increase postsales Percentage satisfied
99%
satisfaction service through survey.
Internal Business
Process Perspective
Reduce non-value- Average throughput time 4 hours
Reduce through- put time
added activities
Streamline delivery Percentage on-time delivery 90%
Provide on-time delivery
process
Develop employee Percentage defects 0.01%
Reduce defects
quality teams
Learning and Growth
Perspective
Develop a multiskilled Provide employee Percentage of employees
80%
workforce training with multiple skills
Hire new employees in Number of employees in
Improve information systems 20
computing computing
Reduce employee turnover Pay higher salaries Percentage annual turnover 10%

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD BALANCED SCORECARDS

Balanced scorecards to be effective and useful should have the following characteristics:
1. Balanced scorecards should highlight a company's strategy by focusing on cause-and-effect
relationship. Assume, Hindustan Unilever Ltd. aims to be a low-cost manufacturer and
accelerate growth. The balanced scorecards should pinpoint specific objectives and
measures in 'learning and growth perspective' which could improve internal business
processes. These, in turn, would result into greater customer satisfaction, larger market
share, higher operating income and shareholder wealth.
2. Balanced scorecards should help in communicating the strategy formulated to all members of
an organisation by translating the strategy into a coherent and linked set of understandable
and measurable operational targets. Subsequently, managers and employees take actions,
based on scorecard, to achieve the firm's strategy. To facilitate decisions and actions in
Budgetary Control 167
accordance with scorecards, it is preferable to develop scorecards at the division and
NOTES
department levels.
3. In profit-seeking companies, the balanced scorecard gives strong emphasis on financial
objectives and measures. Sometimes managers give too much importance to innovation,
quality and customer satisfaction though they may not produce tangible benefits. A good
balanced scorecard considers non-financial measures as a part of a strategy or programme
to achieve and improve future financial performance. When financial and non-financial
performance measures are properly linked in balanced scorecards, many non-financial
measures serve as leading indicators of future financial performance.
4. The balanced scorecard limits the number of measures used by identifying only the most
critical ones. Avoiding a proliferation of measures focuses management's attention on
those that are key to the implementation of strategy.
5. The scorecard highlights suboptimal tradeoffs that managers may make when they fail
to consider operational and financial measures together. For example, a company for
which innovation is key, could achieve superior short-run financial performance by
reducing spending on R&D. A good balanced scorecard would signal that the short-run
financial performance may have been achieved by taking actions that hurt future financial
performance because a leading indicator of that performance, R&D spending and R&D
output, has declined.

REQUISITES OF BALANCE SCORECARDS

Balance scorecard requires an adequate planning system and understanding of organization
processes to fit the organization's primary objectives. However, developing and using balance
score-cards for performance measurements are difficult tasks. The following are the requirements
which should be satisfied by organizations before adopting balanced scorecard.
1. Management must define the organization's primary objectives: This is usually well done
because most profit-seeking organizations have a narrow primary objective, namely, to
increase shareholder wealth. In profit-seeking organizations that have primary objectives
that include both social and owner wealth objectives, management must stipulate how
decision-makers should weigh each of these objectives. In not-for-profit organizations
like governments, management must state its objectives precisely.
2. The organization must understand how stakeholders and processes contribute to its
primary objectives: Many managers admit that this is problematic. For example, the
organization behaviour literature is unclear about whether increased employee motivation
necessarily translates into improved employee and profit performance. Many organizations,
despite implementing massive quality programs, really do not understand the effect of
quality on performance and prefer to speak in platitudes when they say, for example,
“quality is not an issue, you have to have quality just to be in the game.”
3. The organization must develop a set of secondary objectives that are the drivers of
performance on primary objectives: This step is perhaps the most challenging and
important in implementing the balanced scorecard. Accomplishing this task requires that
processes and results come together. The organization must invest resources to back the
strategies that it feels will produce results. This task seeks answers to questions like
how much should be invested in employee training, a customer satisfaction system, a
quality improvement system, or an improved logistical system? Such decisions should
be based on an understanding of how increased spending improves process results, such
as improved customer satisfaction, which in turn results in improved performance on
the organization's primary objectives.
168 Cost and Management Accounting
4. The organization must develop a set of measures to monitor performance on both
NOTES
primary and secondary objectives: This is the conventional role for management
accounting. This step raises issues about how to measure the variable of interest. For
example, how does the organization measure employee motivation or commitment to
the organization? These performance measures are important because they translate
strategy into focus, since the measures that people are told to manage will drive their
performance. If the organization chooses the wrong set of measures, it will motivate
inappropriate performance. Suppose, for example, that the organization, lacking an
ability to measure motivation, equates motivation with lavish incentive compensation
and measures motivation by the amount of incentive compensation that it distributes to
employees. However, incentive compensation actually may have little incremental effect
on motivation.
5. The organization must develop a set of processes with their attendant implicit and
explicit contracts with stakeholders to achieve those primary objectives: Although
this management requirement is well understood, the implied level of complexity required
by the balanced scorecard is much deeper than what is done in normal practice. For
example, based on 1980s experience, many managers developed the motto of "quality at
any cost." Under the balanced scorecard, managers would assess the costs and benefits
of schemes to improve quality.
6. The organization must make specific and therefore public statements about its beliefs
concerning how processes create results: Public statements and specific commitments
to courses of action and expected results provide a basis for accountability. Therefore,
they represent an element of management risk since management can be questioned
more accurately about its failures. Many senior managers may find this level of risk
distasteful. However, owners may find such public statements illuminating.

