International TESOL Journal Volume 17 Issue 1 June 2022 118

Teachers Perceptions about Developing English Language Learner

Autonomy

Dr Sadia Irshad
Assistant Professor, Department of English,
Air University Islamabad, Pakistan
[email protected]
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4874-4581

Dr Fauzia Janjua
Associate Professor,
International Islamic University Islamabad, Pakistan
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6183-6635
Bio-Profiles
Dr. Sadia Irshad is an Assistant Professor at the Department of English, Air University
Islamabad. She has received doctorate in English Linguistics from Islamia University of
Bahawalpur. She has published and presented research on computer assisted language learning,
learner autonomy, critical discourse analysis, systemic functional linguistics and feminist
pedagogy.

Dr. Fauzia Janjua is an Associate Professor at the Department of English, The International
Islamic University Islamabad. She has received doctorate in English Linguistics from NUML,
Islamabad. Her research interests include sociolinguistics, systemic functional linguistics,
learner autonomy, teacher education, and critical discourse analysis.
Abstract
Developing learner autonomy (LA) has been the teachers’ focus in addressing the problems
of second language pedagogy (Oxford 2003; Benson 2007; Little 1995) for a long time. The
research, however, shows that the traditional pedagogical culture does not favor this idea,
especially in the Asian context (Borg and Al-Busaidi 2012). The teachers’ beliefs, moreover,
may affect their classroom practices for the development of English language learner
autonomy. In keeping with this view, we have gathered the data from 64 university teachers of
Pakistan through a survey-based questionnaire to find out if teachers’ positive beliefs about
learner autonomy result in the rejection of teacher-centered authoritarian classroom practices

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or if the teachers give attention to those teaching practices that help in the development of
learner autonomy, although this study cannot ascertain if learner autonomy is linked to the
development of English language skills.

Keywords: English Language Teaching, Learner Autonomy, Teachers’ Perceptions,

Instruction Paradigm, Learning Paradigm

1. Introduction
Allowing students to take an active part in decision making, at the tertiary level is a strategy
desirable to be adopted by teachers. However, in some cases, it does not seem applicable, and
the teacher dominates the advanced level students the same way as they do at the elementary
(beginner) level. As a result, a student lacks autonomy, self-confidence, and power of decision
making in the future, that is, in fact, the purpose of English language classes because they are
meant to make learners skillful in the use of language for future higher education or job
pursuits. Therefore, the research on language pedagogy stresses the importance of developing
learner autonomy (Smith 2008; Benson 2001; Benson 2011; Benson 2016; Dang 2010; Alonazi
2017). Research on learner autonomy views it as a learner's willing efforts for learning
(Littlewood 1996), their decision-making abilities (Wenden 1991), their desire to take
responsibility for learning (Little 1995); and also their skill to evaluate the learning process and
progress. The research also shows that the teachers hold positive beliefs about developing
learner autonomy; however, they are less optimistic about the feasibility of promoting the same
through classroom practices (Borg and Al-Busaidi 2012). Therefore, we hypothesize teachers’
positive beliefs about the development of learner autonomy do not indicate that they get the
opportunities to develop learner autonomy in the classrooms.
Teachers’ beliefs and learner autonomy developing strategies may help learners transcend
the barriers posed by traditional practices of language learning. However, when these positive
beliefs do not find a place in classroom practices, the same stereotypical classroom practices
become an overriding challenge and a hindrance to the emancipation of learners in the language
learning context. In light of this, two questions arise: how do teachers view learner autonomy?
And what do teachers do to promote learner autonomy? The previous research noted language
teachers’ growing interest in developing L2 learner autonomy (Oxford 2003; Benson 2007;
Little 1995).
In Pakistan, like many other countries of the world, proficiency in English may help in
availing better employment opportunities, improved social status, power and elitism (Rehman

