CE-401: Design of Steel Structures

Design of Tension Members

 Tension Members
• Members subjected to axial tensile forces.
• Any x-sec configuration may be used, because
only determinant of strength of a tension
member is the x-sec. area.
• Circular rods and rolled angle shapes are
commonly used.
• Built-up sections are used when loads are high,
the most common being double angles.
Tension Members
 Tension Members
• How members are subjected to axial tensile
forces?

✓When the member’s ends are connected to

the joints which are pulling apart the
member.
• How members are connected to the joints?
✓Using Bolts Or Welds.
 Tension Members

Most Commonly Found in Trusses

 Tension Members
• Tension members are frequently connected at their
ends using bolts.

• A typical design problem is to select a member with

sufficient cross-sectional area to resit the applied
loads.
 Tension Members
• How Tension members are designed?
• Using the maximum Applied forces, material
tensile strengths a suitable cross sectional area is
worked out to satisfy the Adequacy.
• Design Tensile Strength of a Tension Member is
the Maximum Tension allowed on the Member
according to a design CODE.

• But the Tensile Strength depends upon the

Failure Modes of the Tension member.
 Tension Members
• How Tension members can fail?

✓Either in a Ductile or Brittle failure mode.

• Ductile failure is related to Yielding – large

deformation & necking

• Brittle failure usually occurs without significant

deformation.
 Tension Members
• Brittle & Ductile Failures
 Tension Members
• Design Strength Depends upon the failure mode
❑ Yielding
Failure usually
happens in the middle
region of Specimen

❑ Fracture Failure usually

happens at the ends or
connection regions
 Tension Members
NET CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA :
To find the Net X-Sectional Area, we need to deduct
the material that has been cut to make the hole for
the bolts in connection, like Section B in the Fig.

NOTE:
The Holes are
1/8” Larger
than the bolts

B A Sec-A Sec-B
 Tension Members
❖Why Fracture Occurs in Net Area.

✓Because of Increased Stress in the remaining Area

by more than 3 Times.
 Tension Members
Limit States:
Yielding
The nominal strength in yielding:

Fracture
The nominal strength in fracture

where is the effective net area, which may be equal to

either the net area or, in some cases, a smaller area.
 Tension Members
Design Strength
• A tension member may fail by reaching one of two limit
states: Excessive deformation or Fracture.
• To prevent excessive deformation, initiated by yielding, the
load on the gross section must be small enough that stress on
the gross section is less than the yield stress Fy.
• To prevent fracture, the stress on the net section must be less
than the tensile strength Fu.
• In each case, the stress P/A must be less than a limiting stress
F or
P/A < F
• Thus the load P must be less than FA
P < FA
 Tension Members
LRFD:
The factored tensile load is compared to the design strength.
The design strength is the resistance factor times the nominal
strength.

For tension members, this can be written as

Where is the governing combination of the loads. The

resistance factor is smaller for fracture than for yielding.

Yielding
Fracture
 Tension Members
LRFD:
➢ As there are two limit states, both of the following
conditions must be satisfied.

➢ The smaller of the two is the design strength of the

member.
Most Commonly Used Steel Grades
 Tension Members
Example 1
 Tension Members
Example 2
Tension Members
Shear Lag Effect … Effective Area
➢ The performance of tension member is greatly
influenced by connection measured in terms of
joint efficiency.

➢ This factor is function of the ductility of the

material, fastener spacing, stress concentrations
at holes, fabrication procedure, and a
phenomenon knows as shear lag.

➢ Shear lag occurs when some elements of the

cross section are not connected.
Shear Lag Effect … Effective Area
➢For example, when only one leg of an angle is
bolted to a gusset plate.