PRECAUTIONS IN USING BALANCED SCORECARDS

Balanced scorecards are strategic, comprehensive and integral techniques of measuring the
performance and managing a firm to achieve its vision and objectives. However, while
implementing a balanced scorecard, managers should exercise utmost precautions and avoid
certain evils or pitfalls while executing balanced scorecards. Such precautions are as follows :
1. The cause-and-effect relationship assumed in balanced scorecard may not be as precise
in reality as it has been claimed before implementing balanced scorecard. It is preferable
for the organizations togather evidence of these linkages overtime. Attempts should be
made to evolve balanced scorecards over the time rather than design or impose balanced
scorecards at the outset.
2. Improvements in all measures simultaneously or all of the time should not be targeted.
There is a need for balance or tradeoff across various strategic goals. For example,
emphasizing quality and on-time performance beyond a point may not be worthwhile-
further improvement in these objectives may be inconsistent with profit maximization.
3. Non-financial measures should not be ignored. Managers generally tend to give more focus
on financial performance and measures. If non-financial measures and performance are
not considered when evaluating performance, it will minimize the importance of balanced
scorecard as a strategic measurement and management tool.
4. Don't use only objective measures in the scorecard. A scorecard may include both objective
measures (such as operating income from cost leadership, market share and manufacturing
yield), as well as subjective measures (such as customer and employee satisfaction
ratings). When using subjective measures, though, management must be careful to trade
Budgetary Control 169
off the benefits of the richer information these measure provide against the imprecision NOTES
and potential for manipulation.
5. Don't fail to consider both costs and benefits of initiatives such as spending on information
technology and research and development before including these objectives in the
scorecard. Otherwise, management may focus the organization on measures that will
not result in overall long-run financial benefits.

5.6 SUMMARY
 A budget is a quantitative expression of the plan of action.
 Budgetary control is the planning in advance of the various functions of a business so that
the business as a whole can be controlled.
 Budgets can be classified according to Functions flexibility, period and condition.
 Production budget is a forecast of production on and cost of production for a budget period.
 Material budget is prepared for determining the requirement of raw material for production.
 Cash budget is a statement of estimates of cash position for the budget period.
 Material budget is prepared for the business as a whole, combining all budgets for a period
into this budget.

5.7 KEY TERMS

 Budget: A Budget is a blueprint of plan expressed in quantitative or monetary terms.
 Budgetary Control: Budgetary control is an important tool for the management to make
optimum use of limited business resources and to maximize the profits of business.
 Budgeting: Budgeting is a technique for formulating budgets.
 Budget period: Budget period refers to the period of time for which the budget is prepared.
 Budget centres: It is that of the organization which is selected for budgetary control.
 Budget manual: A budget manual helps in knowing in writing the role of every employers
and the ways of undertaking various tasks.
 Sales budget: A sales budget is an estimate of expected sales during a budget period.

