DESCRIPTION OF MODULE

Items Description of Module

Subject Name Criminology
Paper Name Forensic Science and Forensic Medicine

Module Forensic Science: History, principles, Division

Name/Title and Ethics in Forensic Science
Module Id
Objectives Learning Outcome:

 To make the learners understand the growth

and development of forensic science through
history

 To make the learners understand the basic

principles of forensic science

 To make the learners understand the various

divisions and ethics of forensic science
laboratories..

Prerequisites General understanding of the history & principals of

forensic science.
Key words Forensic science, principals, ethics etc.
1. Introduction:
Forensic science is the application of a mixture of sciences to those criminal and
civil laws that are enforced by police agencies in a criminal justice system.

“Forensic science is the application of science to those criminal and civil laws that
are enforced by police criminal and civil laws that are enforced by police agencies
in a criminal justice system” agencies in a criminal justice system”1 „

“Criminalistics is concerned with the recognition, is concerned with the

recognition, identification, individualization and evaluation of physical
identification, individualization and evaluation of physical evidence using the
methods of the natural sciences in evidence using the methods of the natural
sciences in matters of legal significance” matters of legal significance.2

The word forensic is resulting from the Latin “forensis” meaning forum, a public
place where, in Roman times, senators and others debated and held judicial
proceedings.
 Anatomy
Fingerprints, hair,
skeletal-bones, digestive-
teeth, saliva ,
Math cardiovascular-blood Social Studies
Measurement, Ratios, Law, Forensic
Algebraic formulas, History,
Graphing, Distance
Psychology

Biology Chemistry
DNA, Genetics, Density, mixtures,
Entomology, toxicology, fibres,
Botany, Zoology Forensic fire, explosive

Science

Physics Physical science

Blood splatters/patterns, Paper & ink
trajectory, speed, light, analysis,
voice patterns, bone
fractures
handwriting,
typescript, forgery

Technology Earth science

Chromatography, Soil studies, casts &
spectrometry, microscopes,
electrophoresis, molds
photography

2. Major Developments in Forensic Science History

 700s AD—Chinese used fingerprints to establish identity of documents and

clay sculptures

 1000—Roman courts determined that bloody palm prints were used to frame
a man in his brother’s murder

 1149—King Richard of England introduced the idea of the coroner to

investigate questionable death
 1200s—A murder in China is solved when flies were attracted to invisible
blood residue on a sword of a man in the community

 1598—Fidelus was first to practice forensic medicine in Italy

 1670—Anton Van Leeuwenhoek constructed the first high-powered

microscope

 1776—Paul Revere identified the body of General Joseph Warren based on

the false teeth he had made for him

 1784—John Toms convicted of murder on basis of torn edge of wad of

paper in pistol matching a piece of paper in his pocket

 1859—Gustav Kirchhoff and Robert Bunsen developed the science of

spectroscopy.

 1864—Crime scene photography developed

 1879—Alphonse Bertillon developed a system to identify people using

particular body measurements

 1896—Edward Henry developed first classification system for fingerprint

identification

 1900—Karl Landsteiner identified human blood groups

 1904—Edmond Locard formulated his famous principle, “Every contact

leaves a trace.”

 1922—Francis Aston developed the mass spectrometer.

 1959—James Watson and Francis Crick discover the DNA double helix

 1977—AFIS developed by FBI, fully automated in 1996

 1984—Jeffreys developed and used first DNA tests to be applied to a

criminal case
2.1. People of Historical Significance3

 Mathieu Orfila (1787-1853)

Source: fineartamerica.com

• Spanish born but did work in France

• Father of Forensic Toxicology
• 1814 published a Treatise on the detection of poisons

 Alphonse Bertillon (1853-1914)

Source: www.gettyimages.com

• French Scientist
• 1879 devised first system of person ID using a series of
body measurements
• Devised the first crime scene kit – still used today
 Francis Galton (1822-1911)

Source: www.biography.com

• British Scientist.
• 1892 published the book “Finger Prints” which contained the
1st statistical proof supporting the uniqueness of fingerprints.
• Laid the foundation of modern fingerprints.

