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Module EDUC 104

Bsed English (Tarlac State University)

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COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT

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TSU VMGO

VISION Tarlac State University is envisioned to be a premier university in Asia and

the Pacific.

MISSION Tarlac State University commits to promote and sustain the offering of
quality and programs in higher and advanced education ensuring
equitable access to education for people empowerment, professional
development, and global competitiveness.
Towards this end, TSU shall:
1. Provide high quality instruction trough qualified, competent
and adequately trained faculty members and support staff.
2. Be a premier research institution by enhancing research
undertakings in the fields of technology and sciences and
strengthening collaboration with local and international
institutions.
Be a champion in community development by strengthening partnership with
public and private organizations and individuals.

CORE VALUES The six(6) core values institutionalize as a way of life of the
university community are:

E – xcellence and Enhanced Competence

Q – uality
U – nity
I – ntegrity and Involvement
T – rust in God, Transparency and True Commitment
Y – earning for Global Competitiveness

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Foundations of Inclusive and Special Education

EDUC 104

JUNKING AXL G. CAJULAO

Bachelor of Secondary Education Major in English
Licensed Professional Teacher
Master in Education Major in English
[email protected]

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Course Description
Foundations of Inclusive and Special Education (EDUC 104) is a 3-unit course
which shall deal with the philosophies, theories, and legal bases of special needs
and inclusive education, typical and atypical development of children, learning
characteristics of students with special needs (gifted and talented, learners with
difficulty in seeing, hearing, communicating, moving remembering and focusing,
learners with difficulty in self-care and strategies in teaching and managing these
learners. It introduces social, philosophical, and historical perspective in
education where students will observe and examine the teaching field, current
trends in education, and teaching as a profession. This course does not only
focuses in Educational Philosophies but recognizes and distinguishes Inclusive and
Special Education. Whereas students would be able to learn foundational
knowledge as the fundamentals of teaching in which to scaffold all additional
information within future endeavour. This is an introductory course to expose
students to a variety of disabling conditions and to teach about experiences of
children and adults with exceptionalities. This is a 3-unit course that explores basic
knowledge, skills and values for children with special/additional needs and in
developing a more inclusive and accessible environment for all children. It will
provide the students with the skills to include children of all abilities through
appropriate arrangement of the learning environment. It will also include
assessment procedures, educational approaches and intervention procedures in
order to meet their needs. Moreover, this course also includes strategies for
developing strong relationship with families and community agencies catering to
the needs of these children.

Course Outline
Course Content/Subject Matter

Week 1 A. Vision, Policy/Law, Goal and Objectives of

Special/Inclusive Education: Perspectives on Special
Education

Week 2 B. Special/Inclusive Education Programs and Services

Week 3-5 C. Special/Inclusive Education and Its Categories

Week 6 D. Biological and Environmental Causes of Developmental

Disabilities

Week 7 E. Children and youth with Special Education Needs

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Week 8 F. Students with Mental Retardation

Week 9 G. Students with Learning Disabilities

Week 10 H. Students Who are Gifted and Talented

Week 11 I. Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

Week 12 J. Students Who are Blind or Low Vision

Week 13 K. Students with Hearing Impairment

Week 14 L. Students with Speech and Language Disorders

Week 15 M. Students with Physical Disabilities, Health Impairments and

Severe Disabilities

Week 16 N. Advocacy on the Education of Children with Special

Needs

One week O. Allotted for the Midterm and the Final Exams
(or an
equivalent
of three
hours)

Rationale
In accordance with the pertinent provisions of Republic Act No. 7722, otherwise
known as the “Higher Education Act of 1994” in pursuance of an outcomes based
quality assurance system as advocated under CMO 46 s. 2012 and by virtue of
Commission on en banc (CEB) Resolution No. 724-2017 which specifies the core
competencies expected of this course graduates and anchored with Tarlac State
University College of Teacher education department which aims for quality
tertiary education producing excellent and dynamic graduates who could
adapt with the changing world and dynamic learners of the 21st century. This will
develop data-based decision making skills and transforming academic material
into hands on activities and exercises to teach socialization and life skills with a
focus in using technology to support the teaching and learning process.

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Instructions:
1. Microsoft Teams will be used as the primary platform in every class; thus, all
students are advised to download and install the aforementioned application.
Just go to office.com. and login using your @student.tsu.edu.ph account,
choose Teams from the list of applications, from there your enrolled subjects will
appear;

2. To uphold delivery of quality instruction, the class may also use added online
platforms and applications like Zoom Cloud Meeting, FB Messenger, Viber,
WhatsApp and the like.
3. Attendance will be checked every meeting. A student must complete 85% of
the session in order for him/her be given credit for attendance.
4. Assignments and activities are to be submitted on time through online or other
available option. Failure to submit is equivalent to a failing grade.
5. Quizzes will be given after each chapter
6. For clarifications, considerations and concerns, you may message me thru
Messenger or Ms Teams Chat Box.
7. If you fail to prepare, prepare to fail.

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Lesson 1. Vision, Policy, Goal and Objectives of

Special Education

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Pre-Test
Directions: Encircle the letter of the best answer.
1. It is a part of a school system‘s operation that requires certain teacher-pupil
ratios in the classroom and that uses special formulas to determine levels of
funding for related services personnel.
A. Special Education B. Inclusive Education

2. In 1987, National Commission Concerning Disabled Persons or NCCDP was

established however through Presidential Decree 1509 it was changed into
NCWDP which stands?

A. National Council for the Welfare of Disabled Persons

B. National Commission on Welfare of Disabled Persons

3. He was the General Superintendent of Education in 1902 during the American

Regime
A. Mr. Fred Atkinson B. Mr. Harry Louise Osias

4. The Philippine Association for the Deaf (PAD) was founded in what year?
A. 1926 B. 1916

5. She was the first Administrator and Teacher of the Insular School for the Deaf
and Blind in Manila, A special School.
A. Miss David Rice B. Miss Rose Williams

6. She was the first Filipino Principal of the School for the Deaf and Blind. (SDB)
A. Mrs. Ma. Villa Francisco B. Mrs. Teresita Ana Licaros

7. In 1954, Sight Savings Week was declared in?

A. 1st week of August B. 2nd week of September

8. When and where did the first National Seminar in Special Education was held?
A. SDB in Pasay City in 1962 B. SDB in Muntinlupa in 1965

9. With the Approval of R.A. No. 3562 in 1963, the training of DEC teacher
scholars for blind children started in what Philippine College?

A. Philippine Normal College B. Collegio de San Juan de Letran

10. In 1996, the third week of January was declared?

A. Autism Consciousness Week B. Mental Health Awareness Week

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Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, students will be able to:

a. identify the different categories of children and youth with special needs;
b. explain the vision of government for children with special needs;

c. cite the policy of special education, its goals and objectives;

d. enumerate the milestones in the history and development of special
education from 1970 to the present time;
e. appreciate and gain inspiration from the lives of successful persons with
disabilities.

CONTENT

Vision for Children with Special Needs

The Department of Education clearly states its vision for children with special
needs in consonance with the Philosophy of inclusive education, thus,

“The State, community and family hold a common vision for the Filipino
Child with Special Needs. By the 21st Century, it is envisioned that he/she could
be adequately provided with basic education. This education should fully realize
his/her own potentials for development and productivity as well as being
capable of self-expression of his/her rights in society. More importantly, he/she is
God-loving and proud of being a Filipino.
It is also envisioned that the child with special needs will get full parental
and community support for his/her education without discrimination of any kind.
This special child should also be provided with a healthy environment along with
leisure and recreation and social security measures.” (Department of Education
Handbook on Inclusive Education 2000)

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Policy, Goal and Objectives

The policy on Inclusive Education for All is adapted in the Philippines to
accelerate access to Education among children and youth with special needs.
Inclusive Education forms an integral component of the overall education
system that is committed to an appropriate education for all children and youth
with special needs.

The goal of the special education programs of the Department of

Education all over the country is to provide the children with special needs
appropriate educational services within the mainstream of basic education. The
two-pronged goals includes the development of key strategies in legislation,
human resource development, family involvement and active participation of
government and non-government organizations. Likewise, there are major issues
to address on attitudinal barriers of the general public and effort towards the
institutionalization and sustainability of special education programs and services.
Special Education aims to:

1. provide a flexible and individualized support system for children and

youth with special needs in a regular class environment in schools nearest the
student’s home.
2. provide support services, vocational programs, and work training
employment opportunities for efficient community participation and
independent living.
3. implement a life-long curriculum to include to early intervention and
parent education, basic education and transition programs on vocational
training or preparation for college and;
4. make available an array of educational programs and services: The
Special Education Center built on “a school within a school concept” as the
resource center for children and youth with special needs; inclusive education in
regular schools, special and residential schools, homebound instruction, hospital
instruction and community-based programs; alternative modes of service
delivery to reach the disadvantaged children in far-flung areas, depressed
areas and undeserved barangays.

Historical Perspectives

Historically, the interest to educate Filipino Children with Disabilities was

expressed more than a century ago in 1902 during the American Regime. The

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General Superintendent of Education Mr. Fred Atkinson, reported to the

Secretary of Public Instruction that Deaf and Blind Children were found in a
census of a school aged children in Manila and nearby provinces. He proposed
that these children be enrolled in school like the other children. However it was
not until 1907 when special education program formally started in the country.
The Director of the Public Education, Mr. David Barrows, worked for the
establishment of the Insular School for the Deaf and Blind in Manila. Miss Delight
Rice, an American Educator, was the first administrator and teacher of the
Special School. At present the school for the Deaf is located in Harrison Street,
Pasay City while the Philippine National School for the Blind is adjacent to it on
Polo Road.
The Philippine Association of Deaf (PAD) composed mostly of hearing
impaired members and special education specialists was founded in 1926.

1927 Welfareville Children’s Village in Mandaluyong, Rizal.

In 1936 Mrs. Maria Villa Francisco was appointed as the First Filipino
Principal of the School for the Blind and Deaf (SDB).

1945, National Orthopaedic Hospital opened its School for Crippled

Children (NOHSCC)
1949 Inaguration of Quezon City Science High School for gifted students.
Also in this year, the Philippine Foundation for the Rehabilitation of the Disabled
(PFRD) was organized.
1950, PAD opened a school for children with hearing impairment.

1953 Elsie Gaches Village (EGV) was established in Alabang, Muntinlupa,

Rizal to take care of the abandoned and orphaned children and youth with
physical and mental handicaps.

1954, first week of August was declared Sight Savings Week.

1955, private sectors supported the government’s program for disabled
Filipinos and the members Lodge No. 761 of the Benevolent and Protective
Order of Elks organized the Elks Cerebral Palsy Project Incorporated. Also in the
same year, the first Parent Teacher Work Conference in Special Education was
held at the SDB.
1956, the first Summer Institute on Teaching the Deaf was held at the
School of the Deaf and Blind in Pasay City. The following School Year marked
the beginning if the integration of deaf pupils in regular classes.

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In 157, the Bureau of Public Schools (BPS) and the Department of

Education and Culture (DEC) created the Special Education Section of the
Special Subjects and Services Division. The inclusion of Special Education in the
structure of DEC provided the impetus of the development of special education
in all regions in the country. The components of the Special Education program
includes:
A. Legislation

B. Teacher Training
C. Census of Exceptional Children and youth in Schools and community

D. Integration of Children with disabilities in regular classes

E. Rehabilitation of residential and special schools materials production.

Baguio Vacation Normal School ran courses on teaching children with

handicaps. Then the Baguio City Special Education Center was organized in the
same year.

1958, the American Foundation for Overseas Blind (AFOB) opened its
regional office in Manila. For many years AFOB assisted the special education
program by DEC by providing consultancy services in the Teacher Training and
Program that focused on the Integration of the Blind children in the regular
classes and materials production at the Philippine Printing House for the Blind.

In 1960, some private Colleges and Universities started to offer special

education courses in their Graduate School Curriculum.
1962, the Manila Youth and Rehabilitation Center (MYRC) was opened
which the Center extended services to children and youth who were
emotionally disturbed and socially maladjusted. DEC issued Circular No. 11 s.
1962 that specified “Qualifications of Special Education Teachers.” Also in 1962
the experimental integration of the Blind Children at the Jose Rizal Elementary
School in Pasay City happened. In the same year, the First National Seminar in
Special Education was held in Pasay City.

The training of DEC Teacher Scholars at the University of the Philippines

commenced in 1962 in the areas of hearing impairment, mental retardation and
mental giftedness under R.A. 5250. In the same year, PGH opened classes for its
school-age chronically ill patients.

With the approval of R.A. 3562 in 1963, the training of DEC Teacher
Scholars for blind children started at the Philippine Normal College. The
Philippine Printing House for the Blind was established at the DEC compound

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with the assistance of AFOB, UNICEF, and CARE Philippines. In the same year,
Manila Science High School for the gifted students was established.

