Classical Conditioning:

 Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) & Unconditioned Response (UCR):

The UCS is a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a specific

response without prior learning. For example, in Pavlov's famous experiment,
the food served to dogs was the UCS, and their salivation in response to the
food was the UCR.

 Conditioned Stimulus (CS) & Conditioned Response (CR):

A previously neutral stimulus, known as the conditioned stimulus (CS), is paired with the UCS until it acquires the
ability to evoke a response. This learned response, known as the conditioned response (CR), is similar to the UCR. In
Pavlov's experiment, the ringing of a bell (CS) was repeatedly paired with the presentation of food (UCS), eventually
leading the dogs to salivate in response to the bell alone (CR).

 Process:

Classical conditioning involves the acquisition of associations between stimuli. During the acquisition phase, the CS is
presented in close temporal contiguity with the UCS. Over repeated pairings, the CS comes to elicit the CR. The
strength and persistence of the conditioned response depend on factors such as the intensity and consistency of the
pairings.

Instrumental (Operant) Conditioning:

 Behavior and Consequences:

Instrumental conditioning, also known as operant conditioning,

focuses on the relationship between behaviors and their
consequences. Behaviors that are followed by favorable
consequences (reinforcement) are more likely to be repeated, while
those followed by unfavorable consequences (punishment) are less
likely to recur.

 Law of Effect:

The law of effect, proposed by Edward Thorndike, states that behaviors

that are followed by satisfying consequences become strengthened and
are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by
discomforting consequences become weakened and are less likely to be
repeated.

 Response-Outcome Relationship:

In instrumental conditioning, the consequences of a behavior determine its future likelihood of occurrence.
Reinforcement increases the probability of the behavior, while punishment decreases it. The timing and consistency
of reinforcement or punishment influence the effectiveness of conditioning.

Other Learning Mechanisms:

 Imprinting:

Imprinting is a form of learning that occurs during a critical or sensitive period early in an organism's life. It involves
the rapid learning of a specific stimulus, often related to social attachment or recognition of caregivers. Imprinting is
observed in various species, including birds and mammals.

 Retrospective Conditioning:

Retrospective conditioning occurs when an association is formed between a previously neutral stimulus and an
aversive outcome after the initial exposure to the stimulus. For example, if an individual becomes ill after consuming
a novel food, they may develop an aversion to that food in the future. This form of conditioning is often associated
with the development of taste aversions.

Brain Background:

Pavlov's Concept:

 Pavlov proposed that learning involves the strengthening of connections between brain
centers, often referred to as "analyzers." However, this explanation is oversimplified and
does not fully capture the complexity of learning processes in the brain. Moreover, this
connection between brain centers is not always the case.

Lashley's Engram Hypothesis:

 Lashley proposed the concept of the engram, which represents the physical representation of what is
learned in the brain. He conducted experiments on rats but failed to find evidence of an engram in the form
of specific connections between brain areas. Instead, he suggested principles of equipotentiality and mass
action, stating that all parts of the cortex contribute equally to complex behaviors, and the cortex functions
as a whole. Later, Thompson identified the lateral interpositus nucleus (LIP) in the cerebellum as crucial for
classical conditioning.

Equipotentiality and Mass Action:

 Lashley's experiments involved systematically removing parts of the cortex to investigate their role in
learning. He found that impaired learning ability depended more on the size of the removed area rather than
its specific localization. This led to the principles of equipotentiality, suggesting that different areas of the
cortex can compensate for each other in learning tasks, and mass action, proposing that the overall cortical
mass influences learning rather than specific areas. This approach is not accepted any more

Thompson's Discoveries:

 Thompson and colleagues focused on a basic form of learning,

classical conditioning of the eyelid response in rabbits. Their
research revealed that learning occurs in the cerebellum,
specifically implicating the lateral interpositus nucleus. Temporal
suppression of this nucleus blocked learning, providing evidence
for its crucial role in classical conditioning.
.(BOOK: The engram is the physical representation of what was learned. Lashley could not
find an engram in the form of a connection between two brain areas in his rat
experiments. He proposed the principles of equipotentiality (all parts if the cortex
contribute equally to complex behaviours) and mass action (the cortex works as a whole;
more cortex is better). Later, Thompson identified the lateral interpositus nucleus or LIP in
the cerebellum as crucial for classical conditioning.)

Types of Memory:

Hebb's Concept:

 Hebb proposed that there are multiple types of memory, each with distinct mechanisms underlying their
formation and retrieval.

Short-Term Memory (STM) vs. Long-Term Memory (LTM):

 Short-term memory has limited capacity and requires rehearsal to maintain information. Contents of STM
are transient and may be lost if not transferred to long-term memory. Consolidation refers to the process by
which information is transferred from STM to LTM, involving the strengthening of neural connections.