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2009). Moreover, it is not linked only to the global utilitarian attitude towards the English
language, but it is also relevant as a linguistic capital (Sidhwa 1996). We argue that this social
awareness fosters English language teachers’ beliefs positively and compels them to adopt
better strategies and pedagogical practices for developing English language skills.
Foregrounding this, we have focused on higher education in Pakistan, where English language
courses are an integral part of the curriculum across disciplines. And the role of the teachers is
significant because teachers’ beliefs influence their pedagogical practices. Their positive
perceptions about learner autonomy put them in a position to help language learners “accept
equal responsibility” for learning and be ready to “undertake organizationally (hence also
discourse) initiatives” (Little 1995, p. 178). We agree that the role of the teachers is not only
of an informant in the tertiary level English language lecture rooms; they may be facilitators
(Voller 1997; Benson 2001; Benson 2007); managers and directors who help learners in
developing autonomous learning strategies. Nunan (2003) identifies the importance of
providing learners with “opportunities to make significant choices and decisions about their
learning” (p.290) that would make learners work confidently with and without teachers’
assistance in and outside the classroom. The research shows that teachers do not make language
pedagogy mechanical with knowledge transferal alone; instead, their teaching practices
encourage learners to learn (Godwin-Jones 2011). We also reject the traditional approach
where learners and learning processes are teacher dependent, and a pin drop silenced classroom
is a symbol of teaching excellence. Here, we put in Lacey’s (2007) view, which emphasizes
that teachers can choose to relinquish control and share it with the learners without
compromising the quality of teaching. The idea that autonomous learning may replace
language instructors from the classroom is frightening; nevertheless, it is an exaggerated
perception (Benson 2010).

1.1. Learner autonomy in English language classrooms

Learner autonomy means the ability of the students “to take charge of their learning”,
(Holec, 1981, mentioned on Page, 3, introduction). Autonomy is considered as developing a
sense of independent learning in the context of foreign language learning. That is why English
language learning classes need to promote learner autonomy in the students. Several
researchers have done a lot of work in this regard and still are exploring the discipline. Some
of the studies that are of a lot of importance for the present study include the following.
Starting with Gholami (2016), who has explored the area of “Self-Assessment and Learner
Autonomy”. For Gholami autonomy is an essential part of language learning and “the most

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successful learners are the ones who take the responsibility of their own learning” (p.46). Thus,
reflecting upon the importance of learner autonomy, throughout his study, Gholami “calls for
implementing some techniques into the curriculum to enhance this feeling of responsibility in
the process of language learning” (p.47). Ultimately, the techniques he uses are self and peer
assessment and their influence on learner autonomy.
However, Holec (1981) described LA as “the ability to take charge of one’s learning” and
this “grows out of the individual learner's acceptance of responsibility for his or her own
learning.” If we look at Holec, responsibility becomes the first step, after which one can think
of assessment, either self or peer. So, a view on literature creates a space for the present
researcher to explore the presence of this responsibility, (autonomy), in its first place, after
which all other aspects of learner autonomy would be applicable. “Interestingly self-assessment
didn’t develop learner’s language proficiency” (Gholami, 2016, p.49). The findings are in
contrast to those of Khonbi and Sadeghi (2012) who claimed positive effects of self-, peer-,
and teacher- assessment on Iranian undergraduate EFL students’ course achievement.
Although Gholami’s findings are important as they negate the previous studies establishing
a different notion, again there is a need to know, how to know whether the learners are
autonomous or not, which again leads towards a space for the present researchers. Ciftci
(2011), in her study, “Supporting Self-efficacy and Learner Autonomy in Relation to Academic
Success in EFL Classrooms (A Case Study)”, tries to explore, “Self-efficacy and Learner
Autonomy in Relation to Academic Success”. The findings of her study show that students
participating in a classroom at universities where they are given more opportunities to become
autonomous are more likely to perform better in learning a language. She concludes that learner
autonomy plays a significant role in academic success in the field of language learning.
Similarly, Ciftci (2011) has explored the effects of autonomy on language learning. It is
not mentioned if the learners are autonomous in the first place. The effects become of
secondary significance, and there will be no effects if there is no autonomy. That is why the
present study is constructed to find out to what extent learners are autonomous. Elizondo
(2013), in her study, “A Closer Look into Learner Autonomy in the EFL Classroom”, explores
“the role of learner autonomy in the academic achievement and linguistic performance of EFL
students” (p.331). Her study covers a very limited scope as it includes only six students of the
English Teaching Major at Universidad Nacional, Brunca Extension. Four of these informants
have failed in at least one course in contrast with two students who have never failed.
The focus of her study was on, “Memory strategies, Cognitive strategies, Compensation
strategies, Metacognitive strategies Affective strategies, Social strategies” (p.334). The