5.8 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

1. What do you understand by “Budgeting” ? Mention the type of budget that the Management
of a big industrial concern would normally prepare.
2. What is budget? What is sought to be achieved by Budgetary Control.
3. Has ‘Budgetary Control’ any significance with management accounting?
4. Outline a plan for sales budget and purchases budget. What considerations are necessary
in the preparation of such budgets?
5. Mr. Managing Director is surprised that his profit every year is quiet different from what
be wants or expects to achieve. Someone advised him to install a formal system of
budgeting. He employs a fresh accountant to do this. For two years, the accountant
faithfully makes all budgets based on previous year’s accounts. The problem remains
170 Cost and Management Accounting
unsolved. Advise Mr. Managing Director and the Accountant on what steps they should
NOTES
take. Make assumption about what is lacking.
6. (a) What do you mean by budgetary control with reference to manufacturing-cum-
selling enterprise.
(b) What factors would influence the selection of budget period between two firms
carrying on diverse activities?
(c) What do you mean by flexible budget allowance? How is it ascertained? Explain
with a cogent example.
7. (a) What do you mean by budgetary control? Explain the objectives of budgetary
control with special reference to a large manufacturing concern.
(b) Explain what is meant by flexible budget and its utility. Prepare a proforma of flexible
budget of a manufacturing concern for their imaginary activity, levels in a suitable
form.
8. (a) What do you understand by budget and budgetary control? Give example of five
budgets that may be prepared and employed by a manufacturing concern.
(b) What is the principal budget factor? Give a list of such factors and explain how
you would proceed to prepare budgets in the case of a manufacturing company.
9. Are you in agreement with the view that Budgeting should better be called profit planning
and control.
10. ‘Why do responsible people in an organization agree to accept budgetary control in
theory but resist in practice’? Explain.
11. ‘If the sales forecast is subject to error then there is no basis of budgeting’. Do you
agree? Also explain how flexible budget can be used to help control cost.
12. Explain the procedure you would follow to prepare a projected Profit and Loss Account
and Projected Balance Sheet. Explain also use of these statements.
13. ‘Budgetary control improves planning, aids in coordination and helps in having
comprehensive control’. Elucidate this statement.
14. Describe in brief the modus operandi for the purpose of preparation of a production
budget. What are the principal considerations involved in budgeting production?
15. What do you understand by budget and budgetary control? How far is a budgetary
control a tool in the hands of management?
16. What is ‘zero-base budgeting’?
17. What do you understand by the terms ‘Budget’ and ‘Budgetary Control’? What are the
advantages of ‘budgetary control’?
18. What is the mechanism of master budget?
Discuss the difficulties which arise and how are they overcome in forecasting sales and
preparing sales budget in a jobbing concern.
19. (a) What is master budget? How is it prepared?
(b) Explain zero-based budgeting.
20. Write an essay on zero-based budgeting and highlight its procedure, norms and superiority
over functional budgeting.
Budgetary Control 171
21. What are different types of functional budgets which are prepared by a large scale NOTES
manufacturing concern?

Pratical Problems
Functional Budgets
1. Prepare a Materials Budget of PQ Co. Ltd., based on the following information. The
production orders of the product show the following consumption.
(i) Consumption for a batch of 1,000 units of
Materials No.
Rate per kg Product P Product Q
` Kg Kg
11 60 50 80
13 60 10 5
16 10 30
17 50 6 10
18 25 4 4
Total 70 129
(ii) Production (units) Product P 12,000 units
Product Q 11,000 units
[Ans : Material No. 11 13 16 17 18
Qty. (kg) 1,480 175 330 182 92
Amt. (`) 88,800 10,500 3,300 9,100 2,300]
2. Draw a Material Procurement Budget (Quantitative) from the following information :
Estimated sales of a product 40,000 units. Each unit of the product requires 3 units of
materials P and 5 units of material Q.
Estimated opening balances at the commencement of the next year :
Finished product 5,000 Units
Material P 12,000 Units
Material Q 20,000 Units
Materials on order :
Material P 7,000 Units
Material Q 11,000 Units
The desirable closing balance at the end of next year :
Finished product 7,000 Units
Material P 15,000 Units
Material Q 25,000 Units
Materials on order :
Material P 8,000 Units
172 Cost and Management Accounting
Material Q 10,000 Units
NOTES
[Ans Units to be procured P : 1,30,000, Q : 2,14,000]
3. Production cost of a factory for a year is as follows :
Direct Wages ` 80,000
Direct Materials 1,20,000
Production Overheads, Fixed 40,000
Production Overheads Variable 60,000
During the forthcoming year it is anticipated :
(a) that average rate for direct labour remuneration will fall from ` 3 per hour to ` 2.50
per hour.
(b) production efficiency will remain unchanged;
(c) direct labour hours will increase by 33½%.
The purchase price per unit of direct materials and of other materials and services
which comprise overheads will remain unchanged. Draw up a budget and compute
a factory overhead rate, the overhead being absorbed on a direct wage basis.
[Ans. Cost of production ` 3,08,889, Production overhead rate 112,5%]