 Long-term memory has a vast capacity and allows for the storage of information over extended periods.
Memories in LTM can be recalled based on association cues and are relatively enduring.
Issues with Consolidation:

 Not all information held in STM is automatically transferred to LTM, and the time needed for consolidation
varies greatly. Emotionally significant memories may consolidate more rapidly, leading to phenomena like
flashbulb memories.

 Flashbulb memories are vivid recollections of emotionally charged events that are often subject to distortion
over time.

Memory Loss:

 Forgetting can be beneficial and is a normal aspect of memory functioning. However, pathological memory
loss, such as amnesia, can significantly impair cognitive functioning.

 Amnesia, characterized by memory deficits, can result from conditions like

Korsakoff syndrome (associated with thiamine deficiency) or
neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's disease.

 →Forgetting is sometimes (quite often) useful →Amnesia: pathological

memory loss →Korsakoff syndrome: caused by prolonged thiamine (Vitamin
B1 ) deficiency (e.g. due to alcoholism) →Loss of neurons in the dorsomedial
thalamus →Confabulation = filling the gaps

 Alzheimer's disease involves the gradual loss of memory and cognitive functions, accompanied by the
accumulation of amyloid-beta plaques and tau protein tangles in the brain. →Procedural skills can be learnt
→Gradual progression: Memory loss, confusion, sleeplessness, depression, delusions, etc. →Half of people
over the age of 85 are impacted →Accumulation of amyloid-β inside and outside neurons → formation of
plaques →Alternative: tau protein → formation of tangles

Infant Amnesia:

 Infant amnesia refers to the phenomenon where older children and adults have limited memory of events
from their earliest years. This phenomenon is observed in animals as well and may be related to the rapid
formation of new neurons in the hippocampus during early development. →Older children/adults do not
really remember the events of their first years →We tend to forget our long-term memories from this period
→Also present in animals without language… →Perhaps the quick formation of new neurons in the
hippocampus is in the background

Working Memory (WM):

 Baddeley and Hitch introduced the concept of working memory, which encompasses the active maintenance
and manipulation of information in STM. Working memory is crucial for cognitive tasks requiring temporary
storage and processing of information.

 Working memory is commonly assessed using tasks like the delayed response task, and the prefrontal cortex
plays a critical role in its functioning.

Memory Impairments:

 Individuals with amnesia, such as the famous case of H.M., typically exhibit normal working memory but
severe deficits in declarative memory (explicit memory). They may also experience varying degrees of
retrograde amnesia (loss of past memories) and better retention of procedural memory (implicit memory for
motor skills and habits).
(BOOK: Hebb proposed a distinction between a small-capacity, rehearsal-dependent short-term memory (STM) and a vast-capacity, recall-
based long-term memory (LTM). Information from STM is consolidated in LTM faster if it is emotional (due to simulation from the amygdala).
Also, memories awakened by a reminder become labile. They can then be reconsolidated, but they may be changed in the process. Baddeley &
Hitch replaced “STM” by the term working memory (WM). WM is commonly tested by the delayed response task. The prefrontal cortex is
crucial for WM. People with amnesia, such as H.M., usually have (a) normal WM; (b) severe anterograde amnesia for declarative memory
(a.k.a. explicit memory); (c) some degree of retrograde amnesia, especially with respect to episodic memory (memory of events), (d) better
implicit memory than explicit memory, and (e) nearly intact procedural memory (implicit memory of motor skills and habits). In the delayed
matching-to-sample task, animals see an object and after a delay get must pick that object (the sample) out of a
set of two; in the delayed nonmatching-to-sample task, they must pick the opposite. Hippocampal damage impairs
performance in both tasks. The hippocampus is also important for spatial memory, as shown in experiments using
a radial maze or a Morris water maze. Finally, the hippocampus responds to context, and thus it is important for
episodic memory. In contrast, implicit learning (of habits and patterns) depends on the basal ganglia. Korsakov’s
syndrome is brain damaged caused by prolonged thiamine deficiency, prominent in alcoholics. Symptoms include
apathy, confusion, memory loss, and confabulation – filling in memory gaps with guesses, mostly in episodic
memory. People with Alzheimer’s disease have much better procedural than declarative memory. The cause of this
disease is genes causing a protein called amyloid-β to accumulate, damaging the nervous system. High levels of
this protein also alter the tau proteins in the cells, which then also accumulate, magnifying the damage. In people
with parietal lobe damage, associative skills are impaired. People with damage in certain areas of the temporal
lobe suffer semantic amnesia. The prefrontal lobe records the expected gains and losses associated with possible
actions.)