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students did not show positive attitudes toward learning or any of the strategies. This shows a
lack of deductive instruction on learner empowerment and reflection in the program.
Shanarffam and Saeedi (2013), in their study, “The Relationship among EFL Learners’
Autonomy, First Language Essay Writing Tasks and Second Language Essay Writing Tasks
in Task/Content-Based Language Instruction”, also try to explore autonomy but in terms of
essay writings. Apart from essay writing autonomy can be tested in many other situations as is
said by Voller (1997, p. 2):

1) for situations in which learners study entirely on their own;

2) for a set of skills which can be learned and applied in self-directed learning;
3) for an inborn capacity which is suppressed by institutional education;
4) for the exercise of learners’ responsibility for their learning;
5) for the right of learners to determine the direction of their learning.

However, all of these skills are not the focus of this study. The study considers the
importance of learner autonomy, in language learning context, which according to Little (2000)
is based on three pedagogical principles:

1. Learner involvement: Engaging learners to share responsibility for the learning process
(the affective dimension)
2. Learner reflection: Helping learners to think critically when they plan, monitor and
evaluate their learning (the met cognitive dimension)
3. Appropriate target language use: Autonomy in language learning and autonomy in
language use are two sides of the same coin (the communicative dimension)

Therefore, this study explores English language teachers’ teaching practices to evaluate
the impact of their pedagogical beliefs. The present study postulates that English language
university teachers may positively contribute to the development of LA. This study further
reviews literature on the role of teachers to find whether the research shows teachers’ positive
beliefs about learner autonomy that might lead to positive classroom practices for developing
learner autonomy. The following critical appraisal of relevant studies helps explore the field
from the perspective of the role of teachers in the development of learner autonomy in English
language classrooms.

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1.2. Teacher’s role in the development of learner autonomy

According to Benson (2007a) in the classroom teachers identify students’ active
participation in learning activities as learner autonomy. However, others view LA at the
conceptual level as a very ‘complicated’ (Little, 2003) or ‘multi-faceted’ construct (Smith &
Ushioda, 2009). However, complicated or multi-faceted LA is getting momentum in language
pedagogy. Therefore, we focus globally on the growing interest of the language teachers in
autonomy in language teaching and learning. And we interpolate this interest with that of the
tertiary level English language teachers of Pakistan. For in the case of English language
teaching at the tertiary level the whole point of developing learner autonomy is to enable
learners to be efficient in English language skills to grant the teachers professional
empowerment and learners the English language learning empowerment. Associated with
language learning autonomy, Little (1995) notes “two distinct dimensions, one pedagogical
and the other communicative” (p. 176) and we propose in our study that both these dimensions
are facilitative for tertiary level English language learners. Little (1995) describes:

“There is a sense in which pedagogical autonomy clearly precedes

communicative autonomy: we may successfully practice pedagogical
autonomy from the first language lesson onwards, but it will be some time
before our learners can venture forth as autonomous language users in the
target language community. We must be careful, however, not to allow this
obvious fact to mislead us into erecting false barriers between language
learning and language use.” (Little, 1995, p.176)