4. A Company is manufacturing two Products X and Y. A Forecast about the number of units
to be sold in the first seven month is given below:
Month Product X Product Y
January 10,000 28,000
February 12,000 28,000
March 16,000 24,000
April 20,000 20,000
May 24,000 16,000
June 24,000 16,000
July 20,000 18,000
It is anticipated that:
(i) there will be no work-in-progress at the end of any month;
(ii) finished units equal to half the sales for the next month will be in stock at the end
of each month (including December, of previous year).
Budgeted production and production costs for the year ending 31st December are as
follows:
Product X Product Y
Production (units) 2,20,000 2,40,000
Direct material per unit ` 12.5 19
Direct wages per unit 4.5 7
Total factory overheads for each type of products (variable) 6,60,000 9,60,000
Budgetary Control 173
Prepare for 6 months ending 30th June a production budget and summarized cost production
NOTES
budget.
[Ans. Jan Feb. March April May June
X 11,000 14,000 18,000 22,000 24,000 22,000 units
Y 28,000 26,000 22,000 18,000 16,000 17,000 units
Cost of production : Product : Product X ` 22,20,000 and Product Y ` 38,10,000]
[Hint. Units to be manufactured for each month have been calculated as follows : Estimated
Sales + Desired Closing Stock – Opening Stock.]
5. A Company manufactures Product A and Product B. During the year ending 31st December, 1992,
it is expected to sell 15,000 kg. of product A and 75,000 kg. of Product B at 30 and 16 per
kg respectively. The direct materials P.Q and R are mixed in the proportion of 3 : 5 : 2 in
the manufacture of Product A. Materials Q and R are mixed in the proportion of 1 :2 in the
manufacture of product B. The actual and budget inventories of the year are given below:
Opening Stock Expected Anticipated
Closing Cost per kg.
Stock
Kgs. kgs. `
Material P 4,500 3,000 12
Material Q 3,000 6,000 10
Material R 30,000 9,000 8
Product A 3,000 1,500 –
Product B 4,000 4.500 –
Prepare the Production Budget and the Materials Budget showing the expenditure on
purchase of materials for the year ending 31st December, 1992.
[Ans. Qty. to be produced : A: 13,500 kg. B: 75,500 kg]
Materials to purchased : P Q R
Quantity (kg) 2,550 34,916,7 32,033,3
Value ` 30,600 3,49,167 2,56,266
6. A limited company is engaged in the business of manufacturing standard toys. It has
prepared a six-monthly budget, which shows the following particulars :
Sales 80,000 units @ ` 20 per unit
Variable Costs :
Manufacturing ` 6 per unit
Selling ` 1 per unit
Distribution ` 0.25 per unit
Semi-variable Costs : `
Manufacturing 60,000
Selling 30,000
174 Cost and Management Accounting
Administration 16,000
NOTES
Fixed Cost:
Manufacturing 60,000
Selling 40,000
Administration 80,000
It is decided to provide a plastic tray along with sale of toys. It is estimated that this gesture
on the part of the company would boost up the sales from 80,000 units to 1,00,000
units.
The above proposal would involve an additional expenditure estimated as under :
[Ans. Comparative Cost ` 8,66,000 and ` 10,31,000;
Comparative Profitability ` 7,34,000 and ` 9,69,000]
7. ABC Co. wishes to arrange overdraft facilities with its bankers during the period April to
June when it will be manufacturing mostly for stock. Prepare a Cash Budget for the
above period from the following data including the extent of bank facilities the company
will require at the end of each month :
(a) Sales Purchases Wages
` ` `
February 1,80,000 1,24,800 12,000
March 1,92,000 1,44,000 14,000
April 1,08,000 2,43,000 11,000
May 1,74,000 2,46,000 10,000
June 1,26,000 2,68,000 15,000
(b) 50 per cent of credit sales is realized in the month, following the sale and the
remaining 50 percent in the second month, following. Creditors are paid in the
month following.
(c) Cash at bank on 1st April (estimated), ` 25,000.
[Ans. Closing balance (Overdraft) April May June
` 56,000 (` 47,000) ( `1,67,000)]
8. Texas Manufacturing Company Ltd. is to start production on 1st January, 1998. The Prime
cost of a unit is expected to be ` 40 out of which ` 16 is for materials and ` 24 for
labour. In addition variable expenses per unit are expected to be `8, and fixed expenses
per month ` 30,000. Payment for materials is to be made in the month following the
purchase. One-third of sales will be for cash and the rest on credit for settlement in the
following month. Expenses are payable in the month in which they are incurred.
The selling price is fixed at ` 80 per unit. The number of units manufactured and sold
are expected to be as under:
January 900 April 2,100
February 1,200 May 2,100
March 1,800 June 2,400
Draw up a statement showing requirements of working capital from month to month,
Budgetary Control 175
ignoring the question of stocks. NOTES
[Ans. Cumulative Jan. Feb. March April May June
surplus ` ` ` ` ` `
(Cash required) (34,800) (37,600) (32,400) (6,400) 30,800 66,400
Hint: Prepare a Cash Budget.]