➢The connected element becomes overloaded

and the unconnected part is not fully stressed.
➢Shear lag can be accounted for by using a
reduced, or effective, net area.
 Shear Lag Effect … Effective Area

C Channel with Two

Flanges Connected,
but Not Web

Angle Iron Connected

with One Leg Only
 Shear Lag Effect … Effective Area

➢ These examples show that if a X-section is Cut within

the Shear Lag Affected Region then it is Obvious that
Some Portions of the Physical Cut Section Will Not Be
Carrying Stresses !!
➢ Therefore The Net Section Capacity Must Have Been
Further Reduced !!
 Shear Lag Effect … Effective Area
➢ Shear Lag Effect is Mainly Expected within
Connections.
➢ Impact of Shear Lag Effect can be incorporated in
Design by Applying a Reduction Factor “U” to the Net
Area, resembling the reality that Whole Physical Cross-
section is Not Taking the Stress.

➢Ae = U An
 Shear Lag Effect … Effective Area
• Shear lag affects both Bolted and Welded connections.
• The effective net area concept applies to both types of
connections.
• For bolted connections, the effective net area is

• For welded connections, the effective area is

The reduction factor U is given in AISC D3.3, Table D3.1

Shear Lag
Factor
“AISC”
Shear Lag Factor AISC Table D 3.1
 Shear Lag Effect … Effective Area
➢ The KEY to determine Shear Lag factor is divided into
following five categories:
 Shear Lag Effect … Effective Area
➢ Any type of Tension Member, Except Plates & Round
HSS with Length Lesser Or Equal to 1.3 of Diameter:

= Distance From the Centroid of Tension Member to

the Nearest Plane / Surface of Connection
= Length of Connection
 Shear Lag Effect … Effective Area
➢ Examples of
 Shear Lag Effect … Effective Area
➢ Examples of

✓ Centre to Centre – From First Bolt to Last Bolt

Along the Direction of Force
 Shear Lag Effect … Effective Area
➢ Examples of

✓ Longest Length of Weld Along the Direction of Force

 Shear Lag Effect … Effective Area
➢ Shear Lag Factor for Plates :

✓ U = 1 for All Plates Connected Using Bolts

✓ For Plates Connected Using Welds

✓ U = 1 If Transverse Weld is Provided
✓ U is as Follows for Longitudinal Sides Welds
 Shear Lag Effect … Effective Area
➢ Shear Lag Factor for Welded Plates :
 Shear Lag Effect … Effective Area
➢ Longitudinal & Transverse Welds

✓ Longitudinal Welds are Along the Force Direction

✓ Transverse Welds are Perpendicular to the Force
Direction
 Shear Lag Effect … Effective Area
➢ Round HSS with Length Greater Than 1.3 of its
Diameter:
 Shear Lag Effect … Effective Area
➢ Rectangular HSS with Length Greater Than 1.3 of its
Diameter:
 Shear Lag Effect … Effective Area
➢ Rectangular HSS with Length Greater Than 1.3 of its
Diameter:
 Shear Lag Effect … Effective Area
➢ AISC Allows Alternative Values of U for Single Angles,
W, M, S, HP & WT Sections instead of Using the Basic
Equation.

➢ But Most of the Time These Gives Quite Conservative

Values.
➢ So it is Recommended that These Should be Used in
The Design of Tension Member When Even The Details
of Connection is Not Known.
Shear Lag Effect … Effective Area

Alternative Values of U for Single Angles

Shear Lag Effect … Effective Area
Alternative Values of U for Single Angles
Shear Lag Effect … Effective Area
Alternative Values of U for W, M, S, HP &
WT Sections
 Shear Lag Effect … Effective Area
➢ Alternative Values of U for W, M, S, HP & WT Sections
 Shear Lag Effect … Effective Area
➢ Alternative Values of U for W, M, S, HP & WT Sections
 Shear Lag Effect … Effective Area
Example

Solution

➢ Will There Be Any Shear Lag Here ???

 Shear Lag Effect … Effective Area
➢ Yes !! There Will Be Shear Lag Here Effect …
➢ Because The Member (Angle Iron) is Connected
Through Only One Leg to The Connection

➢ Find Net Area First. Then Find the Shear Lag factor
“U”
 Shear Lag Effect … Effective Area
➢ Then Find the Shear Lag factor “U”
 Shear Lag Effect … Effective Area
➢ Therefore the Corresponding “U” is Given By:
 Tension Members
➢ Slenderness Requirement

➢ AISC Requires Fulfilment of Slenderness Requirement

in addition to Strength Requirements. Following is
From AISC Code:
 Staggered Fasteners
• In bolted connection, the net
area will be maximized if the
fasteners are placed in a single
line.