Little’s (1995) idea of pedagogical and communicative autonomy enables us to associate

the aspect of pedagogical and communicative ability with the teachers teaching and learners
learning by following the paradigm of liberating educational practices, and installing it in the
classroom. Such autonomy provides English language teachers the confidence in pedagogical
practices; and in learners a communicative confidence. Little (1995) identifies that “this
confidence to use the target language in a personally appropriate way is a necessary
precondition for, but also the outcome of, the kind of communicative activity that gradually
but ineluctably promotes second language development” (p. 176). According to our
observation, it is the single most important reason why English language tertiary level teachers
attempt to develop LA. Teachers’ beliefs and pedagogical practices have a fundamental role in
the development of learner autonomy; therefore, it remained the subject of many studies (e.g.,

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Lamb 2008; Çakıcı 2015; Benson 2001; Little 1995). Little (2000) believed “that all truly
effective learning entails the growth of autonomy in the learner” and “for most learners, the
growth of autonomy requires the stimulus, insight, and guidance of a good teacher” (p.4). We
propound that shifting the attention to learning doesn’t imply that the teacher becomes
insignificant in the formal education system. We argue, rather, that the teacher who believes in
learner autonomy puts in extra effort to engage in pedagogical practices related to the
development of learner autonomy. Although teachers’ role in the development of learner
autonomy has received a lot of attention recently (Çakıcı 2015; Benson 2001), there is a
scarcity of research investigating English language teachers’ beliefs and their effects on
pedagogy in the second language context of the eastern world. Here, we agree with the research
explicating the inapplicability of the development of learner autonomy in a non-western
context (Sonaiya 2002) where the efforts are required to counterpoise the active Western
student and the passive non-Western ‘Other’ (Holliday 2003; Holliday 2005). The research
describes the role of the teacher in the development of learner autonomy in varied contexts
(e.g., Little 1995, Little 1997; Voller 1997; Nunan 2003), and the researchers agree with
Benson (2007a), who argued that autonomy is “somewhat vaguely formulated and
inadequately motivated in both theoretical and empirical terms” (p.25). Therefore, we focus on
autonomy in language learning and presume that the roles of both: teachers and learners depend
on the teachers’ beliefs and perceptions about the development of learner autonomy.
Voller (1997) finds that some teachers transmit knowledge to learners and then evaluate
and correct the performance of learners to ensure learning; while others help learners interpret
knowledge themselves; others engage learners in a dialogue to reorganize presented
knowledge. Voller (1997) also classifies the role of the teacher as a facilitator, a counselor and
as a resource. However, the researchers argue that the role of the teacher is beyond these
definitions, it starts with their belief in the emancipation of learners and is reflected in the way
they interact with the learners and deliver the content of teaching.
Borg and Al-Busaidi (2012) studied the English language teachers’ perceptions and
reported practices about LA at Sultan Qaboos University in Oman. Their research on teachers’
beliefs and practices is linked to research and professional development. They developed a
questionnaire to gather quantitative and qualitative data followed by a five-day teachers’
training workshop. They recommended that analysis of the development of LA requires to be
based on a study of classroom practices too. Taking Borg and Al-Busaidi (2012) to point out
that “little is actually known about what learner autonomy means to language teachers” (p.3),
we planned this study. Moreover, we interpolate the concept that the teachers’ positive beliefs

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help them to practice methods and techniques for facilitating learner autonomy. This concept
provides a direction to study teachers’ pedagogical beliefs, perceptions, and reflections on
classroom practices critically.