In 1965 marked the start of the training program for the School Administrators on
the Organization, Administration and Supervision of Special Education classes.
The first Institute on the Education and Training of the mentally retarded was
sponsored by the Special Child Study Center, Bureau of Public Schools and the
Philippine Mental Health Association at the Ateneo de Manila University.

In 1967, BPS organized the National Committee on Special Education. General

Letter No. 213 regulating size of Special classes’ maximum effectiveness was
issued the same year.

With the approval of R.A. No. 5250 in 1968 the teacher training program for
teachers of exceptional children was held in PNC for the next 10 years. Also in
1968 the first Asian Conference on Work for the Blind was held in Manila.
In 1969 the Jose Fabella Memorial school was divided into five units and
assigned different parts of Metro Manila :
A. The Philippine Training School for Boys in Tanay, Rizal.

B. The Philippine Training School for Girls in Alabang, Muntinliupa

C. Reception and Child Study Center in Manila
D. Elsie Gaches Village in Alabang, Muntinlupa

E. Nayon ng Kabataan in Pasay City

1970, the School for the Deaf and the Blind which was established in 1907 was
recognized in to two separate residential Schools
A. Philippine School for the Deaf (PSD) stayed in the Original Building

B. Philippine National School for the Blind was built next to PSD.
Also in the same year, a special school was established in San Pablo City, the
Paaralan ng Pag ibig at Pag asa.

DEC issued a Memorandum on duties to the Special Education Teacher

for the blind in 1971. In 1973, the Juvenille and Domestic Relations Court of
Manila established Tahanan Special School for socially maladjusted children
and youth. Meanwhile, the first Asian Conference on Mental Retardation was
held in Manila under UNESCO National Commission of the Philippines and the
Philippine Association for the Retarded (PAR). Caritas Manila’s Special School for
the Retarded was organized by Rev. Fr. Arthur Malin, SVD.

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In 1974, the First National Conference on the Rehabilitation of the disabled

was held at the Social Security Building in Quezon City. The Southeast Asian
Institute for Deaf (SAID), a private day school, was established in the same year.
The Division of Manila City Schools implemented the SILAHIS CONCEPT of Special
Education in Public Elementary Schools. Six Schools were chosen to organize
special education programs for different types of exceptional children. And up
until today, the Silahis Centers continue to lead in the inclusion of exceptional
children in regular classes.

When the DEC was recognized into the Ministry of Education Culture
(MEC) in 1975, the special subjects and services division was abolished. The
personnel of the Special Education Section were divided into two. Half of them
composed of the Special Education Unit of the MEC while the other half was
assigned to the Special Education Unit of the MEC National Capital Region in
Quezon City.

In 1976 the Proclamation 1605 declared 1977-1987 as the Decade of the

Filipino Child. The National Action Plan for Education was promulgated which
included provisions for in and out of school exceptional children.

In 1977, MEC issued Department Order No. 10 that designated regional

and division supervisors of special education programs.
In 1978 marked the creation of National Commission Concerning Disabled
Persons (NCCDP) later renamed National Council for the Welfare of the
Disabled Persons (NCWDP) through Presidential Decree 1509. MEC
Memorandum No. 285 directed School Divisions to organize special classes with
a set of guidelines on the designation of Teachers who have no formal training
in Special Education.

In 1979, the Bureau of Elementary Education Special Education Unit

conducted a two-year nationwide survey of unidentified exceptional children
who were in school.
In 1981, the United Nations Assembly proclaimed the observance of the
International Year of Disabled Persons. Three Special Education Programs were
inaugurated:
A. The Exceptional Child Learning Center at the West City Central Schools
Division of Dumaguete City

B. The Zapatera Special Education Center at the Division of Cebu

C. The Deaf Evangelistic Alliance Foundation (DEAF) in Cavinti, Laguna

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In 1983, Batas Pambansa Bilang 344 enacted the Accessibility Law,

“An Act to Enhance the Mobility of Disabled Persons by requiring cars, Buildings,
Institutions, establishments and Public Utilities to install Facilities and other
devices.” More SPED Centers opened the next three years :

*Batac Special Education Center in Division of Ilocos Norte

*Labangon Special Education Center Division of Cebu

*Northern Luzon Association’s Heinz Wolke School for the Blind at the
Marcos Highway Baguio City

*Pedro Acharon Special Education Center in the Division of General

Santos City
*Legaspi City Special Education Center in Pag Asa Legaspi City

*Dau Special Education Center in the Division of Pampanga

In 1990, the Philippine Institute for the Deaf (PID) an oral school for children
with hearing impairment was established. In 1991, the First National Congress on
Street Children was held at La Salle Green hills in San Juan Metro Manila.

In 1993, DECS issued Order No. 14 that directed the Regional Office to
organize the Regional Special Education Council (RSEC). The years of 1993-2002
were declared as the Asia and the Pacific Decade of the disabled Persons.
Three Conventions held in 1995

A. First National Congress on Mental Retardation at the University of the

Philippines Diliman, Quezon City
B. First National Convention on Deaf Education in Cebu City which was
subsequentlty held every two years
C. First National Sports Summit for the Disabled and Elderly

Also in 1995 the National registration Day for Disabled Persons was also held.
In 1996, the third week of January was declared as Autism Consciousness
Week. The First National Congress on Visual Impairment was held in Quezon City
and subsequently held every two years. And the First Seminar Workshop on
Information Technology for the Visually Impaired was held in Manila. The First
Congress on the Special Needs Education was held in Baguio City.
A number of events took place in 1997.

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DECS Order No. 1 was issued which directed the Organization of a

Regional Special Education Unit and a Designation of a Regional Supervisor for
Special Education. Similarly, DECS Order No. 26 on the Institutionalization of SPED
Programs in ALL schools was promulgated.

The First Philippine Wheelathon-A-Race for Wheel Chair users was the main
event of the 19th National Disability Prevention and Rehabilitation Week.

The SPED Mobile Training on Inclusive Education at the Regional Level was
held with funding from CBM.
The Urdaneta II Special Education Center was opened in the Division of
Urdaneta City and the Bayawan West Special Education Center in the Division
of Negros Oriental.
The First Teacher Training Program for the Integration of Autistic Children
was held in Marikina City.

In 1998, DECS Order No. 5 “Reclassification of Regular Teacher and

Principal Items to Special Education Teacher and Special Schools Principal Item”
was issued.
Palarong Pinoy may K was held at Philsports Complex in Pasig City. The La
Union SPED Center was opened in the Division of La Union.

The following events took place in 1990

 Philspada National SportsCompetition for the Diabled Persons in Cebu
 Second National Congress on Special Needs Education in Baguio
 DECS Orders No. 104 “Excemption of the Physically Handicapped from
taking the National Elementary Achievement Test (NEAT) and the
National Secondary Aptitude Test in the Public School System; No. 448
“Search for the 1999 Most Outstanding Special Education Teacher for
the Gifted; and Memorandum No. 457 National Photo Contest on
Disability.

The following DECS Order were issued

*No. 11 “Recognized Special Education Centers in the Philippines”;

*No. 33 “Implementation of Administrative Order No. 101 directing the

Department of Public Works and Highways, the DECS and the Commission on
Higher Education to provide Architectural Facilities or Structural Features for
disabled persons in all state Colleges and Universities and other Public Buildings.”

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*Memorandum No. 24 “Fourth International Noisee Awareness Day”

*No. 477 “National Week for the Gifted and Talented”

The Legal Bases of Special Education

Special Education in the Philippines is anchored on Fundamental
Legal Documents that present a chronology of events growth and
Development of the Program. The first legal basis of the care and protection of
child with disabilities was enacted in 1935.

Articles 356 and 259 of Common Wealth Act No. 3203 asserted “the Right of
every child to live in an atmosphere conducive to his physical, moral and
intellectual development” and the concomitant duty of the government “to
promote the full growth of the faculties of every child.”

Republic Act No. 3562 An Act to Promote Education for the Blind in the
Philippines
Republic Act No. 5250 An Act Establishing A Ten-Year Teacher Training
Program for Teachers of Special and Exceptional
Children
1973 Constitution Section A complete, Adequate and Integrated system of
8, Article XV Education relevant to the goals of National
development
Presidential Decree No. Child and Youth Welfare Code
603
Presidential Decree No. Creation of National Commission Concerning
1509 Disabled Person (NCCDP) now National Council
for the Welfare of Disabled Persons (NCWDP)
The Education Act of The state shall promote the right of every
1982 / Batas Pambansa individual to relevant, quality education
Bilang 232 regardless of sex, age, breed, Socio economic
status, physical and mental condition, social and
ethnic origin, political and other affiliations.
Section 24 Special Education Service

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Batas Pambansa Bilang The Accessibility Law, An Act to Enhance the

344 Mobility of Disabled Persons
1987 Constitution, Article 1. The State shall protect and promote the right of
XIV, Section 1 and 2 all citizens to quality education at all levels and
shall take appropriate steps to make such
education accessible to all.
2. The State shall provide adult citizens, the
disabled and out of school youth with training in
civics, vocational efficiency and other skills.
R.A. No. 6759 White Cane Safety Day in the Philippines
R.A. No. 7610 An Act Providing for Strong Deterrence and
Special Protection Against Child Abuse,
Exploitation and Discrimination, Providing Penalties
for its Violation and other purposes.
Presidential Proclamation National Disability Prevention and Rehabilitation
No. 361 Week Celebration (3rd Week of July)
R.A. 9288 The New Born Screening Act of 2004 (DOH)

Synthesis/ Generalization
Children and Youth with Special need had been always

been recognized as a legitimate beneficiaries of the Philippine

government’s reforms in Basic Education. For almost a century now,

the Department of Education through its SPED Division has been providing a
broad framework and standards in establishing and maintaining special
programs both in public and private schools in the country. In the past decades
witnessed and continuous development of programs for a wide range of
exceptional children and youth together. Moves undertaken:

a. promote access, equity and participation of children with special

needs education in the mainstream of basic education
b. improve the quality , relevance, efficiency of SPED in schools and
communities, and;
c. sustain SPED programs and services in the country.

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Post-Test
Test I. Multiple Choice
Directions: Encircle the letter of the best answer.
1. It is a part of a school system‘s operation that requires certain teacher-pupil
ratios in the classroom and that uses special formulas to determine levels of
funding for related services personnel.
A. Special Education B. Inclusive Education

2. In 1987, National Commission Concerning Disabled Persons or NCCDP was

established however through Presidential Decree 1509 it was changed into
NCWDP which stands?
A. National Council for the Welfare of Disabled Persons

B. National Commission on Welfare of Disabled Persons

3. He was the General Superintendent of Education in 1902 during the American
Regime
A. Mr. Fred Atkinson B. Mr. Harry Louise Osias

4. The Philippine Association for the Deaf (PAD) was founded in what year?
A. 1926 B. 1916

5. She was the first Administrator and Teacher of the Insular School for the Deaf
and Blind in Manila, A special School.
A. Miss David Rice B. Miss Rose Williams

6. She was the first Filipino Principal of the School for the Deaf and Blind. (SDB)
A. Mrs. Ma. Villa Francisco B. Mrs. Teresita Ana Licaros

7. In 1954, Sight Savings Week was declared in?

A. 1st week of August B. 2nd week of September

8. When and where did the first National Seminar in Special Education was held?
A. SDB in Pasay City in 1962 B. SDB in Muntinlupa in 1965

9. With the Approval of R.A. No. 3562 in 1963, the training of DEC teacher
scholars for blind children started in what Philippine College?
A. Philippine Normal College B. Collegio de San Juan de Letran

10. In 1996, the third week of January was declared?

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A. Autism Consciousness Week B. Mental Health Awareness

Test II. Modified TRUE or FALSE
Directions: Write TRUE if the statement is correct and write the CORRECT ANSWER
if the Error is observed which makes the statement INCORRECT in each
statement. Use the space provided before each number.

_________1. National Commission Concerning Disabled Persons (NCCDP) is

renamed National Commission for the Welfare of the Disabled Persons (NCWDP)
through Presidential Decree 1905.
_________2. Articles 356 and 259 of the Republic Act No. 3203 asserted “the Right
of every child to live in an atmosphere conducive to his physical, moral and
intellectual development” and the concomitant duty of the government “to
promote the full growth of the faculties of every child.”

_________3. In 1979, the Department of Education Unit conducted a three-year

nationwide survey of unidentified exceptional children who were in school.
_________4. Presidential Proclamation No. 361 is a proclamation of National
Disability Prevention and Rehabilitation Week Celebration on the Third Week of
July every year and shall culminate on the birth date of the Sublime Paralytic
Apolinario Mabini.
_________5. R.A. 9288 also known as The New Born Screening Act of 2004 under
the Department of Health is based on a premise that a retarded child could
have been Normal.