• Space limitations may

necessitate using more than
one line.

• Reduction in cross-sectional
area is minimized if the
fasteners are arranged in a
staggered pattern.
 Staggered Fasteners
• In bolted connection, the net area will be
maximized if the fasteners are placed in a single
line.
 Staggered Fasteners
• Minimum Edge Distance
 Staggered Fasteners
➢Minimum c/c Distance between bolts

• According to AISC it is preferably 3 Times the Bolt

Diameter.
 Staggered Fasteners…
• If the amount of stagger is small enough,
the influence of an offset hole may be felt
by a nearby cross section.

• Fracture along an inclined path abcd is

possible.

• does not apply, and stresses on the

inclined portion b-c are a combination of
tensile and shearing stresses.

• The area of staggered hole is calculated

using reduced diameter d’.
 Staggered Fasteners…
➢Net Area in Case of Staggered Fasteners
• The Net Area can be treated as the Product of Width and
Thickness of the member.
• If it is easier then Net Width can be calculated by
deducting the holes diameters in the failure plane and
also increasing the net width for the inclined plane effect
by adding:
• S2 / 4g

• Note: Add As many S2 / 4g as

there are number of inclined
planes
 Staggered Fasteners…
➢Compute Minimum Net Area in the following Plate
 Staggered Fasteners…
➢Two Possible Failure Planes for Fracture Failure
Mode
i a
3”
j b
5”
c
5”
f d
3” Plate Th. ¾”
h g e Bolts are 1” Dia.

3” 3” 3” 3” 3” 3”
 Staggered Fasteners…
➢Second Possible Failure Plane for Fracture Failure
Mode
i a
3”
j b
5”
c
5”
f d
3” Plate Th. ¾”
h g e

3” 3” 3” 3” 3” 3”
 Staggered Fasteners…

OR
Staggered Fasteners…
Example 4
 Staggered Fasteners…

Plate Th. ½”
 Staggered Fasteners…
• LINE a-b-d-f
• Wn = Wg – 2 Holes = 13.5” - 2 x 1” = 11.5”
• LINE a-b-c-d-e-g
• Wn = Wg – 4 Holes = 13.5” – 4 x 1” + [1.52/(4 x 2.5)] +
[1.5 2/(4 x 4.75)] + [1.5 2/(4 x 3)] = 10.031”
• LINE a-b-c-e-g
• Wn = Wg – 3 Holes = 13.5” - 3 x 1” + [(1.52 /(4 x 2.5)] = 10.725”
 Staggered Fasteners…
➢ Line a-b-c-d-e-g Provides Minimum Net Width of 10.031”

➢ Therefore The Net Area (ANET) along Line a-b-c-d-e-g

= 10.031 x ½ = 5.015 in2
➢ Therefore The Failure load Pn = 0.75 x 5.015 x 58 = 218 Kip
➢ The Same can be obtained by Using Area instead of Width
➢ Consider Line a-b-c-d-e-g
➢ Anet = Agross – (4 Hole’s Dia x Pl. thickness) + ∑ Pl. Th.*[S2 / 4 g]
➢ Anet= 6.75 in2 – 4*(1*1/2)+ [0.5*{((1.52/(4*2.5)) + (1.52/(4*4.75)) +
(1.52/(4*3))}] = 5.015 in2
 Staggered Fasteners…

➢Therefore The Failure load Corresponding to

Fracture Failure Mode is
ΦPn = 0.75 x 5.015 x 58 = 218 Kip

➢The Failure load Corresponding to Yielding

Failure Mode is
ΦPn = 0.9 x 6.75 x 36 = 219 Kip
LRFD
 Design of Tension Members
➢ Design Means to Select or Find an Appropriate
Member Size (Cross-section) Whose Smallest Tensile
Strength ΦPn is Greater Than maximum Ultimate
Load Pu