1.3. Research questions

We conducted this survey-based to achieve the set objectives of exploring the role of the
teachers in the development of learner autonomy. This study aims to analyze the effects of
English language teachers’ pedagogical beliefs on practices, therefore, the questions posed the
query of

1. What are the English language tertiary level teachers’ beliefs about learner autonomy?
2. How do English language teachers help learners develop autonomy through their
teaching-learning practices in the classroom?
2. Research Methodology
We have administered a carefully structured questionnaire drawing upon themes drawn
from the literature on L2 teachers’ beliefs and practices regarding the concept of learner
autonomy (especially from Borg and Al-Busaidi 2012; Voller 1997; Benson 2001; Benson
2007; Irshad, 2016). The questionnaire was piloted before the actual research phase. We
distributed this survey to ten peers who filled out the survey and commented on its structure.
On their suggestions, we revised some statements to remove ambiguity and to bring clarity.
After careful revisions, the survey was administered and we found acceptable reliability
(alpha=0.72). The sample for the study was drawn from the universities in Islamabad and
Rawalpindi. A total of 123 questionnaires were distributed out of which only 64 were returned.

2.1. Context of the study

The faculty or teachers of English teaching in HEIs of Islamabad and Rawalpindi form the
population. The invitation to fill in the questionnaire was sent to all conveniently approached
teachers of English serving in the HEIs of Rawalpindi and Islamabad. The sampled HEIs were
International Islamic University Islamabad, National University of Modern Languages
Islamabad, Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad, Fatima Jinnah Women University
Rawalpindi, Air University Islamabad, Foundation University Islamabad, COMSATS
Islamabad, and FAST Islamabad.

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3. Results

3.1. Data analysis

English language teachers from the institutions of higher education in
Islamabad/Rawalpindi responded to the questionnaire. The data was analyzed using descriptive
tools of the web-based survey tool: Surveyface. The first section of this three-sectioned survey
informs demographic details including teachers’ experience of teaching English, and their
educational qualifications and it also elicited teachers’ perception of learner autonomy. The
second section of the survey looks at the teachers’ pedagogical beliefs regarding LA. The third
section aims to investigate the role of English language teachers in the development of learner
autonomy.

Ten (10) respondents were male English language teachers and 54 were female teachers.
Although gender is not one of the variables of this study, a question arises whether this gender
imbalance in the gathered data is a source of biased survey results or if it is an extraneous factor
that may lead to a partial report. The answer to this question is not clear cut. Moreover, an
informal survey and our observation of English departments of HEIs revealed that female
teachers are serving in the majority in these departments of sampled universities.
As summarized in Figure 1, collectively the respondents represented a group with rich
teaching experience and had a sound educational qualification (Figure 2). These investigations
and findings established the point that the participants were experienced teachers and most of
them were highly qualified.

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Figure 1: Teaching Experience

Figure 2: Educational Qualifications of Teachers

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Figure 3: What is Learner Autonomy?

Figure 4: Respondents’ Definition of Learner Autonomy

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To gather respondents’ understanding of the concept of learner autonomy questionnaire

included a list of authored definitions (Figure 3). Most of the respondents believed LA as
“Learners’ ability to make learning choices independently” and 24% of respondents considered
LA as a capacity to control one’s learning.
Only 32 respondents responded to this question and defined learner autonomy. Figure 4
shows the results of the content analysis of the responses based on the frequency of occurrence
of a word. Here larger font size of “learning”, and “learners” exhibited the focus of definition;
while “taking charge”, “ability” and “control” elucidated constructs of learner autonomy.
In the introduction to this report, we have discussed that the rapidly expanding literature
on learner autonomy debates whether LA is a learner’s capacity or a nurtured behavior, with
this in focus, we have laid statements 1-4 of the questionnaire. Table 1 summarizes the explored
teachers’ beliefs on learner autonomy on Likert-type five-point questionnaires (ranging from
strongly disagree to agree). An average of 80% of respondents replied to this part of the survey.
Most of the respondents believed in learner autonomy as: “taking control of learning”, “the
skill to evaluate one’s learning”, “willingness to learn” and “learners’ ability to monitor
learning” (statements 1-4, Table 1). Teachers also agreed that motivation is an important factor
to develop LA (statement 5, Table 1).

Table 1: Teachers’ Beliefs and Development of Learner Autonomy

No. Statements SD Disagree Not Agree SA

sure

1 The capacity to take control of 0% 6% 6% 67% 21%

one's learning develops learner
autonomy.