HOMEWORK
Reflection and Application
Directions: Respond to the following statements succinctly.

1. What is the status of Special Education Programs in the Philippines? How does
the Department of Education sustain its special education programs in the
country?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

2. What is the importance of the legislation in the development and sustenance

of Special Education Programs?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

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______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Clip stories and Articles from Newspapers and magazines about people with
disabilities who became successful by going to school.

Motivational Video Clips

 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m0PRB4YsXn4 Freedom Writers
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-NlT-ELVWk0 Billy Gilman: One Voice
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lg4t7V-e9dA&feature=related Waiting for Superman

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Lesson 2. Special Education

Programs and Services

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Pre-Test
Directions: Encircle the letter of the best answer.
1. It refers to the total number of cases of a particular condition, those with
exceptionality (giftedness and talented) and developmental disabilities and
impairments
A. Prevalence B. Coincidence

2. It refers to the cases that have come in contact with some systems. The
number of children and youth with special needs is derived from census data.

A. Identified Prevalence
B. True Prevalence

3. This assumes that there are a larger number of children and youth with special
needs who are in school or in the community who have not been identified as
such and who are not in the special education programs of the Department of
Education
A. Identified Prevalence B. True Prevalence

4. Incidence refers to the number of new cases identified within a population

over a specific period of time.

A. Incidence B. Coincidence
5. It is when the term is no longer unusual to find blind, deaf and even mentally
retarded students participating in a regular class activities at certain periods of
the school day.

A. Mainstreaming B. Integration
Objectives

At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

A. define the following terms: prevalence, identifiable prevalence, true
prevalence and incidence;
B. compare the prevalence estimate of children with special needs done by
UNICEF and World Health Organization

C. describe the different special education programs and services offered by

the Philippine Public and Private Schools or institutions
D. discuss the definition of Inclusive Education and its salient features and;

E. enumerate the support services extended to children with special needs.

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Prevalence of Children and Youth

with Special Needs

Prevalence refers to the total number of cases of a particular condition,

those with exceptionality (giftedness and talented) and developmental
disabilities and impairments. Prevalence is viewed in two ways.
Identifiable Prevalence refers to the cases that have come in contact
with some systems. The number of children and youth with special needs is
derived from census data.
True Prevalence assumes that there are a larger number of children and
youth with special needs who are in school or in the community who have not
been identified as such and who are not in the special education programs of
the Department of Education.
Incidence refers to the number of new cases identified within a
population over a specific period of time.

The 1997 UNICEF report on the Situation Analysis of Children and Women in
the Philippines indicates that the mean percentage of persons with some types
of disabilities is 13.4 per one thousand population. This means that 134 out of
1000 persons have certain disabilities. For every million of the population of
eighty (80 million), more than 8 and a half million have disabilities. The
distribution of the different categories of exceptionalities and disabilities among
children is as follows:

1. 43.3 % have speech defects

2. 40.0% are mute

3. 33.3 % have mental retardation

4. 25.9% are those with one or both arms or hands

5. 16.4% are those without one or both legs or feet

6. 16.3% have mental illness

7. 11.5% are totally deaf

8. 11.4 are totally blind

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The universal estimate of the prevalence of children with special needs

stands at 10% with disabilities. (World Health Organization) and 2% with
giftedness and talented.

It shows that approximately half of the total population of 80 Million

belongs to the category of children and youth whose chronological ages range
from zero to twenty-four. Based on these statistics and using universal estimate of
12%, it may be assumed that at least 4.8 million Filipino children and youth need
special education services. The TRUE Prevalence of those with disabilities is
estimated to be four (4) Million. Those who are gifted and talented are
estimated to number 800, 000.
Of the estimated number of exceptional children and youth, how may
are enrolled in special education classes? At present, only a small number of
these children are in the special education classes. Many of them remain
unidentified in regular classes and communities. Current figures show that there
are seven hundred ninety-four (794) special education programs in all regions,
six hundred sixteen (616) of which are in the Public Schools. One hundred forty-
four (144) programs utilize the Special Education Center delivery mode for the
full or partial mainstreaming of children with special needs in regular classes.
Likewise, there are thirty-four (34) state and private special and residential
schools.
The Special Education Division report on Statistics for the School Year 2004-
2005

Table 1. Special Education Enrolment Data in Public and Private Schools

Categories No. of Children

1. Gifted and Fast Learners 77,152
2. with learning disabilities 40, 260
3. with mental retardation 12, 456
4. with hearing impairment 11, 597
5. with autism 5,172
6. with behaviour problems 5,112
7. with visual impairments 2,670
8. with speech defects 917
9. with orthopaedic impairments 760
10. with special health problems 142
11. with cerebral palsy 32
With disabilities 79,118
Grand Total 156, 270

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Tabulated Enrolment Data in Public and Private Schools show that only 3%
of the estimated 4, 800, 000 children and youth with special needs are receiving
special education services. The Majority of these exceptional children are
unidentified either in the schools or in their homes and communities. A small
number may be in community-based programs provided by nongovernment
entities, church groups, and civic organizations.

Range of Special Education Programs and Services

An array of SPED Programs and services are available in the country.

These are offered by the Public Schools and private institutions.
1. The Special Education Center is a service delivery system which operates on
the “school within a school” concept. The SPED Center functions as the base for
the special education programs in a school. A SPED Principal administers the
Center following the rules and regulations for a regular school.
2. The Special Class or Self-contained Class is the most popular type among the
Special Education Programs. A special class is composed of pupils with the
same exceptionality or disability. The Special Education Teacher handles the
special class in the Special Education Center or Resource Room.
3. Integration and mainstreaming programs have allowed children and youth
with disability to study in regular classes and learn side by side with their peers for
the last forty years. Integration was the term used earlier. At present, when it is no
longer unusual to find blind, deaf and even mentally retarded students
participating in a regular class activities at certain periods of the school day, the
perfect term is mainstreaming.

TWO TYPES OF MAINSTREAMING

A. Partial Mainstreaming children who have moderate or severe forms of
disabilities are mainstreamed in regular classes in subjects like Physical
Education, Home Technology, Music and Arts.

B. Full Mainstreaming, children with disabilities are enrolled in regular

classes and recite in all the subjects. A special education Teacher assists the
regular teacher in teaching the children with special needs. Likewise, the SPED
Teacher gives tutorial lessons at the SPED Center or Resource Room.

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The best model of mainstream special education programs is exemplified at the

Division of Manila City Schools. Built around the Silahis Concept of Special
Education or “rays of the sun”, fifteen (15) Elementary Schools have developed
mainstream programs that are supplemented with resource rooms and
activities.
Table 2. “Silahis” Special Education Centers-Manila City Schools Division

SPED Center School Address

1. Kagitingan SPED Rizal Elementary School Tayuman, Sta. Cruz
Center
2. Diwa SPED Center Hizon Elementary School Abad Santos
3. Pag-Asa SPED Center Obrero Elementary Obrero, Tondo
School
4. Kaunlaran SPED P. Gomez Elementary P. Guevarra
Center School
5 Kagandahan SPED Albert Elementary Dapitan
Center School
6. Kapayapaan SPED Legarda Elementary Lealtad
Center School
7. Pag Ibig SPED Center Burgos Elementary Altura, Sta. Mesa
School
8. Kabutihan SPED A. Quezon Elementary San Andres
Center School
9. Ligaya SPED Center Lucban Elementary Paco
School
10. Kalinisan SPED R. Palma Elementary Vito Cruz
Center School
11. Tagumpay SPED Sta. Ana Elementary M. Roxas, Sta. Ana
Center School
12. Liwwanag SPED Magsaysay High School Espana
Center
13. Pagkakaisa SPED Manila High School Intramuros
Center
14. Kalusugan SPED PGH Pediatric Unit PGH, Taft Avenue
Center *chronically ill and
abused PGH
Rehabilitation
*developmental
disabilities
15. Sikay/Gabay SPED Manila Youth and Paco
Center Reception Center

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INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

Inclusion describes the process by which a school accepts children with

special needs for enrolment in regular classes where they can learn side by side
with their peers. The school organizes its special education programs and
includes a Special Education Teacher in its Faculty. The school provides the
mainstream where regular teachers and SPED Teachers organize and
implement appropriate programs for both special and regular students.

Salient Features
Inclusion means implementing and maintaining warm and accepting
classroom communities that embrace and respect diversity or differences.
Teachers and students take active steps to understand individual differences
and create an atmosphere of respect.
Inclusion implements a multilevel, multimodality curriculum. This means
that special needs students follow an adapted curriculum and use special
devices and materials to learn at a suitable pace.
Inclusion prepares regular teachers and special education teachers to
teach interactively.

Inclusion provides continuous support for teachers to break down barriers

of professional isolation. The hall marks of Inclusive Education are co-teaching,
team teaching, collaboration and consultation and other ways of assessing skills
and knowledge learned by all students.

Support Services for Children with Special Needs

At least two types of support services are extended to children with

special needs:
1. Referral services are solicited from Medical and Clinical Specialists.

2. Assistive Devices

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Post Test
Directions: Encircle the letter of the best answer.
1. It refers to the total number of cases of a particular condition, those with
exceptionality (giftedness and talented) and developmental disabilities and
impairments
A. Prevalence B. Coincidence

2. It refers to the cases that have come in contact with some systems. The
number of children and youth with special needs is derived from census data.

A. Identified Prevalence
B. True Prevalence

3. This assumes that there are a larger number of children and youth with special
needs who are in school or in the community who have not been identified as
such and who are not in the special education programs of the Department of
Education
A. Identified Prevalence B. True Prevalence

4. Incidence refers to the number of new cases identified within a population

over a specific period of time.

A. Incidence B. Coincidence
5. It is when the term is no longer unusual to find blind, deaf and even mentally
retarded students participating in a regular class activities at certain periods of
the school day.

A. Mainstreaming B. Integration

Test II. DATA UPDATE

Data filled in below was dated year 2004-2005. Update the table through
research of the ENROLLED SPED Students in Public and Private Basic Education.
Fill in the table with gathered updated Data from the Department of Education.
A. Table 1. Special Education Division Report on Enrolment Data in Public and
Private Schools

Categories No. of Children 2006-2010 2011-2015 2016-2019

1. Gifted and Fast 77,152
Learners

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2. with learning 40, 260

disabilities
3. with mental 12, 456
retardation
4. with hearing 11, 597
impairment
5. with autism 5,172
6. with behaviour 5,112
problems
7. with visual 2,670
impairments
8. with speech 917
defects
9. with 760
orthopaedic
impairments
10. with special 142
health problems
11. with cerebral 32
palsy
With disabilities 79,118
Grand Total 156, 270

HOMEWORK

Reflection and Application

Directions: Respond to the following statements succinctly.

1. Based on the Number of the Filipino Children with Special Needs who are in
Special Education programs, how many are out of school? What do the
numbers mean to you?

2. Recall and write a short vignettes about persons with disabilities you know,
have met or have heard about. How did they overcome their disabilities?

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Lesson 3. Special Education and Categories of

Children with Special Needs

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Pre-Test
Directions: Encircle the letter of the best answer.
1. It refers to those with mental retardation, giftedness and talent, learning
disabilities, emotional and behavioural disorders, communication disorders,
deafness, blindness and low vision, physical disabilities, health impairments, and
severe disabilities.

A. Exceptional Children B. Children and Youth with Special Needs

2. It is referred to as Children with Special Needs (CSN)

A. Exceptional Children
B. Children and Youth with Special Needs

3. This means a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes

involved in understanding or in using the language, spoken or written, which
may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read and write,
spell or to do the mathematical calculations
A. Specific Learning Disability B. Emotional and Behavioural Disability

4. It refers to high performance in intellectual, creative or artistic areas, unusual

leadership capacity, and excellence in specific Academic Field.

A. Giftedness and Talent B. Mental retardation

5. It refers to the children who have great chances than other children to
develop a disability. The child is in danger of substantial development delay
because of medical, biological, or environmental factors.

A. At Risk B. Handicap

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

A. define Special Education and explain the meaning of individually planned,

systematically implemented, and carefully evaluated instruction for children with
special needs;

B. explain how special; education enables exceptional children to benefit from

the basic education program of the Department of Education;
C. develop positive attitudes towards exceptional children and youth.

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Special Education
Special Education is individually planned, systematically implanted, and
carefully evaluated instruction to help exceptional children achieve the
greatest possible personal sufficiency and success in present and future
environment. (Heward 2003)
Key Notes in Special Education

a. Individually Planned Instruction

b. Systematically Implemented and Evaluated Instruction

c. Personal Self-Sufficiency
d. Present Environment/Current Condition

e. Future Environment/Forecast
Exceptional Children or Children and Youth with Special Needs?