Hippocampus:
 Memory Formation and Recall:The hippocampus plays a pivotal role
in the formation and recall of memories, particularly declarative and
episodic memories, which involve conscious recollection of past
events and factual information.

 Effects of Damage:Damage to the hippocampus, as observed in cases like

patient H.M., can lead to profound memory deficits, including anterograde
amnesia (inability to form new memories) and retrograde amnesia (loss of
past memories). However, working memory, which involves the temporary
storage and manipulation of information, remains intact in the absence of
distraction.

 Case of H.M.:Patient H.M., who underwent surgical removal of the

hippocampus to treat epilepsy, exhibited severe anterograde amnesia,
unable to form new declarative memories following the surgery. Despite this,
his working memory and procedural memory were relatively
preserved.

 Episodic Memory and Future Imagination:The hippocampus is

crucial for episodic memory, which involves the recollection of
personal experiences and events. Patients with hippocampal
damage often struggle to recall specific details of past events
and may also experience difficulties in imagining or projecting
themselves into future scenarios.

 Memory Types Affected:While explicit (declarative) memory,

including facts and events, is significantly impaired by
hippocampal damage, implicit memory, which includes skills and
habits, tends to remain relatively intact. This suggests a
dissociation between different types of memory systems.

 Critical Functions:

 The hippocampus is critical for the formation of

declarative and episodic memories, as evidenced by
experiments in animals and studies of patients with
hippocampal lesions.

 It plays a central role in coordinating the recall of contextual components of memories, aiding in the
reconstruction of past events and experiences.

 Spatial Memory Formation:Notably, the hippocampus is also involved in the formation of spatial memories.
Studies of London taxi drivers, who undergo extensive navigation training, have shown enlarged hippocampi,
suggesting a correlation between hippocampal volume and navigational expertise.
  Place Cells and Time Cells:Within the hippocampus, specialized neurons called place cells represent specific
spatial locations. These cells are activated when an individual occupies a particular place in their
environment and play a crucial role in spatial navigation and memory formation.Additionally, recent
research has identified time cells within the hippocampus, which encode temporal aspects of memory
processing. These cells contribute to the organization of memories based on their temporal sequence.

 Input from Entorhinal Cortex:The hippocampus receives input from the entorhinal cortex, which contains
specialized cells known as grid cells. Grid cells fire in a spatially periodic pattern and provide information
about an individual's position and movement speed within their environment. This input from the entorhinal
cortex is essential for the encoding and retrieval of
spatial memories within the hippocampus.

Striatum:

 Caudate Nucleus & Putamen:The striatum consists of

two main components: the caudate nucleus and the
putamen. Together, they form part of the basal ganglia, a group of structures deep within the brain involved
in motor control, learning, and cognition.

 Implicit Learning:One of the primary functions of the striatum is implicit learning, which involves acquiring
knowledge and skills without conscious awareness. This includes learning nonverbal habits, motor skills, and
procedural tasks.
 Probabilistic Rule Learning:The striatum plays a key role in learning probabilistic associations and rules. This
type of learning involves understanding the likelihood of certain outcomes based on past experiences or
environmental cues. The striatum helps in the acquisition and utilization of these probabilistic rules, allowing
individuals to make decisions and predictions in uncertain situations.

 Cognitive Functions:In addition to its role in motor control and implicit learning, the striatum also
contributes to various cognitive functions, including executive functions such as planning, decision-making,
and cognitive flexibility.

 Dopaminergic Signaling:Dopamine, a neurotransmitter associated with reward and motivation, plays a

crucial role in striatal function. Dopaminergic neurons project from areas such as the substantia nigra and
ventral tegmental area to the striatum, modulating its activity and influencing learning and motivation
processes.

 Disorders Involving the Striatum:Dysfunction of the striatum is implicated in various neurological and
psychiatric disorders, including Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and obsessive-compulsive disorder
(OCD). These conditions are characterized by motor disturbances, cognitive impairments, and alterations in
learning and reward processing, highlighting the importance of the striatum in brain function.

Storing Information in the Nervous System:

 Nature of Memory Storage:

 Memories are not stored in specific molecules like proteins or RNA. Instead, they are believed to be
encoded in the patterns of neural activity and the strength of synaptic connections between
neurons. This process is dynamic and involves changes in the structure and function of neural
circuits.

 Hebbian Learning:

 Hebbian learning theory proposes that synaptic connections between neurons are strengthened
when they are repeatedly activated together. This principle, often summarized as "cells that fire
together wire together," underlies the mechanisms of synaptic plasticity and memory formation.