9. ABC Ltd. a newly started company, wishes to prepare cash budget from January. Prepare a
cash budget for the first six months from the following estimated revenue and expenses :
Overheads
Months Total Sales Materials Wages Production Selling &Distribution
` ` ` ` `
January 20,000 20,000 4,000 3,200 800
February 22,000 14,000 4,400 3,300 900
March 28,000 14,000 4,600 3,400 900
April 36,000 22,000 4,600 3,500 1,000
May 30,000 20,000 4,000 3,200 900
June 40,000 25,000 5,000 3,600 1,200
Cash balance on 1st January was ` 10,000. A new machinery is to be installed at ` 20,000
on credit, to be paid by two equal instalments in March and April.
Sales commission 5% on total sales is to be paid within a month following actual sales:
` 10,000 being the amount on 2nd call may be received in March. Share premium
amounting to ` 2,000 is also obtainable with the 2nd call.
Period of credit allowed by suppliers : 2 months
Period of credit allowed to customers : 1 month
Delay in payment of overheads : 1 month
Delay in payment of wages : 1/2 month
Assume cash sales to be 50% of total sales.
[Ans. Closing cash balance January ` 18,000; Feb. ` 29,800; March ` 27,000;
April ` 24,700, May ` 33,100 and June ` 36,000]
10. Prepare a cash budget for M/s. Alpha Manufacturing Company on the basis of the
following information for the first six months of 1991:
(1) Costs and Price remain unchanged.
(2) Cash sales are 25% and credit sales are 75% of total sales.
(3) 60% of credit sales are collected in the month after sales, 30% in the second month
and 10% in the third, no bad debts are anticipated.
(4) Sales forecasts are as follows:
` `
October 1990 12,00,000 March, 1991 8,00,000
November 1990 14,00,000 April, 1991 12,00,000
December 1990 16,00,000 May, 1991 10,00,000
January 1991 6,00,000 June, 1991 8,00,000
176 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES February 1991 8,00,000 July, 1991 12,00,000