The term Exceptional Children and Youth covers those with mental
retardation, giftedness and talent, learning disabilities, emotional and
behavioural disorders, communication disorders, deafness, blindness and low
vision, physical disabilities, health impairments, and severe disabilities.

Exceptional Children are also referred to as Children with Special Needs

(CSN). The mental ability of exceptional children or CSN may be Average,
Below or Above Average.

FOUR Points of View About Special Education (Heward)

1. Special Education is a legislatively governed enterprise.
2. Special Education is part of the country’s educational system.

3. Special Education is teaching the children with special needs in thee least
restrictive environment
4. Special Education is purposeful intervention.

a. Preventive Intervention is designed to keep potential or minor problems

from becoming a disability.
b. Primary Prevention is designed to eliminate or to counteract risk factors
so that a disability is not acquired.
c. Remedial Intervention attempts to eliminate the effects of a disability.

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e. Secondary Intervention is aimed at reducing or eliminating the effects

of existing risk factors.

f. Tertiary Prevention is intended to minimize the impact of a specific

condition or disability among those with disabilities.

The Basic Terms in Special Education

1. Developmental Disability refers to a severe, chronic disability of a child five
years age or older.

2. Impairment or Disability refers to the reduced function or loss of a specific part

of the body or organ.

3. Handicap refers to a problem a person with disability or impairment

encounters when interacting with people, events, and the physical aspects of
the environment.
4. At Risk refers to the children who have great chances than other children to
develop a disability. The child is in danger of substantial development delay
because of medical, biological, or environmental factors.
Categories of Children At Risk

1. Established Risk
2. Biological risk

3. Environmental Risk

Categories of Exceptionalities Among Children and Youth with Special Needs

1. Mental Retardation refers to substantial limitations in present functioning and
characterized by significantly sub-average intellectual functioning, existing
concurrently with related limitations in two or more of the following applicable
adaptive skills areas : Communication, Self-care, home living, social skills,
community use, self-direction, health and safety, functional academics, leisure
and work. Mental Retardation manifests before age 18 (American Association
of Mental Retardation)

2. Giftedness and Talent refers to high performance in intellectual, creative or

artistic areas, unusual leadership capacity, and excellence in specific
Academic Field.

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3. Specific Learning Disability means a disorder in one or more of the basic

psychological processes involved in understanding or in using the language,
spoken or written, which may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think,
speak, read and write, spell or to do the mathematical calculations. The term
includes such conditions as perceptual handicaps, brain injury, minimal brain
dysfunction, dyslexia and developmental aphasia. The term does not include
children who have learning problems which are primarily the result of visual,
hearing, or motor handicaps, of mental retardation or of environmental, cultural,
or economic disadvantages. (US Office of Education)

4. The term Emotional and Behavioural Disorders means a condition exhibiting

one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time and to a
marked degree which adversely affects educational performance.

a. inability to learn which cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory

and health factors
b. inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with
peers and teachers

c. inappropriate types of behaviour or feelings under normal

circumstances
d. a general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression;

e. a tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with

personal or school problems.

5. Speech and Language Disorders or Communication Disorders exist when the

impact that a communication pattern has on a person’s life meets any one of
the following

a. transmission and/or perception of messages is faulty

b. the person is placed at an economic disadvantage

c. the person is placed at a learning disadvantage

d. there is a negative impact on the person’s emotional growth

e. the problem causes physical damage or endangers the health of the

person (Emerick and Haynes)

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6. Hearing Impairment is a generic term that includes hearing disabilities ranging

from mild to profound, thus encompassing children who are deaf and those
who are hard of hearing.

7. Students with visual impairment display a wide range of visual disabilities- from
total blindness to relatively good residual (remaining) vision.
8. Physical Impairments maybe orthopaedic impairments that involve the
skeletal system – the bones, joints, limbs and associated muscles. Or may be
neurological impairments that involve the nervous system affecting the ability to
move, use, feel or control certain parts of the body.
9. The term severe disability generally encompass individuals with severe
profound disabilities in intellectual, physical and social functioning.
Post Test
Directions: Encircle the letter of the best answer.
1. It refers to those with mental retardation, giftedness and talent, learning
disabilities, emotional and behavioural disorders, communication disorders,
deafness, blindness and low vision, physical disabilities, health impairments, and
severe disabilities.

A. Exceptional Children B. Children and Youth with Special Needs

2. It is referred to as Children with Special Needs (CSN)

A. Exceptional Children
B. Children and Youth with Special Needs

3. This means a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes

involved in understanding or in using the language, spoken or written, which
may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read and write,
spell or to do the mathematical calculations

A. Specific Learning Disability B. Emotional and Behavioural Disability

4. It refers to high performance in intellectual, creative or artistic areas, unusual
leadership capacity, and excellence in specific Academic Field.

A. Giftedness and Talent B. Mental retardation

5. It refers to the children who have great chances than other children to
develop a disability. The child is in danger of substantial development delay
because of medical, biological, or environmental factors.

A. At Risk B. Handicap

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Test II. Reflection and Application

Directions: Respond to the following statements succinctly.

1. Define Special Education

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Is it correct to use disability as a Category Labels? Why or Why Not?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Homework
Directions: Use the tables in filling in the Advantages and Disadvantages of
Category Labelling.

Advantages Disadvantages
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
4. 4.
5. 5.

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Lesson 4. Biological and Environmental Causes

of Developmental Disabilities

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Pre-Test
Directions: Encircle the letter of the best answer.
1. It is the mechanism for the transmission of human characteristics from one
generation to the next. Each person carries a genetic code or genome, a
complete set of coded instructions for making and maintaining an organism.
A. Heredity B. Genomes

2. It is described as the blueprint or book of human life. It carries and determines

all the characteristics of a person yet to be born.

A. Heredity B. Genomes
3. Inside the chromosome is the long threadlike molecule and genetic
substance called ?

A. Deoxyribonucleic acid B. Chromosomes

4. It refers to the nucleus inside the cell contains a complete set of the body’s
genome that is twisted into forty-six pockets of thread like microscopic structures
called

A. Deoxyribonucleic acid B. Chromosomes

5. It is a specific sequence of the four nucleotide bases whose sequences carry
the information in constructing proteins.
A. Genes B. Heredity

Objectives

At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

A. Define the following terms: heredity, genome, chromosomes,
deoxyribonucleic acid, gene, gametes, meiosis, ovum spermatozoa, fertilization,
embryo, fetus;

B. explain the basic concepts of human reproduction;

C. identify deviations from normal human development that can lead to
developmental disabilities.
The Basic Concepts of Human Reproduction

Heredity is the mechanism for the transmission of human characteristics

from one generation to the next. Each person carries a genetic code or
genome, a complete set of coded instructions for making and maintaining an

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organism. The genome is inherited from both parents. The genome is described
as the blueprint or book of human life. It carries and determines all the
characteristics of a person yet to be born. The genome is located within each of
the one hundred trillion cells in the human body.

The nucleus inside the cell contains a complete set of the body’s genome
that is twisted into forty-six pockets of thread like microscopic structures called
chromosomes. The chromosomes come in twenty-three pairs. Each pair is
composed of one chromosomes from the male (Y) and female (X) parents
respectively. Each set has twenty-two single chromosomes called autosomes
that carry the physical, mental and personality characteristics. Meanwhile the
23rd pair, the XY Chromosomes, determines the sex of the organism. A normal
female will have a pair of XX Chromosomes while a normal male will have an XY
pair of Chromosomes.

Inside the chromosome is the long threadlike molecule and genetic

substance called Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA. The DNA is a complex
molecule that contains two strands of twisted ladder-shaped structure called
double helix that wrap around each other.

Each DNA Molecule contains many genes, basic physical and functional
units of hereditary information. A gene is a specific sequence of the four
nucleotide bases whose sequences carry the information in constructing
proteins.

Some Principles of Genetic Determination

Genetic Determination is a complex affair. Much is known about the ways

genes work. But a number of genetic principles have been discovered, among
them the principles of dominant-recessive genes, sex-linked genes, polygenic
ally inherited characteristics, reaction range and canalization.

1. Dominant-recessive genes principle

If one gene of the pair is dominant and one is recessive, the dominant
gene exerts its effect, overriding the potential influences of the recessive gene.

2. Sex-linked Principle
When one X Female Chromosome combines with the X male
Chromosome, the XX Chromosome in results that make the organism female.
Meanwhile, when one female X Chromosome combines with the Y male
chromosome, the XY Chromosome results that make the organism a male.

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3. Polygenic Inheritance
Genetic transmission is usually more complex than the simple examples
mentioned earlier. Poly (many) genic (genes) inheritance describes the
interaction of many genes to produce a particular characteristic.
4. Genotype and phenotype genetic heritage

Nobody possesses all the characteristics that the genetic structure makes
possible. Genotype refers to the person’s genetic heritage or actual genetic
material.

Phenotype refers to the person’s observable traits that may be used to

draw inferences about the genotype.
Basic Terms in Human Reproduction

Gametes are human reproduction cells which are created in the

reproductive organs. The ovaries of the female produce the ovum (ova) or egg
cells while the testicles or testes of the male produce the spermatozoa or sperm
cell.

Meiosis is the process of the cell division in which each pair of

chromosomes in the cell separates, with one member of each pair going into
each gamete or daughter cell. Thus, each gamete, the ovum and sperm, has
twenty-three unpaired chromosomes.

The fertilization of a female’s ovum by a male’s sperm starts at the process

of human reproduction. Fertilization results in the formation of a single cell called
the zygote. In the zygote, two sets of twenty-three unpaired chromosomes, one
set each from the male and the female combine to form a one set of paired
chromosomes.

Critical Periods of Developmental Vulnerability during pregnancy

Vulnerability refers to how susceptible the organism is to being injured or
altered by a traumatic incident. A traumatic incident includes such broad
occurrences as teratogens or toxic agents, cell division, mutation and other
deviations from the usual sequence of development.
Deviancy from the normal course of prenatal development results to the
occurrence of developmental disabilities. The organism in the Utero, the Zygote,
the Embryo and the fetus are vulnerable to injuries and developmental risks.

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After birth during postnatal development, the new born the infant, and
the child are all vulnerable and susceptible to injuries that can persist for the
duration of the person’s life.

The Course of Prenatal Development

Development in the Utero covers about thirty-eight weeks or two hundred

eighty days or nine months of gestation or growth in the mother’s womb.
Prenatal Development is divided into three phases.

1. The Germinal Phase

The initial stage of the prenatal development covers the first two weeks
after fertilization. The three significant developments during the phase are the
creation of the zygote, continuous cell division/cell and tissue differentiation and
implantation or attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall.
Creation of the Zygote reproduction begins with the fertilization of a
female’s ovum by a male sperm.
Ovulation occurs once every twenty-eight days or so as an ovum out of
hundreds of ova matures and the single ripe ovum burst from its follicle. The
ovum is drawn into the fallopian tube during the 9th to the 16th day of menstrual
cycle which is the fertile period. Ovulation sends a chemical signal to unleadh a
carefully tuned sequence of biochemical substances. One chemical substance
dissolves thee jelly like veil surrounding the ovum. Another chemical substance
softens the ovum’s tough outer shell. Millions of Sperm deposited by the male
race to penetrate the ovum’s shell. Only one strong and healthy sperm
succeeds. Once it enters the ovum, an electric charge fires across the
membrane and a signal causes the ovum to close, blocking the entry of the
other sperms.
Fertilization takes place with the union of the genetic materials in the
ovum and sperm cells. The process occurs in the upper third of the fallopian
tube within eighteen to 24 hours after sexual intercourse. When fertilization does
not take place, “the womb weeps” and the menstrual cycle continues the
following month. When an ovum is fertilized, the menstrual cycle ceases. The first
sign of pregnancy is amenorrhea or the cessation of menses. The first menses is
called menarche, the final cessation of menses is called menopause, while
excessive sometimes painful menses are called menorrhagia.

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The zygote is a new cell which results from the transmission of the genetic
materials twenty-four to thirty hours after the fertilization. The zygote carries the
human genetic codes or genome, the instruction that orchestrates one’s
physical and mental traits and sociological tendencies and the one person’s
entire lifelong blueprint of characteristics.
 Continuous cell division and cell tissue differentiation. Chemical reactions
occur that cause the zygote to divide repeatedly and generate new cells
and tissues of different types.

Cell division occurs very rapidly in the first few days and progresses with
considerable speed. The zygote divides into two cells after thirty-six hours; four
cells after forty-eight hours. In three days, there is a small compact ball of sixteen
to thirty-two cells. In four days, a hollow ball has sixty-four to one hundred
twenty-eight cells. B y approximately one week, the zygote has divided into
about one hundred fifty cells.
Cell differentiation continues as the inner and outer layers of the organism are
formed. The inner layer of cell which develop into the embryo later on is called
blastocyst. The outer layer of cells that provides nutrition and support for the
embryo is called trophoblast.
 Implantation or attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall. Implantation
starts on the sixth to the seventh day when the blastocyst starts to attach
itself to the uterine wall. Two weeks after, from the eleventh to the
fifteenth day, the blastocyst invades or fully attaches itself into the uterine
wall and becomes implanted in it.
What can go wrong during the germinal phase?