 Aplysia Research:
  . Due to its large, easily identifiable neurons, Aplysia is an
excellent model organism for investigating fundamental
neural processes such as habituation, sensitization, and
synaptic plasticity. (Decrease in response to repeated or
prolonged stimulation.)

 Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) in Vertebrates:

 LTP is a key cellular mechanism underlying learning and

memory in vertebrates. It involves the lasting
enhancement of synaptic transmission following repeated intense stimulation, making synapses
more responsive for days or even weeks.

 LTP exhibits specificity (specific synapses are potentiated), cooperativity (multiple synapses are
stimulated simultaneously), and associativity (pairing weak and strong stimuli enhances synaptic
strength).

 Biochemical Mechanisms:

 LTP in the hippocampus, a brain region critical for

memory formation, primarily depends on glutamate
synapses.

 Glutamate acts on ionotropic receptors, including

AMPA and NMDA receptors. AMPA receptors open
sodium channels, while NMDA receptors require
depolarization to remove magnesium blocks and
allow calcium influx.

 Calcium influx activates enzymes like CaMKII,

leading to the production of proteins like CREB that
regulate gene expression, contributing to long-term
changes in synaptic strength.

 LTP activation can last for months or years,

facilitated by neurotrophins like BDNF and the
development of new synapses.

 Presynaptic Changes:

 LTP can also involve presynaptic changes, such as increased

neurotransmitter release, mediated by retrograde
neurotransmitters like nitric oxide (NO). These mechanisms
contribute to decreasing the threshold for action potentials and
enhancing neurotransmitter release.

 Limitations of LTP:

 While LTP mechanisms are sufficient to explain

elementary learning, such as simple classical
conditioning, more complex forms of learning likely
involve additional cellular and molecular processes.
(BOOK: 13.2: Storing information in the nervous system A Hebbian synapse is a synapse
increasing in effectiveness because of simultaneous activity in both the pre- and the
postsynaptic neuron. Habituation is a decrease in response to a stimulus presented
repeatedly without change in other stimuli; sensitization is an increase in response to mild
stimuli as a result of exposure to more intense stimuli. In LTP or long-term potentiation, an
axon connected to a dendrite bombards it with stimuli, after which the synapse is
potentiated. It has three properties: specificity (only active synapses are strengthened),
cooperativity (nearly simultaneous stimulation by multiple axons produces much stronger LTP than stimulation by one axon), and associativity
(a weak input synapse, if paired with a strong input synapse, is also strengthened). The opposite, LTD or long-term depression, occurs for axons
less active than others. LTP depends mainly on changes at glutamate synapses, such as the AMPA receptor, which opens a sodium gate in
response to glutamate, and the NMDA receptor, which opens a sodium gate in response to glutamate and slight depolarization. In this phase,
calcium enters through the NDMA’s gates, eventually sensitizing the AMPA receptors. The effects are magnified by BDNF. Thus, blocking NMDA
receptors prevents the establishment of LTP, but not its maintenance. A stimulated postsynaptic cell may also release a retrograde transmitter,
which makes the presynaptic neuron decrease its threshold. Although enhancing LTP would improve memory, this is not a simple matter.
However, stimulants, such as caffeine, produce benefits. Stirring someone’s curiosity is also a good study technique.)

Improving Memory:

 Drug Interventions:

 Currently, there are no specific drugs available that can directly enhance long-term potentiation
(LTP), the cellular process underlying memory formation.

 Some drugs like caffeine and amphetamine act as general stimulants, temporarily boosting alertness
and cognitive function. However, their effects on long-term memory enhancement are limited.

 Herbal Supplements:

 Herbal supplements like Ginkgo biloba have been proposed as memory enhancers, particularly in the
context of age-related cognitive decline and Alzheimer's disease.

 However, the evidence supporting the efficacy of Ginkgo biloba in improving memory is limited and
inconclusive, with mixed results from clinical studies, especially over short-term durations.

 Non-Pharmacological Interventions:

 Non-pharmacological interventions, such as lifestyle modifications, have shown more promising

results in memory enhancement.

 Physical exercise has been consistently associated with cognitive benefits, including improvements
in memory function. Aerobic exercise, in particular, promotes neurogenesis and synaptic plasticity in
the brain, supporting memory formation and retention.

 Adequate sleep is essential for memory consolidation, as it allows the brain to process and store
information acquired during wakefulness. Sleep deprivation, on the other hand, can impair cognitive
function and memory performance.

 Cognitive training programs, such as mnemonic techniques and memory exercises, may also help
improve memory function by enhancing encoding, storage, and retrieval processes.