2 The skill to evaluate what one has 0% 6% 12% 65% 17%

acquired helps to develop learner
autonomy.

3 The ability to monitor one’s 0% 4% 8% 67% 22%

learning is central to development
of learner autonomy.

4 The willingness to learn 0% 14% 20% 51% 16%

indicates learner autonomy.

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5 Motivated language learners are 0% 10% 2% 64% 25%

more likely to develop learner
autonomy.

6 Learner autonomy can only be 2% 31% 4% 44% 19%

developed in a student-centered
classroom.

7 Learner autonomy means 0% 35% 21% 31% 14%

traditional teacher-led ways of
teaching must be abandoned.

8 Learners develop autonomy when 0% 10% 8% 70% 12%

they are allowed to work
independently.

9 Learners cannot develop autonomy 0% 15% 14% 64% 8%

without teacher's help.

10 Learner autonomy is promoted 2% 17% 15% 55% 11%

through regular opportunities for
learners to complete tasks alone.

11 Learner autonomy requires the 2% 60% 17% 19% 2%

learner to be totally independent of
the teacher.

Learning to work alone is central to

the development of learner
12 autonomy. 4% 37% 15% 40% 4%

If learners decide about what to

learn they become autonomous
13 learners. 2% 43% 22% 28% 6%

Learner autonomy is developed

when learners make decisions for
14 how to learn. 0% 17% 17% 60% 6%

Learner autonomy is promoted

when learners have some choice in
15 the kinds of activities they do. 0% 14% 12% 64% 12%

However, the respondents’ views were divided on student-centeredness in pedagogical

practices. For statement 6, about 31% of respondents disagreed and 44% respondents agreed
and 19% strongly agreed that the student-centered classroom helps develop learner autonomy.
Similarly, 34% of teachers were not in favor of abandoning teacher-led ways of teaching.
Nevertheless, most of the respondents favoured learners’ independence in doing tasks

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(statements 8-10 in Table 1). But when the teachers were asked to consider the learner's total
independence for the development of LA about 60% of teachers disagreed (statement 11 in
Table 1). Similarly, 37% of teachers disagreed with “Learning to work alone is central to the
development of learner autonomy”. And 43% of respondents disagreed with statement 13 “If
learners decide about what to learn they become autonomous learners”. However, it is noted
that teachers favored learners’ role in making learning decisions (statements 14 & 15 in Table
1).
To sum up the results of this section of the survey, we can say that the majority of the
respondent-teachers believed in granting learning autonomy to their learners. The question
arises whether it is reflected in their pedagogical practices or not. For this purpose, we asked
their responses on their teaching practices on a set of fifteen statements on a five-point
frequency scale (Table 2). Most of the respondents do not involve learners in deciding course
objectives (statement 1, Table 2). However, 32% of respondents sometimes and 24% of
respondents often take students on board while deciding on teaching materials and use of A/V
aids (statement 2, Table 2). Similarly, respondents agreed to involve learners in deciding about
kinds of learning tasks and activities. 36% of respondents sometimes, and 44% often involve
learners in such decisions. Moreover, most of the respondents claimed that they used to involve
learners in decisions about the teaching methods used in the classroom (statement 6, Table 2).
The analysis of the response to statement 4 indicated HEIs English language teachers some
serious efforts for the autonomy of their learners as 38% of respondents “often” and 10%
“always give” a chance to the learners to decide the topics for class discussion and learning.
The learners are not autonomous in making decisions on seating arrangements in the classroom
(statement 7, Table 2).

Table 2: Teaching Practices and Development of Learner Autonomy

No. Statement
Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always

1 I involve the learners to decide 12% 42% 30% 16% 0%

the objectives of the course.

2 I involve the learners to decide 16% 26% 32% 24% 2%

the materials used.

3 I involve learners in decisions 0% 16% 36% 44% 4%

about the kinds of tasks and
activities they do.