Abnormalities in the genes and chromosomes can occur. Both the speed of cell
division and the process of cell differentiation expose the zygote to trauma.
Genetic disorders can be transmitted, such as:

1. dominant recessive diseases like Tay Sachs disease, galactosemia,

phenylketonuria (PKU), genetic mutations;
2. sex-linked inheritances such as Lesch Nyhan Syndrome, Fragile X
Syndrome;

3. polygenic inheritances;
4. chromosomal deviations, the most common of which is Down Syndrome;

5. other sex chromosomal anomalies like Klinefelter Syndrome, Turner

Syndrome; and

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6. cranial or skull malformations such a anencephaly or absence of major

portions of the brain, microcephaly and hydrocephaly.

Biological causes of developmental disabilities are traceable to congenital or

inherited genetic materials as well as prenatal factors associated with
teratogens or toxic substances, maternal disorders, substance exposure or too
much ingestion of alcohol and drugs and too much smoking.

The Embryonic Phase. The second phase of human development occurs from
the end of the germinal phase to the second month of pregnancy. The mass of
cells is now called the embryo. The three main processes during this phase are
intensification of cell differentiation, development of the support systems for
continued cell development and organogenesis or the appearance of the
different organs of the body.

1. The ectoderm is the outermost layer of cells that will develop into the
surface body parts, such as the outer skin or the epidermis including the
cutaneous glands – the hair, nails and lens of the eye.

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2. The mesoderm is the middle layer that will develop into the body parts
surrounding the internal areas, such as the muscles, cartilage, bone,
blood, bone ureter, gonads, genital ducts, suprarenal cortex and the joint
cavities.

3. The endoderm is the inner layer of cells that will develop into the
epithelium of the pharynx, tongue, auditory tube, tonsils, thyroid, larynx,
trachea, lungs, digestive tube, bladder, vagina and urethra.

 Development of the life support systems. As the embryo’s three layers of

cells develop, the life support systems develop from the embryo for the
transfer of substances from the mother to the zygote and vice versa. Very
small molecules of oxygen, water salt, and food from the mother’s blood
are transferred to the embryo. Carbon dioxide and digestive waste from
the embryo’s blood are transferred to the mother’s blood.

1. The placenta is a disk-shaped mass of tissues in which small blood vessels

from the mother intertwine.
2. The umbilical cord contains two arteries and one vein that connects the
embryo to the placenta.

3. The amnion or amniotic fluid is a bag of water that contains clear fluid
where the embryo floats. The amnion provides an environment that is
temperature and humidity controlled and shock proof. The amnion comes
from the fetal urine that the kidney of the fetus produces at approximately
the sixteenth week until the ninth month or the end of pregnancy.

 Organogenesis is the process of organ formation and the appearance of

body organs during the first two months.
1. By the third week, the neural tube forms and eventually becomes the
spinal cord. At the same time, the eye buds begin to appear.

2. By the twenty-fourth day, the cells for the heart begin to differentiate.
3. The fourth week is marked by the first appearance of the urogenital
systems. The arm and leg buds appear. The four chambers of the heart
take shape and blood vessels surface.
4. On the fifth to the eight week, the arms and legs differentiate further. The
face starts to form but it is not very recognizable. The intestinal tract

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develops and the facial structures fuse. The embryo weighs about one-
thirtieth of an ounce.

What can go wrong during the embryonic phase?

The cells divide very rapidly during organogenesis. The organs and systems
that are developing are especially vulnerable to environmental changes.
Induced abortion in case of unwanted pregnancy can disturbed normal
processes of organogenesis. Chromosomal abnormalities can cause
spontaneous abortion mostly in the second or third month.
During specific periods, for example, if the central nervous system is the
primary system that is developing, the cells that constitute the central nervous
system – the brain and the spinal cord – divide more rapidly than the other
organs. At this time the central nervous system is most vulnerable to trauma.
Ingestion of dermatogens or toxic agents from alcohol, drugs and nicotine,
artificial food additives, stress and accidents can cause trauma and affects the
development that is taking place.

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Physical abnormalities can result as well, at birth, there are infants born
with extra os missing limbs and fingers, ears and other body parts, a tail-like
protrusion, heart or brain, digestive or respiratory organs outside the body. Facial
development and body shapes can be affected by what scientists described
as “accidents in cell development.” Some clusters of cells that are meant to
develop into certain organs and body parts of the body fail to follow the precise
genetic instructions and appear at birth as inhuman, with the face for example,
resembling that of a frog or another animals, statues, or even pictures. People
tend to attribute such occurrences to maternal impressions. But it is clear that
the scientific explanation goes back to the disturbances in development during
pregnancy.
The Fetal Phase. The third phase covers seven months that last from the
third to ninth month of pregnancy on the average. The length and weight of the
fetus mentioned below are for average Caucasian babies. Asians are generally
shorter and lighter.
1. At three months, the fetus is about three inches long and weighs about
one ounce. It is active, moves its arms, legs and head, open and closes its
mouth. The face, forehead, eyelids, nose, chin, upper and lower arms are
distinguishable. Genitals can be identified as male or female.

2. At four months, the fetus is five and a half inches long, weighing about
four ounces. Growth spurt occurs in the body’s lower parts. Prenatal
reflexes are stronger. Arms and legs movements can be felt by the
mother.

3. At five months, the fetus is ten to twelve inches long and weighs one-half
to one pound or almost half a kilo. Structures of the skin, toenails and
fingernails have formed. The fetus is more active and shows preference for
a particular position in the womb.

4. At six months, the fetus is fourteen inches long and has gained one-half to
one pound. The eyes and eyelids are completely formed. A thin layer of
hair covers the head. Grasping reflex is present. Irregular breathing occurs.

5. At seven months, the fetus is almost seventeen inches long, has gained
one pound and weighs about three pounds.
6. During the eighth and ninth months, the fetus continues to grow longer to
about twenty inches and gains about four pounds. Fatty tissues develop
and the functioning of the organ systems steps up. The fetus normally
weighs six to eight pounds shortly before birth.

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What can go wrong during the fetal phase?

The same effects of the teratogens can occur and disturb normal
development. The fetus continue to be vulnerable to trauma that can result to
the occurrence of disabilities. Deliberate termination of pregnancy or abortion
for whatever reasons- poor health, rape, incest, out-of-wedlock relations, if
unsuccessful can lead to disabilities. Inadequate birth weight due to malnutrition
or early birthplaces the infant at developmental risks.
Birth of the infant. After full gestation for thirty-eight weeks, the fetus leaves
the intrauterine environment of the mother’s womb and begins life in the outside
world. There are changes in the mother’s body that start around the fourth
month or mid-pregnancy. These changes are necessary so that the natural birth
process can occur normally. Some of the changes are:
1. Rearrangement of the muscle structure of the uterus to facilitate fetal
expulsion or to permit the normal passage of the fetus through the birth
canal.

2. Shortly before birth and during the onset of labor which lasts for seven to
twelve hours on the average, the upper part of the cervical area
undergoes expansion. By the time the fetus is passing through the birth
canal, the muscle structure of the cervix has loosened and expanded. The
progress is called effacement that enables the fetus to be expelled.

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The normal and desirable position of the fetus when labor begins is with
the head toward the cervix. This position occurs in almost 80% of all child birth.
As the fetus begins to move downward into the birth canal, the pelvic girdle of
the bone hip structure stretches more. The pressure of the pelvic girdle also
moves the head of the fetus. This is the reason why newborn babies have
strangely shaped heads. After a few days, the head returns to its natural shape
All the movements during birth are generated by the muscle contractions
of the uterus called labor. While the fetus is moving downward, it turns clockwise
from the effect of Labor.
A few minutes after the infant is delivered, the placenta is expelled. The
respiratory tract is immediately cleared of the remaining amniotic fluid and
mucus. The doctor provides the stimulation for the infant to begin to breathe
usually by gently patting the buttocks. The infant’s first cry expands the lungs
with air for the first time and starts the process respiration.

What are some common complications during labor and delivery?

Each pregnancy and delivery is different, and problems may arise.

If complications occur, providers may assist by monitoring the situation closely
and intervening, as necessary.
Some of the more common complications are:
 Labor that does not progress. Sometimes contractions weaken, the cervix
does not dilate enough or in a timely manner, or the infant's descent in
the birth canal does not proceed smoothly. If labor is not progressing, a
health care provider may give the woman medications to increase
contractions and speed up labor, or the woman may need a caesarean
delivery.

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 Perineal tears. A woman's vagina and the surrounding tissues are likely to
tear during the delivery process. Sometimes these tears heal on their own.
If a tear is more serious or the woman has had an episiotomy (a surgical
cut between the vagina and anus), her provider will help repair the tear
using stitches.
 Problems with the umbilical cord. The umbilical cord may get caught on
an arm or leg as the infant travels through the birth canal. Typically, a
provider intervenes if the cord becomes wrapped around the infant's
neck, is compressed, or comes out before the infant.
 Abnormal heart rate of the baby. Many times, an abnormal heart rate
during labor does not mean that there is a problem. A health care
provider will likely ask the woman to switch positions to help the infant get
more blood flow. In certain instances, such as when test results show a
larger problem, delivery might have to happen right away. In this situation,
the woman is more likely to need an emergency cesarean delivery, or the
health care provider may need to do an episiotomy to widen the vaginal
opening for delivery.

 Water breaking early. Labor usually starts on its own within 24 hours of the
woman's water breaking. If not, and if the pregnancy is at or near term,
the provider will likely induce labor. If a pregnant woman's water breaks
before 34 weeks of pregnancy, the woman will be monitored in the
hospital. Infection can become a major concern if the woman's water
breaks early and labor does not begin on its own.7,8
 Perinatal asphyxia. This condition occurs when the fetus does not get
enough oxygen in the uterus or the infant does not get enough oxygen
during labor or delivery or just after birth.3,4
 Shoulder dystocia. In this situation, the infant's head has come out of the
vagina, but one of the shoulders becomes stuck.5
 Excessive bleeding. If delivery results in tears to the uterus, or if the uterus
does not contract to deliver the placenta, heavy bleeding can result.
Worldwide, such bleeding is a leading cause of maternal death.9 NICHD
has supported studies to investigate the use of misoprostol to reduce
bleeding, especially in resource-poor settings.

Delivery may also require a provider's special attention when the pregnancy
lasts more than 42 weeks, when the woman had a C-section in a previous
pregnancy, or when she is older than a certain age.

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Post-Test
Directions: Encircle the letter of the best answer.
1. It is the mechanism for the transmission of human characteristics from one
generation to the next. Each person carries a genetic code or genome, a
complete set of coded instructions for making and maintaining an organism.
A. Heredity B. Genomes

2. It is described as the blueprint or book of human life. It carries and determines

all the characteristics of a person yet to be born.

A. Heredity B. Genomes
3. Inside the chromosome is the long threadlike molecule and genetic
substance called ?

A. Deoxyribonucleic acid B. Chromosomes

4. It refers to the nucleus inside the cell contains a complete set of the body’s
genome that is twisted into forty-six pockets of thread like microscopic structures
called

A. Deoxyribonucleic acid B. Chromosomes

5. It is a specific sequence of the four nucleotide bases whose sequences carry
the information in constructing proteins.
A. Genes B. Heredity

Test II. Read and Respond

1. Fill in the matrix on prenatal development. Write the sequence of growth in

each stage of development. Identify the causes of the developmental
disabilities during the period. Define the terms specific to each stage.

Stages of Prenatal Development Causes of Development Disabilities

I.

II.

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III.

The Birth Process

2. Cite some examples of deviations from the normal developmental milestones

that you have observed.

Homework
1. What is New born Screening? How are mental retardation and other
developmental disabilities detected after birth? What are the advantages of
New Born Screening?

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Lesson 5. STUDENTS WITH MENTAL RETARDATION

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Pre-Test
Directions: Encircle the letter of the best answer.
1. It is defined Mental retardation is a developmental disability that first appears
in children under the age of 18. It is defined as an intellectual functioning level
(as measured by standard tests for intelligence quotient) that is well below
average and significant limitations in daily living skills (adaptive functioning).

A. Mental Retardation B. Down Syndrome

2. It is caused by chromosomal abnormality, the most common is trisomy 21 in
which the 21st set of chromosomes is a triplet rather than a pair.

A. Mental retardation B. Down Syndrome

3. Refers to the existence of lowered intelligence of unknown origin associated
with a history of mental retardation in one or more family members.