 Healthy Lifestyle Factors:

 Maintaining a healthy lifestyle, including a balanced diet rich in antioxidants and omega-3 fatty acids,
avoiding excessive alcohol consumption, and managing stress levels, can also support cognitive
health and memory function.

 Overall, while pharmacological interventions for memory enhancement remain elusive, adopting a holistic
approach that includes regular physical activity, adequate sleep, and a healthy lifestyle may help optimize
memory performance and cognitive function in the long term.

Intelligence:
 Multifaceted Construct:
 Intelligence is a complex and multifaceted construct that encompasses a wide range of cognitive
abilities and skills. These include but are not limited to memory, learning, problem-solving,
reasoning, language proficiency, and emotional intelligence.
 Spearman's G Factor:

 Spearman's theory of general intelligence posits that there is a single underlying factor, termed "g,"
that contributes to performance across diverse cognitive tasks. This general factor accounts for the
positive correlations observed among different measures of cognitive ability.

 While specific tasks may tap into different aspects of intelligence, such as verbal or spatial reasoning,
the presence of a common underlying factor suggests that there is a general cognitive ability that
influences performance across various domains.

 While general intelligence provides a useful framework for understanding cognitive abilities, it's
important to note that not all measures of intelligence assess the same underlying construct.

 Different cognitive tasks and assessments may tap into specific aspects of intelligence, such as verbal
comprehension, spatial reasoning, logical thinking, or emotional awareness.

 For example, while a traditional IQ test may primarily assess verbal and mathematical abilities, other
measures, such as creativity tests or emotional intelligence assessments, may focus on different
dimensions of intelligence.

 Biological Correlates:

 Investigations into the biological basis of intelligence have

explored factors such as brain structure, size, and composition.

 Brain size has historically been linked to intelligence, with larger

brains assumed to be associated with higher cognitive abilities.
However, research suggests that it is not simply overall brain size
but rather the organization and composition of brain matter that
are more closely related to intelligence.

 Grey matter, which consists mainly of neuronal cell bodies and

synapses, is associated with processing and computation, while
white matter, comprised of myelinated axons,
facilitates communication between different brain
regions. Both grey and white matter integrity are crucial
for optimal cognitive functioning.

 Gender Differences:

 While men tend to have slightly larger brains on

average compared to women, this difference does not
necessarily translate into differences in intelligence.

 Gender differences in brain structure and organization

have been observed, with women typically exhibiting more pronounced cortical folding and deeper
sulci. These structural variations may reflect differences in brain connectivity and processing
strategies rather than overall cognitive ability. - > Across-species comparisons of brain size or brain-
to-body ratios do not lead to any useful link with intelligence. Across-human comparisons show a
moderate positive correlation; however, while men in general have larger brains than women, they
are not generally more intelligent.

 →Correlation between brain size and IQ: 0.24 →Grey matter (neurons) and white matter also count
→Men have larger brains (by 10 %), but the same IQ than women →Women: more and deeper sulci;
different organization

 Genetic and Environmental Influences:

  Studies of twins and adoptive siblings have provided evidence for the role of both genetic and
environmental factors in shaping intelligence.

 Genetic influences contribute to individual differences in intelligence, with estimates suggesting that
genetic factors account for approximately 50-80% of the variance in intelligence scores.

 Environmental factors, including prenatal and early

childhood experiences, education quality, socioeconomic
status, and cultural opportunities, also play significant
roles in determining cognitive development and
intellectual functioning.

 Adverse environmental conditions, such as poverty,

malnutrition, exposure to toxins, and lack of access to
quality education, can have detrimental effects on
cognitive development and may lead to lower IQ scores.
 →Genetics plays a role (twin studies) →Environment (adoptive parents) too →Impoverished
conditions, lower-quality school decrease IQ →A huge number of genes in the background, many are
“intolerant to variation” →Evolutionary perspective: more energy invested into the brain than into
muscles, etc

 Evolutionary Perspective:

 From an evolutionary standpoint, intelligence is considered an adaptive trait that has evolved in
response to the complex challenges faced by humans in their environment.

 The evolution of human intelligence is thought to be driven by factors such as social complexity, tool
use, cooperative problem-solving, and the need to adapt to changing environmental conditions.

 The allocation of resources towards cognitive capabilities, such as memory, learning, and reasoning,
has been favored by natural selection due to its adaptive value in enhancing survival and
reproductive success.

 Overall, intelligence is a dynamic interplay of biological, genetic, and environmental factors, with general
intelligence representing a common underlying factor that influences performance across diverse
cognitive domains. Understanding the complexities of intelligence requires consideration of its biological,
psychological, social, and cultural dimensions.