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4 I give the chance to the learners 0% 24% 28% 38% 10%

to decide the topics for class
discussion/learning.

5 I involve learners in self- 2% 2% 35% 53% 8%

assessment on classroom
learning.

6 I involve learners in decisions 6% 20% 44% 20% 8%

about the teaching methods used
in the classroom.

7 My learners make decisions 6% 22% 32% 24% 16%

about classroom seating
arrangement.

8 My learners make decisions 6% 30% 44% 14% 6%

about the use of A/V aids in the
classroom.

9 I encourage learners to identify 2% 8% 20% 46% 24%

their own needs.

10 I motivate my learners to 0% 4% 14% 53% 29%

identify their strengths and
weaknesses.

11 I guide students how to monitor 2% 8% 12% 50% 28%

their progress.

12 I provide opportunities to 0% 10% 24% 46% 20%

learners for self-evaluation.

13 I provide opportunities for peer- 0% 4% 18% 58% 20%

learning.

14 My classroom strategies provide 0% 6% 22% 53% 18%

ample opportunities to learners
to learn independently.

15 I motivate students to explore 0% 8% 22% 42% 28%

learning opportunities
independently outside the
classroom.

46% of respondents often and 24% always encourage learners to identify their learning
needs (statement 9). The analysis also indicated teachers’ involvement in motivating learners
to identify their strengths and weaknesses (statement 10, Table 2). 42% of teachers often and
24% always motivate learners to explore learning opportunities beyond restricted classroom

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domains. Similarly, 53% of teachers had often used classroom strategies providing ample
opportunities for independent learning. Moreover, 53% of teachers often and 8% had always
involved learners in self-learning assessment. Almost the same response was generated on
learners’ involvement in evaluation (statement 11) or monitoring one’s progress (statement
12). Statement 13 enquired about collaborative teaching strategies whereby most of the
teachers favored peer-learning.
To sum up, the descriptive statistical analysis in terms of response percentages (Table 1)
gave a view of HEIs’ English language teachers’ positive beliefs about learner autonomy. The
results also show that English language teachers have a strong positive inclination towards the
development of learner autonomy (Table 2). English language teachers help learners develop
autonomy through their teaching-learning practices in the classroom. Like teachers provide
opportunities for peer-learning, independent learning, self-evaluation etc. (see Table 2).
4. Discussion
This study contributes to the literature on English language learner autonomy by presenting
the pedagogical beliefs and practices of tertiary level teachers in the eastern context (Pakistan).
This research reports (a) the English language tertiary level teachers’ beliefs about learner
autonomy, (b) and how English language teachers help learners develop autonomy through
their teaching-learning practices in the classroom. The data analysis shows that the teachers
generally find defining the concept of learner autonomy problematic. In like manner, the study
of Borg and Al-Busaidi (2012) stated that language teachers were not clear on what learner
autonomy means to language teaching. There was confusion between the English language
learning situation without the teacher and an informal educational set up or even self-
instruction; however, teachers claim that they believe in motivating students to explore learning
opportunities independently outside and inside the classroom. Such practices indicate that
teachers extend efforts to promote learner autonomy. However, English language teachers
make fewer efforts to apply their beliefs in their pedagogical practices as revealed in the study.
Therefore, like in the previous research, we have found the inapplicability of the development
of learner autonomy in the non-western context (Sonaiya 2002) like Pakistan. The responses
on the pedagogical practices' scales also show teachers some inclination towards the
development of learner autonomy by practising strategies to ignite behavioural and cognitive
actions of language learners. We interpolated it as teachers’ awareness of the development of
learner autonomy and also bringing that into practice by involving learners: a factor supported
by previous research too (Alonazi 2017; Benson 2011b).