A. Cultural-familial retardation B. Mental Retardation

4. The World Health Organization (WHO, 1984) defines as measures taken at the
community level that use and build on the resources of the community to assist
in the rehabilitation of those who need assistance including the disables and the
handicap persons, their families and their community as a whole.
A. Community-based rehabilitation B. Urban Base Program Services

5. It is a triplet or repeat mutation on the X chromosome interferes with the

production of FMR-1 protein which is essential for normal brain functioning.

A. Fragile X syndrome B. Down Syndrome

Objectives
At the end of the chapter, the students should be able to:

1. Explain why mental retardation is a complex developmental disability;

2. define mental retardation and explain the four factors and five
assumptions in the definition;
3. enumerate and discuss the classification of mental retardation;
4. identify and explain the causes of mental retardation during the phases of
parental development, the birth process, infancy, and early childhood;
5. name and describe the assessment procedures to screen and assess
children with mental retardation;

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6. enumerate and describe the educational approaches in teaching

children and youth with mental retardation; and
7. appreciate the fact that special education enables children with mental
retardation to develop their skills and potential.

Case Study of Raymond N.

Raymond is fourteen and a half years old, male, 5’3” tall, of medium build.
His head is disproportionately small for his body. he was diagnosed to have a
small brain or microcephaly. The reported that she had a normal pregnancy
and that Raymond was a full term infant at birth. She recalled that the only
ailment she had when when was pregnant was a mild cough.

Early Development

Raymond’s growth and development was observed to be different from

normal babies. He did not follow the normal course of psychomotor and
language development during the first two years, the milestones of which are
walking alone at one year or earlier, and ability to talk and express one’s
thoughts in simple words or phrases at age two or a few months later. He first sat
with support and crawled when he was already two years old. He was
nonverbal and did not develop speech. The diagnosis showed that Raymond
had profound mental retardation. This means that he needs constant and high
intensity support all the time. He cannot manage himself independently even in
simple activities like daily living skills and would need the help of professional
practitioners. Children with profound mental retardation score below 20 to 25 IQ
points in a mental ability test.

Behavior and Psychosocial Development

At present, Raymond attends a private school for children with mental

retardation. It is his third year in special education. He has a good disposition
and displays a positive attitude towards the classroom tasks and activities. He
shows enthusiasm to learn and behaves well in circle time he comes to school
programs with tolerable hyperactivity. He wears a smile every time he comes to
school. He greets the school principal, teachers and classmates with a big smile,
and hug or he simply holds their hands. There are days though when he shows
slight tantrum and just lies on the floor for some time. The teacher has to force
him manually to get up and do his lessons.

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Raymond is able to pay attention every time his name is called. He sits
independently during tabletop activities. He can help in class chores like
arranging the tables and chairs. He enjoys being with his teachers and
classmates, holds their hands, waves at them or does a “nose to nose kiss.” His
attention span is growing longer especially when he plays with his favorite 3D
wooden blocks, or when watching a movie.
Psychomotor Skills

With the help of school’s occupational therapist, he can now point to his
head, nose, eyes, mouth and hair with minimal to moderate assistance. He can
do the basic gross motor activities like walking with reduced assistance, going
up and down the stairs alone, following instructions to roll, jump, crawl and
engage in balance beam activities with minimal help. He can grasp and
transfer objects from one hand to the other without dropping them. He can
scoop objects from one container to another by himself. He can sit for longer
hours with minimal distraction and can go through varied obstacle courses that
require the use of the different part of his body. he can follow instructions to
arrange the chairs with the teacher’s verbal cues and gestures.

He is able to do fine motor activities like tracing vertical and horizontal

lines with moderate physical assistance and verbal prompts. He can string 8 to
10 beads, insert pegs into the board and build a block tower with minimum
assistance.

Cognitive Development and Communication Skills

When asked “Where is Raymond?” he would look at himself in the mirror
and tap his image. He identifies objects and gives them to the teacher when
asked. He can repeat after the teacher words “mama, papa.” He can identify
discriminate and sort colors by pointing to them and group them by himself. He
can do simple figure insets (squares, triangles and circles) and complete simple
puzzles. He can follow simple instructions and recognize common objects.
Books fascinate him no end and he loves to go over the pages of
encyclopedias. He would to objects in the book and asked the teacher to
name them by tapping her. Another activity that he likes to do is look at the cars
passing by.
With the special education teacher’s patient use of special methods and
behavior modification techniques, Raymond learned to “say” good morning
and goodbye through gestures. He can now perform cognitive tasks like puzzle
formation, activities with knobbed cylinders and beads, color sorting and
transferring objects from one container to another with minimal spillage. He can

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point to the parts of the body and can write vertical and horizontal lines. He is
still nonverbal and hardly interacts with his classmates. The teacher is training
him to express what he wants by tapping the person’s arm or shoulder.

Quantitative Skills
Raymond can identify the primary colors, sort and discriminate them using
the Lego and 3D colored wooden blocks with minimal verbal cues. He can
identify the primary shapes and ‘O Shape Box. He can identify some of the
geometric shapes using the geometric from insets.
Daily Living Skills, Personal Management and Pre-vocational Skills

Raymond can remove and put on his clothes, slippers, shoes and socks,
and fold garments. He can put on the ankle weights to strengthen his extremities
with or without minimal assistance. However, he cannot tie his shoelaces yet.

In grooming, he can brush his teeth, apply powder, lotion and cologne on
his face and body with moderate verbal and physical prompts. He can do the
basic self-help activities like zipping up, buckling shoes, grooming (brushing his
teeth, powdering his body, combing his hair). However, he is not yet toilet
trained.

Raymond can do simple laundry (handkerchief and towel) with maximum

assistance. He can do some of the household activities like washing the dishes
(plastic or melamine plates, spoons, forks, glasses) watering the plants, sweeping
and mopping the floor and wiping the table with moderate physical and verbal
prompts. He can execute simple cooking procedures like slicing ham or hotdog
with a plastic knife, beating an egg and scrambling it, with moderate to
maximal assistance. He can set the table and respond to simple step-by-step
verbal direction like, “please get the placemat, please get the plate, spoon,
fork, glass.” He can mop the floor and wipe the table with moderate assistance
and verbal prompts. He can pour water into a glass alone, but he has to be
prompted verbally on when to stop or when to add some more water. He shows
enthusiasm in scooping elbow macaroni from one bowl to another and pouring
water from a pitcher to glasses with minimal spillage.
Future Plans

The following activities will be integrated in Raymond’s individualized

education plan:
1. Include other basic self-care daily living skills and personal management
activities.
2. Include more household chores to the school and home activities.

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3. Introduce pre-speech training activities with the help of a speech

pathologist.
4. Continue the activities on cognitive and communication development.
5. Continue the services of the occupational therapist.

Perspectives on Mental Retardation

The concepts and definition of mental retardation have changed and

varied widely in the last fifty years. Even today, the definition of mental
retardation is described as “in transition.” It is expected that mental retardation
will continue to be defined in many different ways. However, common concepts
are found in the various definitions.
1. Experts and authorities agree that mental retardation is a complex
condition. In 1992, the American Association for Mental Retardation
stressed that the distinction between the terms trait and state is central to
the understanding of mental retardation. Mental retardation is not a trait
that exists separately from the other characteristics of the individual.
Rather, mental retardation is a condition or state that affects the manner
by which a person is able to cope successfully with the demands of daily
living at home, in school, in the community and other environments. In
general, the different environments are built for normally functioning
persons who have acquired the skills, competencies and maturity through
the years of normal development. The person with mental retardation
experiences difficulties in coping with the various environments because
he or she lacks the mental, emotional and social skills and competencies
to function in environments meant for normal people. But he or she has no
choice but to live, cope and function in these environments. As a result,
his or her functioning is impaired in certain specific ways.
2. Mental retardation is a developmental disability. Unlike people with the
same chronological age and average or high mental ability, the person
with mental retardation suffers from lags or delays in his or her general
development profile. As defined in Chapter 1, a developmental disability
is attributable to a mental or physical impairment or a combination of
both factors that is likely to continue indefinitely.
3. Mental retardation results in substantial limitations in three or more of the
major activities of daily life. These are self-care, receptive and expressive
language, learning, mobility, self-direction, capacity for independent
living and economic self-sufficiency.

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4. Mental retardation encompasses a heterogeneous group of people with

varying needs, features and life contexts. The previous belief was that
mental retardation was an all-or-none phenomenon. This means that
either a person was normal or had mental retardation. Now mental
retardation is viewed to exist in a continuum. The condition is accepted is
to be changeable. Some persons may manifest the condition at times
and not at other times based on their needs for various levels of support.

What is Mental Retardation?

The American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR) had spent more

than five decades of study on what mental retardation is. The AAMR1992
definition is the most accepted in many special education programs all over the
world.

“Mental retardation refers to substantial limitations in present functioning.

It is characterized by significantly sub-average intellectual functioning, existing
concurrently with related limitations in two or more of the following adaptive
skills areas: communication, self-care, home living, social skills, community use,
self-direction, health and safety, functional academics, leisure and work. Mental
retardation manifests before age 18.” (Heward, 2003)
Clearly, there are four criteria in the definition which are explained below.

 Substantial limitations in present functioning means that the person has

difficulty in performing everyday activities related to taking care of one’s
self, doing ordinary tasks at home and work related to the other adaptive
skills areas. The areas of difficulty include academic work, if the person
goes to school.
 Significantly sub-average intellectual functioning means that the person
has significantly below average intelligence. Intellectual functioning is a
broad summation of cognitive abilities, such as the capacity to learn,
solve problems, accumulate knowledge and adapt to new situations. The
person finds difficulty in learning the skills in school that children of his age
are able to learn. The intelligence quotient score is approximately in the
flexible lower IQ range 0 to 20 and upper IQ range of 70-75 based on the
result of assessment using one or more individual intelligence tests.
The current IQ score cutoff is 70, though it is acknowledged that IQ
scores are not exact measures, and therefore, a small number of
individuals with mental retardation may attain scores as high as 75.

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Sub-average intellectual functioning indicates that intelligence, or

at least intelligence test scores, are not static or unchangeable. This
current concept assumes that one’s intellectual functioning can change,
and a person diagnosed to have mental retardation at one point in life
may no longer meet the criteria or may no longer be mentallt retarded at
a later time.
 Limitations in the adaptive skills or behavior show in the quality of
everyday performance in coping with environmental demands. Persons
with mental retardation fail to meet the standards of personal
independence and social responsibility expected of their chronological
age and cultural group. The quality of general adaptation is mediated by
the level of intelligence. Adaptive skills are assessed by means of
standardized adaptive behavior scales.
 Related limitations in the adaptive skills areas means that the person has
difficulty in performing the following tasks: (Bernie-Smith, 2002)
1. Communication or the ability to understand and communicate
information by speaking and writing through symbols, sign language
and non-symbolic behavior like facial expressions, touch or
gestures.
2. Self-care or the ability to take care of one’s needs by hygiene,
grooming, dressing, eating, toileting.
3. Home living or the ability to function in the home, housekeeping,
clothing care, property maintenance, cooking, shopping, home
safety, daily scheduling of work.
4. Community use or travel in the community, shopping, obtaining
services.
5. Social skills in initiating and terminating interactions, conversations,
responding to social cues, recognizing feelings, regulating own
behavior, assisting others, fostering friendship.
6. Self-direction in making choices, following schedule, completing
required tasks, seeking assistance and resolving problems.
7. Health and safety such as maintaining own health, identify and
preventing illness, first aid, sexuality, physical fitness and basic
safety.
8. Functional academics or learning the basic skills taught in school.
9. Leisure such as recreational activities that are appropriate to the
age of the person.
10. Work or employment, appropriate to one’s age.

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Mental retardation manifests before age 18 to 22.this means that the

condition can start during pregnancy until the age of 18 to 22. A person
who suffers from brain injury at age 23 or thereafter, even if the other
criteria are met, would not be considered to have mental retardation. The
reason that such individual is excluded from this category is that mental
retardation is a developmental disability.
It is important to understand that in the diagnosis of mental retardation,
the person must meet all three of the above criteria. Thus, an IQ score
below 70 or 75, in and of itself, is not sufficient to classify a person as with
mental retardation. The person’s adaptive behavior must also be
impaired, and the condition must have originated during pregnancy until
the age of 18 to 22.

Mental retardation has been known by many different names that are
no longer used at present. The old labels are mentally defective, mentally
deficient, feebleminded, moron, imbecile and idiot.
In the past, a person’s IQ score was the only determinant of mental
retardation. Today, several associations and agencies define mental
retardation in different ways. However, almost of them use the IQ score as
only one criterion and usually pair it with an assessment of how well a
person can manage daily tasks which are appropriate for his or her age.
Heward (2003) cites five essential assumptions in using the AAMR
definition:
1. The existence of limitations in adaptive skills occurs within the
context of community environments typical of the individual’s age
peers and is indexed to the person’s individualized needs for
supports.
2. Valid assessment considers cultural and linguistic diversity, as well as
differences in communication, sensory, motor, and behavioral
factors.
3. Specific adaptive limitations often coexist with strengths in other
adaptive skills or other personal capabilities.
4. The purpose of describing limitations often coexist with strengths.
5. With appropriate supports over a sustained period, the life-
functioning of the person with mental retardation will generally
improve.