➢ Problem Arises Because of Unknown Anet & Aeffective ,

as the Connection details may not be Final or Known,
So, we Need to make Assumptions and also to Use the
Approximate Values of Shear Lag factor “U”
Provided by the AISC.
➢ Slenderness Preferably Be Less than 300
 Design of Tension Members
➢To Design:
➢ Given is the Demand or the Load Pu
➢ Requirement is a X-Section that can Fulfil the
Demand
➢ Design Means to Select or Find an Appropriate
Member Size (Cross-section) Whose Smallest Tensile
Strength ΦPn is Greater Than maximum Ultimate
Load Pu
 Design of Tension Members…
• According to LRFD

▪ To prevent yielding

▪ To avoid fracture
Example 1:

LRFD Solution
LRFD Solution…
 Design of Tension Members…
• If a member is less than 8 inches wide, it is
classified as a bar rather than a plate.

• It is common practice to use the PL (Plate)

designation for both bars and plates.

• If angle sections are used as tension members, the

usual fabrication practice is to punch or drill holes
in standard locations in angle legs.
Example 2:

LRFD Solution:
LRFD Solution…

➢ Therefore Select Any Unequal leg Angle that has Area at least 4.75 in2

➢ Its One Leg Must be 5 inches to Accommodate 2 Rows of Holes

➢ And with At least radius of Gyration of 0.6 inches

➢ Can See the AISC Tables Starting from 7” or 6”

➢ Check 6 x 4 x 1/2
LRFD Solution…
➢ Now Check the Capacity of Angle 6 x 4 x ½

➢ Ag = 4.75 in2 (Very Close)

➢ r min = 0.864 inches, Thickness = ½”

➢ Anet = Ag – Deduction of 2 holes

➢ Anet = 4.75 – 2 [3/4 + 1/8] x [ ½] =3.875 in2

➢ Since The Length of Connection is Not Known therefore

use Approximate values of U
Alternative values
of U for various
connections
LRFD Solution…
LRFD Solution…
 Tension Members in Roof Trusses
• Many of the tension members are used in roof trusses.

• Trusses when used in buildings, are usually main supporting

elements of roof systems where long spans are required.

• They are often used in industrial or mill buildings.

• Roof trusses normally are spaced uniformly along the length of the
building and are tied together by longitudinal beams called purlins
and by cross-bracing.

• The primary function of purlins is to transfer loads to the top chord

of the truss, but they can also act as part of the bracing system.

• Sag rods are tension members used to provide lateral support for
the purlins.
Tension Members in Roof Trusses…
• Sag rods can be located at the midpoint, the third
points, or at more frequent intervals along the purlins,
depending on the amount of support needed.
• Sag rods are designed to support the component of
roof loads parallel to the roof.
• Each segment between purlins is assumed to support
everything below it.
Example 3:
Solution:

LRFD Solution:
LRFD Solution…
 Tension Members in Roof Truss…
• For the usual truss geometry and loading, the bottom chord will be in
tension and the top chord will be in compression.

• Some web members will be in tension and others will be in compression.

• When wind effects are included and consideration is given to different

wind directions, the force in some web members may alternate between
tension and compression.

• The affected member must be designed to function as both a tension

member and a compression member.

• In bolted trusses, double angle sections are used for both chord and web
members.

• This facilitates the connection using a single gusset plate.

Example 4:
Solution:
LRFD
Solution:
LRFD Solution…
LRFD Solution…
 Tension Members
➢ WHEN A TENSION MEMBER CAN FAIL ?

➢ WHEN THE APPLIED LOAD REACHES A VALUE

THAT CAN TRIGGER THE WEAKEST MODE OF
FAILURE
 Tension Members
➢ Modes of Failure in Tension member
➢ A Tension member Can Fail in :
➢ Gross section Yielding
➢ Net Section Fracture
 Tension Members
➢ Block Shear Failure
➢ A Tension member Can Also Fails Within Bolted
Connection like this:

➢ IT OCCURS BY TEARING OUT OF A BLOCK OR THE

PORTION OF TENSION MEMBER WITHIN CONNECTION
REGION
 Tension Members
➢ Examples of Block Shear Failure
 Tension Members
➢ Practical Block Shear Failure
 Tension Members
➢ Practical Block Shear Failure
 Tension Members
➢ Examples of Small Block Shear Failure
 Tension Members
➢ Examples of Small Block Shear Failure
 Tension Members
➢ How to Know whether Block Shear Failure Govern ?