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Teachers may provide support for the development of language learner autonomy in the
classrooms, results reveal that teachers did not give much creative space to learners as
expressed in the study that they rarely or at points never involve the learners in making learning
decisions (see Table 2). The research on learner autonomy advocated the teacher’s role in
facilitating creative space for better learning (Nunan 2003; Benson, 2005; Benson 2009;
Benson 2011a; Benson 2011b). Data implied, like the previous research, that teachers' positive
perceptions about learner autonomy put them in a position to help language learners “accept
equal responsibility” for learning and be ready to “undertake initiatives” (Little 1995, p. 178)
(see Table 1). Like when it comes to classroom practice, the result shows that the majority of
the respondents agree that learner autonomy is promoted when learners have some choice in
the kinds of activities they perform; however, the respondents usually do not involve the
learners to decide on the learning activities, the materials, setting lesson goals etc.
In short, this study reveals that English language teachers are aware of the importance of
the development of LA. However, they find incorporation of learner autonomy facilitating
activities less feasible in the traditional education system. We, therefore, conclude that the
development of learner autonomy can only be a success when the instruction paradigm of any
given social context allows teachers to take initiatives for promoting learner autonomy. In such
a context, the traditional stereotypical instruction paradigm may be replaced by the learner-
centered learning paradigm; and the active involvement of learners then may become a strong
language learning motivator.
The findings of our study, thus, recommend a triangular relationship between instruction
paradigm, social context, and learning paradigm for developing LA. This study thus provides
a tripartite agreement:

1. The teacher can create a learning environment to support the learners in achieving
learner autonomy if the social context favours it. Moreover, a teacher's positive belief
in learner autonomy alone may not help them to facilitate and guide learners in
developing learning autonomy.
2. Learning paradigm determines teachers' role. It may or may not allow teachers to devise
ways and means to encourage autonomous quest of learning.
3. The social context binds the teacher and the learner to behave in the given socio-
academic culture. The context determines whether or not there is a need for the teacher
to develop learner autonomy by facilitating pedagogical practices.
5. Conclusion
This study has provided insight into the English language tertiary level teachers’ beliefs
and practices for the development of LA. Since LA is becoming a popular method of learning

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in recent years, various ways have been experimented with to encourage this method. The
incorporation of LA in the pedagogical techniques may improve and bring desirable results.
Some respondent-teachers considered defining learner autonomy problematic and those who
defined it, equated it with a state of learning without the aid of a teacher or formal educational
set up and even self-instruction. These teachers considered the concept of learner autonomy as
a solution to the problems of English language pedagogy in higher education in Pakistan. They
found the development of LA as a way of helping learners to overcome the learning barriers
cultivated in teacher-centered passive classrooms. Rejecting the autonomy of an individual,
this research shows LA as one of the ignored aspects of the English language classroom.
Although this study found teachers advocating some degree of freedom for learners, the
teachers’ centeredness in pedagogical practices remains dominant. The findings of the
questionnaire revealed that respondent teachers’ pedagogical beliefs either led to the
continuation of traditional learner restricting classroom practices or rejection of learner
oppressive practices. In the latter case, teachers project themselves as embracers of the concept
of learner autonomy and try to promote interest in the learner-centered classroom practices
(although the ratio of such teachers in this group is limited).
We recommend that further research involving quant-qual research design may be
conducted to investigate the role of the teachers in the classroom for developing English
language learner autonomy in the non-western context (as to date the research in this field
claims that it is a western concept). The perceptions of the learners on the role of the teachers
in the development of the learner autonomy may also be explored. The mixed-method study
on the learner autonomy enhancing English language teaching-learning strategies may also be
conducted to explore the concept of learner responsibility, learner independence, learner
empowerment, learner centeredness etc. This research may well be applied as a model for
exploring a variety of pedagogical issues pertaining to English language teaching and may
provide some insights to form strategies to tackle them. We propose that the development of
LA components may be included in the professional training of the teachers through seminars,
lectures, conferences etc. In Pakistani universities, in general, teachers’ professional
development is not given importance.

Acknowledgement
This research reports the findings from a research project that was funded by Higher
Education Commission Pakistan, under the program titled: Start-up Research grant Project.

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