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Classification of Mental Retardation

The criteria in the AAMR definition are very extensive, thus, a system of sub-
categories or levels of mental retardation was developed. Traditionally, sub-
categories have been based on IQ ranges. In the previous AAMR classification
system, there are four levels that are still widely used today:
1. mild MR with IQ scores from 55 to 70
2. moderate MR with IQ scores from 40 to 54
3. severe MR with IQ scores from 25 to 39, and
4. profound MR with IQ scores below 25.
Current books in special education use two classifications:

1. the milder forms of mental retardation, and

2. the more severe forms of mental retardation that cluster the moderate,
severe and profound types.

The classifications “educable mental retardation” (EMR) and “trainable

mental retardation” (TMR) are no longer used.

The AAMR has introduced a new system of classification that is based on the
amount of support that the person needs in order to function to the highest
possible level. The four categories of mental retardation according to the
intensity of needed supports are: (Wehmeyer, 2002)

1. Intermittent supports are on “as needed” basis, that is, the person needs
help only at a certain periods of time and not all the time. Support will
most likely be required during periods of transition, for example, moving
from school to work.
2. Limited supports are required consistently, though not on a daily basis. The
support needed is of a non-intensive nature.
3. Extensive supports are needed on a regular basis; daily supports are
required in some environments, for example, daily home living tasks.
4. Pervasive supports are daily extensive supports, perhaps of a life-
sustaining nature required in multiple environments.

Classifying individuals with mental retardation on the basis of needed

supports makes good sense because it emphasizes the services needed by
these individuals rather than a diagnostic criterion such as an IQ score which
actually cannot translate to specific needed services. However, this change

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though radical and extensive, cannot be readily adopted. It may take many
years for the classification according to needed supports to replace the
classification according to IQ scores.

Incidence and Prevalence

According to the AAMR 1973 definition, mental retardation can occur in

3% of a given population. Only about 15% of these children have greater than
mild disabilities. Compared to his or her peers, the person passes through the
milestone of development much later and learning rate and development of
physical skills are slower. Due to complications during pregnancy, birth and
infancy, concomitant conditions associated with mental retardation may occur
such as Down Syndrome, physical handicaps, speech impairment, visual
impairment, hearing defects, epilepsy, and others.

Causes of Mental Retardation

There are more than 250 identified causes of mental retardation. The
AAMR classifies the causes or etiological factors based on time of onset,
categorized as prenatal or biological (occurring before birth), perinatal
(occurring during birth), and postnatal and environmental (occurring shortly
after birth) (Ad Hoc Committee on Definitions and Terminology, 1992, cited in
Heward, 2003).

The specific biological causes are known for about two-thirds of

individuals with the more severe forms that include the moderate, severe and
profound types. It is important to understand that the causes listed are
conditions, diseases and syndromes that are associated with mental retardation.
These conditions may or may not result in mental retardation or deficits of
intellectual and adaptive functioning that define mental retardation. Some of
the conditions may or may not require special education services. The term
syndrome refers to a number of symptoms or characteristics that occur together
and provide the defining features of a given disease or condition.
The environmental causes are traced to a psychological disadvantage
which is a combination of a poor social and cultural environments early in the
child’s life. The term developmental retardation is used to refer to mild mental
retardation thought to be caused primarily by environmental influences such as
minimal opportunities to develop to develop early language, child abuse and
neglect, and/or chronic social or sensory deprivation. A number of studies

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illustrate the occurrence of “intergenerational progression” in which the

cumulative experimental deficits in social and academic simulation are
transmitted to children from low socio-economic status environments
(Greenspan, 1992). The following factors are found to contribute to
environmentally caused mental retardation (Greenspan, et al. 1994):
1. limited parenting practices that produce low rates of vocabulary
growth in early childhood;
2. instructional practices in high school and adolescence that
produce low rates of academic engagement during the school
years;
3. lower rates of academic achievement and early school failure and
early school dropout; and
4. parenthood and continuance of the progression into the next
generation.

I. Some prenatal causes, or those that originate during conception or

pregnancy until before birth are chromosomal disorders such as trisomy 21 or
Down syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, Fragile X syndrome, Prader-Willi
syndrome, Phenylketonuria, and William syndrome.

 Down syndrome, named after Dr. Langdon Down, is the best known and
well researched biological condition associated with mental retardation.
It is estimated to account for 5 to 6% of all cases. Caused by
chromosomal abnormality, the most common is trisomy 21 in which the
21st set of chromosomes is a triplet rather than a pair. Trisomy 21 most
often results in moderate level mental retardation, also some individuals
function in the mild or severe ranges. DS affects about 1 in 1,000 live births.
The probability of having a baby with DS increases to approximately 1 in
30 for women at age 45. Older women are at “high risk” for babies with DS
and other developmental disabilities.
The characteristic physical features are short stature; flat, broad face with
small ears and nose; upward slanting eyes, small mouth with short roof,
protruding tongue that may cause articulation problems; hypertonia or
floppy muscles; heart defects are common; susceptibility to ear and
respiratory infections; older persons are at high risk for Alzheimer’s disease.
 In Klinefelter syndrome, males receive an extra X chromosome. Sterility,
underdevelopment of male sex organs, acquisition pf female secondary
sex characteristics are common. Males with XXY sex chromosomes instead
of the normal XY often have problems with social skills, auditory
perception, language, sometimes mild levels of cognitive retardation. This

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condition is more often associated with learning disabilities than with

mental retardation.
 In Fragile X syndrome a triplet or repeat mutation on the X chromosome
interferes with the production of FMR-1 protein which is essential for normal
brain functioning. Majority of males experience mild to moderate mental
retardation in childhood and moderate to severe deficits in adulthood.
Females may carry and transmit the mutation to their children but tend to
have fewer disabilities than affected males. The condition affects
approximately one in four thousand males.it is the most common clinical
type of mental retardation after Down syndrome. It is characterized by
social anxiety, avoiding eye contact, tactile defensiveness, turning the
body away due to face-to-face interactions and stylized, ritualistic forms
of greeting. Preservative speech often includes repetition of words and
phrases.
 William syndrome is caused by the deletion of a portion of the seventh
chromosome. Cognitive function ranges from normal to mild and
moderate levels of mental retardation. The characteristics are: elfin or
dwarf-like facial features; the physical features and manner of expression
exudes cheerfulness and happiness; “overly friendly,” lack of reserve
toward strangers, often have uneven profiles of skills, with strengths in
vocabulary and storytelling skills and weaknesses in visual-spatial skills;
often hyperactive, may have difficulty staying on task and low tolerance
for frustration or teasing.
 Prader-Willi syndrome is a syndrome disorder caused by the deletion of a
portion of chromosome 15. Initially, infants have hypertonia or floppy
muscles and may to be tube-fed. The initial phase is followed by the
development of insatiable appetite. Constant preoccupation with food
can lead to life-threatening obesity if food seeking is not monitored. The
condition affects one in ten to twenty-five thousand live births. It is
associated with mild retardation and learning disabilities. Behavior
problems are common, such as impulsivity, aggressiveness, temper-
tantrums, obsessive-compulsive behavior, some forms of injurious behavior
such as skin picking, delayed motor skills, short stature, small hands and
feet and underdeveloped genitalia.
 Phenylketonuria (PKU) is one of the inborn errors of metabolism. PKU is a
genetically inherited condition in which a child is born without an
important enzyme needed to break down an amino acid called
phenylalanine found in dairy products and other protein-rich foods. Failed
to break down this amino acids causes brain damage that often results in
aggressiveness, hyperactivity and severe mental retardation. In the United

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States, PKU has been virtually eliminated through widespread screening.

By analyzing the concentration of phenylalanine in a newborn’s blood
plasma, doctors can diagnose PKU and treat it with a special diet. Most
children who receive the treatment early enough have early normal
intellectual development.

Developmental disorders of brain formation include cranial malformations:

 In anencephaly, the major portions of the brain are absent. This is a major
neural tube defect, that it, it occurs on the brain or spinal cord.
 In microcephaly, the skull is small and conical, the spine is curved and
typically leads to stooped portion and severe mental retardation.
 In hydrocephaly, blockage of cerebrospinal fluid in the cranial cavity
causes an enlarged head and undue pressure on the brain.

Environmental influences include maternal malnutrition, irradiation during

pregnancy, juvenile diabetes mellitus and fetal alcohol syndrome or FAS. FAS
is one of the leading causes of mental retardation. The mother’s excessive
alcohol use during pregnancy has toxic or poisonous effects on the fetus,
including physical defects and developmental delays. FAS is diagnosed
when the child has two or more craniofacial malformation and growth is
below the 10th percentile for height and weight. Children who have some but
all of the diagnostic criteria for FAS and a history of mother’s prenatal alcohol
exposure are diagnosed with fetal alcohol effect or FAE, a condition
associated with hyperactivity and learning problems. The incidence is higher
than Down syndrome cerebral palsy. The characteristics are cognitive
impairment, sleep disturbances, motor dysfunctions, hyper irritability,
aggression, and conduct problems. Although the risk is highest during the first
three months of pregnancy, pregnant women should avoid drinking alcohol
anytime.

II. Perinatal causes include:

 Intrauterine disorders such as maternal anemia, premature delivery,

abnormal presentation, umbilical cord accidents and multiple gestation in
the case of twins, triplets, quadruplets and other types of multiple births.
Birth trauma may result from anoxia or cutting off of oxygen supply to the
brain. While mental retardation still may occur because of these

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conditions, improvements in fetal monitoring and the subsequent increase

in caesarean births have reduced the likelihood of perinatal causation
(Culatta et al., 2003).
 Neonatal disorders such as intracranial hemorrhage, neonatal seizures,
respiratory disorders, meningitis, encephalitis, head trauma at birth.

III. Postnatal causes include:

 head injuries such as cerebral concussion, contusion or laceration;
 infections such as encephalitis, meningitis, malaria, German measles,
rubella;
 demyelinating disorders such as post infectious disorders, post
immunization disorders;
 degenerative disorders such as Rett syndrome, Huntington disease,
Parkinson;s disease;
 seizure disorders such as epilepsy, toxic-metabolic disorders such as
Reye’s syndrome, lead or mercury poisoning;
 malnutrition especially lack of proteins and calories;
 environmental deprivation such as psychosocial disadvantage, child
abuse and neglect, chronic social/sensory deprivation; and
 Hypoconnection syndrome.

Through accidents, particularly vehicular accidents, are the leading causes

of childhood head injuries, the shaken baby syndrome, which is a type of child
abuse when a crying infant is violently shaken by a frustrated caregiver, can
result to head injury. Infants’ heads are disproportionately large, their neck
muscles cannot support the stress of this shaking, causing the head to flop back
and forth. This often result in internal bleeding and brain damage or, in some
cases, even death. Oftentimes, other diagnosis are given such as traumatic
brain injury(Beirne-Smith, 2002).

Authorities emphasize the importance of knowing the cause or etiology of

mental retardation in relation to the efforts to prevent in and in introducing
educational intervention.
Cultural-familial retardation refers to the existence of lowered intelligence of
unknown origin associated with a history of mental retardation in one or more
family members. Though there are specific and known causes in some cases of
mental retardation, typically it is thought to be cultural/familial. The condition
result from the lack of adequate stimulation during infancy and early childhood.

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Diseases of the mother during pregnancy may also result in retardation.

Infections caused by sexually transmitted diseases such as syphilis, gonorrhea,
AIDS, toxoplasmosis (blood poisoning) and rubella can have negative effects on
the developing fetus. Maternal rubella is most likely to cause retardation,
blindness or deafness when the disease occurs during the first trimester of
pregnancy.

Learning and Behavior Characteristics

As discussed earlier, persons with mental retardation manifest substantial
limitations in age-appropriate intellectual and adaptive behavior. There are
deficits in cognitive functioning that are associated with poor memory, slow
learning rates, attention problems, difficulty at generalizing what has been
learned and lack of motivation. Many individuals with mental retardation are
able to acquire the skills for adaptive behavior, but a larger number are not
able to do so throughout their lifespan.

Students show that many of these children are identified for the first time
when they start going to school. They find difficulties in doing school work and
fail the grade levels. Their classmates leave them behind in the achievement of
the skills in the subject areas. Those with moderate retardation show significant
delays in development during the preschool years. In general, as they grow
older, the discrepancies in overall intellectual development and adaptive
functioning become wider when compared to normal age-mates. Many of
them can learn the academic skills up to the sixth grade level and master job
skills well enough to be able to work and support themselves semi-
independently when they leave school.