➢ If We know the Load that will cause the Block Shear

Failure then Just Compare it with the Tensile
Capacities of Yielding Failure Mode and Fracture
Failure Mode.
➢ If the Load Required to cause Block Shear Failure
found Less Than the other Two Failure Modes’ Load
then The member will Fail in Block Shera Failure
Mode.
 Tension Members
➢ How to Calculate Load That Can Cause Block Shear
Failure?
➢ See From Where the Material Failed & How.
➢ Block Shear Failure Planes
 Tension Members
➢ Insight into Block Shear Failure ?

➢ The Block Shear Failure involve failure of some part of

material under the Action of Shear Stresses and some
part under the action of Tensile Stresses and the
combined action of the two results in Tearing Out of a
Block of the Material of tension member.
 Tension Members
➢ Close Look at Block Shear Failure
 Tension Members
➢ Close Look at Block Shear Failure
 Tension Members
➢ Insight into Block Shear Failure ?

➢ It means the Load that will Cause the Block Shear

Failure Mode Will Composed of Two Parts:
➢ A Part that will be used up in Causing the Shear
Failure
➢ A Part that will be used up in Causing the Tensile
Failure.
 Tension Members
➢ Insight into Block Shear Failure ?

➢ To find the Value of Load “P” that can cause this type
of Failure the Portions of load that can cause the
SHEAR and the TENSILE failure Separately are
calculated and then COMBINED to give that Applied
Load
 Tension Members
➢ Close Look at Block Shear Failure
 Tension Members
➢ How to Get the Block Shear Failure Load ?

➢ How to Calculate / Know the Load that has Caused a

Failure ?
➢ Expected Load = Stress x Area on Which the Stress
Acts
➢ Failure Load = Failed Area x Expected Stress Acting
on the Failed area
➢ Expected Failure Load = Failed Area x Failure Stress
➢ Expected Failure Load = Failed Area x Respective Strength
 Tension Members
➢ How to Get the Block Shear Failure Load ?

➢ Strength or Load Corresponding to Shear failure is:

➢ Rn = (Area Failed in Shear) x (Shear Strength of Steel)
➢ Rn = (Anv) x (0.6 Fu)

➢ Strength or Load Corresponding to Tensile failure is:

➢ Rn = (Area Failed in Tension) x (Tensile Strength of
Steel) = (Ant) x (Fu)
 Tension Members
➢ Block Shear Failure Load Or Strength?
 Tension Members
➢ Block Shear Failure Load Or Strength?

➢ According to AISC LRFD the Block Shear Strength is:

Use Φ = 0.75 for Block shear failure

 Tension Members
➢ Block Shear Capacity Or Strength?
 Tension Members
➢ Expected Block Shear Failure

Shear Failure Plane Tensile Failure Plane

 Tension Members
➢ Net and Gross Shear Area
 Tension Members
➢ Net Tension Area

➢ Block Shear Capacity

 Tension Members
➢ Block Shear Capacity based Upon Net Shear Area

➢ Block Shear Capacity Based Upon Upper Limit of

Shear Yielding
 Tension Members
➢ Designed Block Shear Capacity

➢ Designed Gross and Net section Capacities

 Tension Members
➢ Final Design Capacity of This Tension Member
 Class Exercise - Tension Members
➢ Determine the Tensile Strength of the Given member
2L 8 x 8 x 1/2
A
2”

2L 8 x 8 x 1/2
3”

2” 3” 3”

Section A-A
 Class Exercise - Tension Members
➢ 2L 8 x 8 x ½
➢ Ag = 7.75 in2 , x’ = 2.17 in.
A
2”

2L 8 x 8 x 1/2
3”

2” 3” 3”

Section A-A