(5) Gross profit margin 20%.
(6) Anticipated Purchases :
January 1991 6,40,000 April, 1991 8,00,000
February 1991 6,40,000 May, 1991 6,40,000
March, 1991 9,60,000 June, 1991 9,60,000
(7) Wages and Salaries to be paid for 1991 :
January 1,20,000 April, 2,00,000
February 1,60,000 May, 1,60,000
March 2,00,000 June, 1,40,000
(8) Interest on ` 20,00,000 6% on debentures is due by end of March and June.
(9) Excise deposit due in April ` 2,00,000.
(10) Capital Expenditure on plant and machinery planned for June ` 1,20,000.
(11) Company has a cash balance of ` 4,00,000 at 31.12.1990.
(12) Company can borrow on monthly basis.
(13) Rent is ` 8,000 per month.
[Ans. Cash balance at the close of the month: Jan. ` 9,07.000. Feb. ` 10,34,000, March
` 6,51,000, April ` 4,00,000, May ` 5,50,000, June ` 4,00,000.]
11. The Board of Directors of Punjab Cable Factory Ltd. have arranged for repayment of
loan to a financial institution. You have been asked to prepare a projected profit and loss
account for 1999 on the basis of figures available for 1997 and 1998 and to submit the
net cash flow. If 75% of the net cash flow is estimated as the fair amount for repayment
of loan, ascertain the sum that may be borrowed.
Particular 1997 1998 Particular 1997 1998
` ` ` ` `
To Opening Stock 80,00,000 1,00,000 By Sales 8,00,000 10,00,000
To Raw Material By closing
Stock 1,00,000 1,50,00,000
To Stores 3,00,00,000 1,50,00,000 By Misc. 10,00,000 10,00,000
To Manufacturing
Expenses 1,00,00,000 1,20,00,000
To other Expenses 1,00,00,000 1,30,00,000
To Depreciation 1,00,00,000 1,00,00,000
To Net Profit 1,30,00,000 1,60,00,000
9,10,00,000 10,61,00,000 9,10,00,000 11,60,00,000
Sales are expected to increase to ` 12,00,000 along with Raw materials, Stores and
manufacturing expenses which are expected to rise by the same amount by which they
rose between 1997 and 1998. Other expenses will increase by ` 50,00,000. Depreciation
will remain constant. Assume sales and purchases in cash terms and the closing stock
is expected to go up by the same amount as between 1997 and 1998. You may assume
Budgetary Control 177

that no dividend is being paid. NOTES

[Ans. Projected profit for 1999 ` 140 lakhs. Cash inflow in 1999 from operations ` 190
lakhs; Available for servicing of loan ` 12,50 lakhs. In case loan has to be repaid in
one year it should not exceed ` 142.50 lakhs]
[Hint. Increase in Raw materials, Manufacturing expenses and Closing stock is the same
in 1999 over 1998 as in case of 1998 over 1997]
12. Jamuna Printing Co. Private Limited ended with the following Profit and Loss during
the year 1998 :
(In lakhs of rupees)
Sales 35.58
Less : Expenses : Raw materials 7.42
Stores 4.88
Expenses 20.40
Interest 2.00
Depreciation 2.00 36.70
Loss for the year 1.12
The press had been working at 60% capacity during 1998. Of the expenses of, ` 20.40
lakhs, 25% is variable.
In 1999 production/sales volume at 80% of capacity is expected to be achieved. Fixed cost
is however to increase by ` 1.20 lakhs.
Draw the 1998 Budget.
13. From the following data, prepare a forecast balance sheet as on 31.12.1998:
(i) Position as on 1.1.1998:
Description
(` in lakhs)
Share capital 5.0
Reserves 10.0
Debentures 3.0
Public deposit 2.0
Debtors 5.0
Stocks and stores at cost 3.0
Net fixed assets 13.0
Cash and bank balance 1.0
Current liability 2.0
(ii) Budget for 1998:

Sales 15.0
Production at sale value 20.0
Direct cost production 12.0
Fixed overheads 1.0
Variable selling and distribution costs 2.0
178 Cost and Management Accounting

NOTES Collection of debtors and sales proceeds 17.0

Payment of dividends 0.5
Refund of public deposit 1.0
Net increases in current liability 0.5
Additional stock at closing at cost 3.0
[Ans. Net profit ` 3 lakhs Surplus ` 2.50 lakhs, Closing Cash Balance ` 3 lakhs.
Projected Balance Sheet total ` 24 lakhs]
[Hins. (i) It has been presumed that the entire amount of fixed overheads is on account
of depreciation on fixed assets. (ii) In the absence of any information about the
rate of interest on debentures and public deposits, no adjustments have been made
on the account]