 Karl Landsteiner (1868-1943)

Source: www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org
 • Austrian who immigrated to the U.S.
• 1901 Discovered human blood could be grouped into different categories
(A, B, AB and O).
• 1930 Won Nobel Prize.
• 1940 helped to discover the Rh factor in human blood.

 Leone Lattes (1887-1954)

Source: prosopografia.unipv.it

• Italian Scientist
• 1915 devised a procedure by which dried bloodstains could
be grouped as A, B, AB or O
• His procedure is still used today by some forensic scientists

 Calvin Goddard (1891-1955)

 Source: en.wikipedia.org

• U.S. Army colonel

• Developed the Comparison Microscope
• Refined the techniques of determining if a gun had fired a specific
bullet. (Ballistics)

 Albert S. Osborn (1858-1946)

Source:www.asqde.org

• American Scientist.
• 1910 published the book “Questioned Documents.”
• The book became a primary reference for document examiners.

 Hans Gross (1847-1915)

 Source: austria-forum.org
• Lawyer and Judge in Austria
• 1893 Published the first treatise on applying science to
criminal investigation
• Started the forensic journal “Kriminologie”

 Edmond Locard (1877-1966)

Source: www.forensichandbook.com
 • 1910 set up the first Forensic Lab in Lyons, France
• Founder and Director of the Institute of Criminalistics @ the University of
Lyons • Formulated the Locard’s Exchange Principle

 J. Edgar Hoover (1895-1972)

Director of the FBI (1924-1972)

Source: www.alamy.com

• FBI was established in 1905 by Teddy Roosevelt as the Bureau

of Investigation
• 1924 National Fingerprint file organized
• 1932 Crime Lab Established • 1935 National Police Academy formed
• 1935 Bureau renamed FBI

2.1.1 Principles of Forensic science 4

 First Law
Every object natural or man made, has all individual which is not duplicated
in any other object.
 Law
of
individuality

Every object, natural or

man made, has an
individuality which is not
duplicated in any other
object

 Second Law
According to this aw, when a criminal or his instrument of crime come in in
contact with the victim or the objects surrounding him, they leave traces, and
the criminal or his instrument picks up traces from the same contact.
 Principle of
exchange
(Locard’s
principle)

When 2 objects come in

contact, there is always
exchange of material

 Third Law

“Everything changes with the passage of time”. Its impact on forensic

science is immense. The criminal, the crime scene and object involved in the
crime all undergo changes, hense may become unrecognizable.

Law of progressive change

Everything changes with the

passage of time
  Forth Law
It emphasizes the necessity of providing like sample and specimens for
comparison.

Principle of Only the likes can

comparison be compared

 Fifth Law
The analysis can be no better than the sample analyzed. The principal
emphasizes the necessity of correct sampling and packing for effective use
of experts.
 Principle
of
analysis

The analysis can be no better

than the sample itself

 Sixth Law
All the identifications, definite or indefinite, are made consciously or
unconsciously, on the basis of probability.
 Law of
probability

Facts do not lie

‘Facts do not lie, men can and do’
facts can also be created !
2.1.2 Divisions of Forensic Science5

2.1.2.1 Fundamental services provided by full-service forensic

science laboratories
o Physical Science Unit:
o Applies the principles and techniques of Chemistry, Physics, Geology
to the identification and comparison of crime scene evidence.
o Biology Unit:
o Identifies dried bloodstains and body fluids
o Compares hairs and fibers
o Identifes and compares botanical materials such as wood and plants
o Performs DNA analysis

o Firearms Unit: In this unit we examines-

o Firearms
o Discharged bullets
o Cartridge cases
o Shotgun shells
o Ammunition of all types

o Document Examination Unit:

o Analyzes handwriting, paper and printers of documents

o Photography Unit:
o Examines and records physical evidence at the crime scene and at
suspects' locations

o Toxicology Unit:
o Examines body fluids and organs in order to determine the presence
and identification of drugs and poisons

o Latent Fingerprint Unit:

o Processes and examines evidence for latent fingerprints
o i.e. those found on surfaces

o Polygraph Unit:
o Uses lie detectors, an essential tool of the crime investigator rather
than the forensic scientist

o Voiceprint Analysis Unit:

o Involved in cases of telephone threats or tape-recorded messages
o Investigators may be able to connect a voice to a particular suspect
 o Evidence-Collection Unit:
o Incorporates evidence collection into a total forensic science service

2.1.2.2 Other forensic services-

o Forensic Anthropology:

o Primarily involves the identification and examination of skeletal

remains, in order to determine if the remains are human or another
type of animal.
o
o If human, ethnicity, sex, approximate age, and manner of death can
often be determined by an anthropologist.

o Forensic Entomology

o The study of insects and their developmental stages

o
o Can help to determine the time of death by knowing when those
stages normally appear in the insect's life cycle

o Forensic Psychiatry
o The study of human behavior and legal proceedings in both civil and
criminal cases
o In civil and criminal cases, competency often needs to be determined
o In criminal trials, the evaluation of behavior disorders is often
required in order to establish the psychological profile of a suspect.
 o Forensic Odontology

o An odontologist can match bite marks to a suspect's teeth, or match a

victim to his dental x-rays
o Results in an identification of an unknown individual

o Forensic Engineering
o Used to analyze construction accidents, and the causes and origins of
fires or explosions

2.1.3 Ethics of forensic science6

The branch of philosophy dealing with values relating to human conduct, with
respect to the rightness and wrongness of certain actions, and to the goodness and
badness of the motives and ends of such actions.

Ethical guidelines for interpreting physical evidence

1. Do not confuse scientific facts with opinion in reports and testimony
2. Qualify and explain opinions and conclusions appropriately, especially
in gray areas
3. Do not extend conclusions and opinions beyond the area(s) of
personal expertise; don’t claim false qualifications
4. Assign the proper weight and certainty to opinions and conclusions.

Ethical guidelines for reporting conclusions

1. Never allow personal interest or gain to bias or distort a report or testimony

2. Never claim results and/or accomplishments not your own
3. Limit reports and/or testimony to the opinions and conclusions that can
be properly drawn from the examinations and analyses
4. Avoid misleading or ambiguous language or terms easily misconstrued
or misunderstood
5. Use currently accepted standards for photographs, posters, or
background information; they should be undistorted and not sensational
6. Generally, the principle of the "attorney-client" relationship applies to the
work of a forensic scientist, except in a situation where a miscarriage of
justice might occur
7. Set a reasonable fee for services – never on a contingency basis

References:-
1Saferstein Saferstein, R., Criminalistics Criminalistics An Introduction to
Forensic An Introduction to Forensic Science, Science, 4th ed., Englewood Cliffs,
N.J.: Prentice ed., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice -Hall, Inc., Hall, Inc., 1990.

2 DeForest DeForest, P.R., , P.R., Gaensslen Gaensslen, R.E., and Lee, H.C. , R.E.,
and Lee, H.C. Forensic Forensic Science An Introduction to Science An
Introduction to Criminalistics Criminalistics, New York, New York, McGraw -
Hill, Inc. 1983. c. 1983.

3
https://www.bcps.org/offices/science/secondary/forensic/Forensic%20Science%20
Intro.pdf

4
https://www. nky.wdfiles.com/local---files/forensic
medicine/Forensic%20Science%20Lab.ppt

5 www.hcs.stier.org/Downloads/IntroductiontoForensics.ppt
6 http://brjcrowleycriminaljustice.weebly.com/uploads/8/2/9/1/8291751/02fsci-
ethics.pdf