Brief introduction to the topic

Focused literature review

Statement of the problem and hypotheses

Write a preliminary outline
Read the literature
Finalize preliminary outline and add details to it.
Group the literature
▪ By those examining related independent variables.
▪ By those examining related dependent variables.
▪ By type of design
Group the literature
▪ By type of design – weaker to stronger designs
▪ Uncontrolled case studies before controlled designs
▪ Relational studies before experimental
▪ Cross-sectional before longitudinal
▪ By theoretical premises
Use headings and subheadings
Funnel approach
1. Group related studies, may be citing them
chronologically.
▪ Provide comparable info for each: participants, IVs,
DVs, designs, and findings.
▪ Mention noteworthy details (e.g., methodological
problems, ethnicity or gender of participants) that
will form the basis for themes in your analysis.
 ▪ “Repetition and parallel construction are among
the most effective servants of clarity. Don’t be
creative; be clear” (Bem, 1995, p. 174)
2. Review weaker studies briefly while devote
greater attention to stronger studies.
3. Discuss studies by their findings.
▪ Contains less description of individual studies than
the previous two approaches.
▪ Cite pros and cons for your ideas.
Synthesize the literature; do not merely
enumerate studies.
▪ What patterns do you see in investigators’ findings?
▪ Are findings consistent? If not, why not? Consider
potential explanations.
Evaluate the literature critically.
▪ Which studies are best, and why?
▪ Which studies are worst, and why?
▪ Use a professional tone in commenting on others’
work.
This section
summarizes the data
collected and the
statistical or data
analytic treatment
used.
State results in the order that
corresponds to the order of
the hypotheses as presented
in the Introduction.

First, briefly state main results or

findings, then the data in sufficient
detail to justify conclusions.
Whenever an effect is significant,
report the direction of that effect.

Group A scored significantly

higher than Group B.
Capitalize interaction terms but not effects.

The interaction between age and

instructional condition was
significant, F . . .
or
The Age x Instructional Condition
interaction was significant, F . . .
Refer to
– all tables --> tables East
West
– all graphs, pictures, or Nort

drawings --> figures

Do not include individual scores or raw

data
Exception: e.g., single-case designs or
illustrative samples.
Table X
Mean Numbers of Correct Responses by Children With and Without Pretraining

Grade
Group n 3 4 5
Verbal tests
With 18 280 297 301
Without 19 240 251 260
Mathematical tests
With 20 201 214 221
Without 17 189 194 216
Should be intelligible without reference
to the text.

Consider combining tables that repeat

data.

Be consistent in the presentation of

tables to facilitate comparison.
Table 1
Mean Numbers of Correct Responses in Verbal Tests by Children With and Without
Pretraining

Grade
Group n 3 4 5
With 18 280 297 301
Without 19 240 251 260

Table 2
Mean Numbers of Correct Responses in Mathematical Tests by Children With and Without
Pretraining

Grade
Group n 3 4 5
With 20 201 214 221

Without 17 189 194 216

18
Table X
Mean Numbers of Correct Responses by Children With
and Without Pretraining
Grade
Group n 3 4 5
Verbal tests
With 18 280 297 301
Without 19 240 251 260
Mathematical tests
With 20 201 214 221
Without 17 189 194 216
Too telegraphic:
Relation Between College Majors and Performance

Too detailed:
Mean Performance Scores on Test A, Test B, and Test C of
Students With Psychology, Physics & English Majors

Good title:
Mean Performance Scores of Students With Different College
Majors
Have a column heading for every column
Standard abbreviations & symbols for
nontechnical terms may be used without
explanation.
▪ E.g.
▪ no. – number
▪ % - percentage
▪ Statistics: M – mean; SD – standard
deviation
Identify probability level values as note to
the table.
▪ Assign the same no. of asterisks if it
appears in more than one table.
E.g., *.05 alpha level
**.01 alpha level

Abbreviations of technical terms, group

names, and the like must be explained in
a note to the table.
 Items within a column must be
syntactically & conceptually comparable.

Unparallel Parallel

Condition Condition
Functional psychotic Functional psychosis
Drinks to excess Alcoholism
Character disorder Character disorder
Stubheads, column heads, and column
spanners should be singular unless they
refer to groups (e.g., Children)

Table spanners may be plural.

Capitalize only the letter of the first word

of all headings and word entries
Must be necessary.

Data must be plotted accurately.

Parallel figures or equally important

figures must be of the same scale.
Explain abbreviations and symbols in a
figure legend or caption.
▪ Legend – explains the symbols used
in the figure. Placed as part of the
figure.
▪ Caption – serves both as an
explanation of the figure and as a
figure title.
Explain abbreviations and symbols in a
figure legend or caption.

Too brief:
Figure 3. Fixation duration.

Sufficiently descriptive:
Figure 3. Fixation duration as a function of the
delay between the beginning of eye fixation
and the onset of the stimulus in Experiment 1.
 When you use tables or
figures, be certain to
mention all of them in
the text.

Assume that your reader has

professional knowledge of
statistics
Statistical significance
▪ commonly used alpha levels are .05 and .
01
▪ Before repor ting specif ic results,
routinely state the particular alpha level
s e l e c t e d fo r t h e s t at i s t i c a l t e s t s
conducted:

An alpha level of .05 was used for

all statistical tests.
▪ Or specify the alpha level when reporting
each result.
Statistical significance
▪ Report the exact probability values.

With an alpha level of .05, the

effect of age was statistically
significant, F (1, 123) = 7.27,
p = .008.
Evaluation and interpretation of the
implications of the results, especially with
respect to your original hypothesis.
• Generalized statements answering directly
each of the sub-problem / hypothesis.

• Do not include empirical evidences and

authorities cited to support the findings in
the previous chapter
Example:

Bright students do not show

preference for special
techniques to insure
understanding of basic
concepts and skills. Those
who were frequently tested
achieved as much as those who
were required to do written
exercises on the same topics.
RECOMMENDATIONS
May include the following:
– practical applications of the findings
– suggestions for improvements on your
research
– proposal of new research
A very brief,
comprehensive
summary of the
contents of the study.
About 100 to 120 words
in length.
Accurate
▪ Reflects the purpose & content
▪ Comparable to the outline of the
paper’s headings.
▪ If applicable, note that the study
extends or replicates previous
research. Cite author and year.
▪ Self-contained
▪ Define all abbreviations (except units
of measurement) and acronyms.

▪ Spell out names of tests and drugs

(use generic names).

▪ Define unique terms.

Concise and Specific
▪ Be as brief as possible. Have
approximately 120 words.
▪ Begin with the most important
information-- purpose or thesis, or
perhaps the results & conclusions.
▪ Include only the four or five most
important concepts, findings, or
implications.
Concise and Specific
▪ Use digits for all numbers (except those
that begin a sentence).

▪ Abbreviate liberally (e.g., vs. for versus)

▪ Use the active voice

Content
▪ the problem under investigation, in one
sentence if possible;
▪ the subjects, specifying pertinent
characteristics;
▪ the experimental method, including
apparatus, data gathering procedures,
complete test names, and complete
generic names and dosage and routes
of administration of any drugs
Content

▪ the findings, including statistical

significance levels;

▪ the conclusions and the implications

or applications.
American Psychological Association (2001). Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association. Fifth edition. Washington: American Psychological
Association.
Szuchman, L.T. & B. Thomlison (2004). Writing With Style: APA Style for Social Work. CA:
Brooks/Cole—Thomson Learning.
Guidelines for Writing A Thesis / Dissertation. Unpublished material of the Department of
Psychology, Ateneo de Manila University.