Deficits in Cognitive Functioning

Sub-Average Intellectual Skills. As stated earlier, the first defining

characteristics of persons with mental retardation is below average mental
ability as measured by standardized tests.
Low Academic Achievement. Due to sub-average intellectual
functioning, persons with mental retardation are likely to be slower in reaching
levels of academic achievement equal to their peers.
Difficulty in Attending to Tasks. The attention of these children are tends to
be distracted by irrelevant stimuli rather than those pertain to the lesson.
Likewise, they have difficulty in sustaining their attention to learning tasks. These

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attention problems contribute to the development of concomitant problems

such as difficulties in remembering and generalizing newly learned lessons and
skills.

Deficits in Memory

These students have difficulty in retaining and recording information in the

short term or working memory. Information encountered a few seconds earlier
cannot be recalled. Research shows that many persons with retardation have
good long-term memory, but they have difficulty remembering in the short term,
especially if the facts are complex.

Difficulty with the generalization of skills. The ability to generalize is related

to the ability to think abstractly. Students with mental retardation often have
trouble in transferring their new knowledge and skills into settings or situations
that differ from the context in which they first learned those skills.

Low motivation. Some students show lack of interest in learning their

lessons. Some of them develop learned helplessness where they expect to
continue to fail in doing certain tasks because they have not been able to do
the tasks in the past. To avoid failure, the person tends to set very low
expectations for oneself. Motivation is a problem for persons with any disability
because it is learned. Constant comparison to others who perform in many
areas with apparent ease can an audiologist and other specialists contribute
their own specialized skills to the evaluation process.

Team-Based Assessment Approaches

Due to the fact that adaptation to one’s social and physical environment
requires intellectual ability, persons with mental retardation are likely to
demonstrate significant deficits in adaptive behavior.
Self-care and daily living skills. They are often taught basic self-care skills
deliberately which normal individuals learn by absorption and imitation. Direct
instruction, simplified routine, prompts and task analysis are used to teach self-
care skills in hygiene and grooming, daily living skills in eating, toileting,
communication and the other areas of adaptive behavior.
Social development. Limited cognitive processing skills, poor language
development, and unusual or inappropriate behaviors can seriously impede

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interaction with others. Thus making, friends and sustaining personal relationships
are difficult for persons with mental retardation.

Behavioral excesses and challenging behavior. Compared to children

without disabilities, students with mental retardation are more prone to
inappropriate behavior. They have difficulties accepting criticism, limited self-
control, as well as behavior problems like aggression or self-injury.

Psychological Characteristics. As in the case of speech and language

problems, mentally retarded persons have slower psychological development
(e.g., toilet training, walking) and are likely to have some forms of associated
physical problems.

Positive Characteristics. Like everyone else, persons with mental

retardation have their unique characteristics. While they may have negative
attributes like those described earlier, many of them have positive
characteristics like friendliness and kindness. They can be fun to be with and
they can get along well with others. Being with them makes one appreciate
one’s normal attributes.

Assessment Procedures

In general, in the Philippines where the educational system hardly

provides for clinicians like school psychologist or psychometricians, initial
assessment is done by the classroom teacher in order to identify who among the
regular students are in need of special education. Initial assessment is done
through teacher nomination. For school-aged children, teachers are an
important source of information about their learning and behavior attributes. A
checklist of the learning and behavioral characteristics of children with special
education needs is used. When a child manifests half or more than half of the
characteristics in the checklist, then the final assessment follows. Here, a
guidance counselor or special education teacher administers the appropriate
assessment tools developed by the Special Education Division of the Bureau of
Elementary of the Department of Education.
When a child is suspected to have a developmental disability such as
mental retardation a complete diagnosis of the condition is necessary. A
thorough assessment of the condition is critical in considering a child’s eligibility
for special educational services, and/or aid in planning the educational and
other services he/she and the family may need. The assessment process overs a
more intensive observation and evaluation of the child’s cognitive and
adaptive skills, analysis of medical history especially of the mother’s condition

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during pregnancy and other circumstances related to causative factors and the
child’s current level of functioning. The use of more than one assessment
procedure provides a wealth of information about the child permitting about
the evaluation of the biological, cognitive, social and interpersonal variables
that affect the child’s current behavior.
In the diagnostic assessment of children, parents and other significant
individuals in the child’s environment provide a rich source of information. The
components of assessment, informal and standardized tests, home visits,
interview and observation complement each other and form a firm foundation
for making correct decisions about the child. Certainly, major discrepancies
among the findings obtained from the various assessment procedures must be
resolved before ant diagnostic decisions or recommendations are made. For
example, if the intelligence test result indicate that the adaptive behavior
characteristics suggest average functioning, it is necessary to reconcile this
disparate findings before making a diagnosis. An evaluation report that provides
information relevant to instruction and other services is useful to both teachers
and parents. The inclusion of families in the management of their children’s
education presents new challenges. Nevertheless, their participation in arriving
at important decisions about the children will ultimately be rewarding and
beneficial to all the members of the team.

Models of Assessment (Richey and Wheeler, 2000)

Three assessment models are used in Western countries. These are the
traditional, team-based and activity based-models of assessment.

Traditional Assessment
In the traditional assessment model, the parents fill in a pre-referral form
about the family history and the developmental history of the child. Then the
child and parents are referred to a team of clinical practitioners for thorough
evaluation of the child’s intellectual, socio-emotional and physical
development, health condition and other significant information. The members
of the team are a developmental psychologist, an early childhood special
educator, an early childhood educator, a speech/language pathologist (SLP),
an occupational therapist, a physical therapist, a child psychiatrist or clinical
psychologist, a physician and nurse, an audiologist and other specialist
contribute their own specialized skills to be evaluation process.

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Team-Based Assessment Approaches

Because children with mental retardation often have other problems, it is

necessary to involve a team of practitioners from different areas like the
specialists in the traditional model of assessment. The team-based approach is
described as multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary in nature.

In multidisciplinary assessment, individual team members independently

assess the child and report results without consulting or integrating their findings
with one another.

In interdisciplinary assessment, the members conduct an independent

assessment and evaluation individually the findings are integrated together with
their recommendations.

Transdisciplinary assessment on the other hand, allows other team

members as facilitators during the assessment process. A naturel extension of this
approach is the involvement of the family in the decision-making process.

Activity-Based Assessment
The activity-based model of assessment for young children with the
developmental delays or disabilities is better than the other models because of
parental involvement as well as the development of meaningful, child-
centered, positive behavioral support and activity-based interventions.
Assessment findings are easily translated into the child’s program plan. The
assessment materials have a curriculum and evaluation components, and do
not require specialized materials or test kits. Examples of criterion referenced
assessment tools are the Assessment, Evaluation, and Programming system for
Infants and Children (AEPS) and the Infant-Preschool Assessment Sales (IPAS).

Cognitive/Developmental Assessment Tools

Some of the commonly used assessment tools for measuring the mental
ability of children with mental retardation are: The Different Ability Scales (DAS),
Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale for Children-III (WISC-III) and the Stanford-
Binet: Fourth Edition. (Beirne-Smith et al., 2001)

Adaptive Behavior Assessment Tools

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Adaptive behavior is an important and necessary part of the definition

and diagnosis of mental retardation. It is the ability to perform daily activities
required for personal and social sufficiency. Assessment of adaptive behavior
focuses on how well individuals can function and maintain themselves
independently and how well they meet the personal and social demands
imposed on them by their vultures. There are more than 200 adaptive behavior
measure and scales. The mist common scale is the Vineland Adaptive Behavior
Scales which assesses the social competence of individuals with and without
disabilities from birth to age 19. It is an indirect assessment in that the respondent
is not the individual in question but someone familiar with the individual’s
behavior. The student’s social competence can also be measured by the AAMR
Adaptive Behavior Scale-School and the Scales of Independent Behavior
Revised (SIB=R)
Educational Programs

Early Intervention Program

The provision of an early intervention program to children with
developmental delays/disabilities has gained wide acceptance with the past
decades. The child with mental retardation benefits from an early intervention
program. The skills that normally learned during early childhood are taught at a
time when the child is still young and more malleable than when he or she
would have grown older and less flexible. The opportunities to learn the
adaptive skills early are enhanced and increase the chances for the child to be
able to cope with the demands of future environments. Trends in early
intervention emphasize the important role of the home and the participation of
the parents and family members who are natural caregivers of their children.
Effective early intervention takes place in the natural setting at home when the
parents and family members accept the fact that the child has a
developmental disability and can learn like his normal siblings in ways that are
different. The willingness on their part to be patient in teaching the child the
basic adaptive skills on self-care and daily living activities rebounds to the
benefit of both the child and the adults in the family. In addition to the behavior
skills, social and emotional bonds are developed as well that set a strong base
for future special education programs and activities.

The staff members of early intervention programs have formal training in

early childhood education and special education. They participate in in-service
training programs and attend conferences and workshops. Intervisitation among
programs and agencies is held to update the staff’s competencies and learn
from each other’s experiences.

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Rationale for Early Intervention

There are at least five reasons why early intervention services should be
provided. First, during intervention secondary disabilities that would have gone
unnoticed can be observed. Second, early intervention services can prevent
the occurrence of secondary disabilities. Third, early intervention services lessen
the chances for placement in a residential school since a child with a basic self-
care and daily living skills has a good chance of qualifying for placement in a
special education program in regular school. Fourth, as the family gains
information about the disability the members learn how to offer support and
fulfill the child’s need for acceptance, love and belongingness very much like
the ways they behave towards the normal children in the family. Certainly, the
parents and family members’ development a sense of confidence as they gain
the skills in raising a child with mental retardation in less stressful condition. Lastly,
early intervention services hasten the child’s acquisition of his or her potential
despite the presence of the disability.

Models of Early Intervention

1. Home-Based Instruction Program

The Philippine Association for the Retarded (PAR) composed of special

education specialists, parent and medical practitioners initiated the
development of the Home-Based Instruction Program for Children with Mental
Retardation in the 1970’s the goal is to provide a continuous program of
instruction both in school and at home for a more effective management of the
handicapping condition. The program utilizes the Filipino adaptation of the
Portage Project. The Portage Guide to Early Intervention is printed in Filipino and
the dialect of some regions. Davao has also implemented the project.

The key persons are the biological or surrogate parents who perform their
primary role as caregivers. All members of the family including the household
helpers are trained to implement the program. Monitoring and evaluation of the
program show positive results.

1. Head Start Program

The Head Start Program in Manila City Schools Division addresses
preschool education for the socially and economical deprive children who are
four to six years old. The program operates on the principle of early intervention
as a preventive measure against behavior problems among young children that

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may lead ultimately to juvenile delinquency. The participants are children and
siblings of youth offenders, slum dwellers, street children and other of preschool
age.

The Head Start Program was subsequently adopted by the Special

Education Centers of Manila with a group of parents serving as teacher-aides.
2. Community-Based Rehabilitation (CBR) Services

The World Health Organization (WHO, 1984) defines community-based

rehabilitation as measures taken at the community level that use and build on
the resources of the community to assist in the rehabilitation of those who need
assistance including the disables and the handicap persons, their families and
their community as a whole.
The Community-Based Rehabilitation (CBR) has been a claimed as the
answer to the rehabilitation needs in poverty-stricken areas where institution-
based rehabilitation programs are not available. Piloted by the National
Commission for the Welfare of Disabled Person (NCWPD) in Bacolod in 1981 and
eventually expanded to selected communities in Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao,
CBR services have been successfully organized in many communities for
preschool and school=age children and young adults. The utilization of the
services of volunteers is employed and maximize in providing rehabilitation
programs to urban and rural communities.

3. Urban Basic Service Program

An early intervention scheme based on the principle of home-based
instruction was adopted by the Urban Basic Service Program as its education
component. The program also utilize the Filipino adaptation of the Portage
Guide to Early Intervention. Twelve (12) barangays or villages identified as
depressed and underserved were chosen as sites for the program. Children with
disabilities who are not receiving special education services were placed in the
program. Twenty to thirty parents were trained yearly to implement early
intervention at home as a means of minimizing the effects of the disabilities and
increasing the children’s readiness and response to the rehabilitation program.

Educational Approaches
The Curriculum

Students with mental retardation need a functional curriculum that will

train them on the life skills which are the essentially the adaptive behavior skills.

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The goal and direction of a functional curriculum is towards self-direction and

regulation and the ability to select appropriate options in everyday life at home,
in the school and in the community. The functional curriculum fosters
independent living, enjoyment of leisure and social activities and improve
quality of life.
A number of curricular programs for children with developmental
disabilities are implemented in the United States and other Western countries.

The Cognitive Curriculum for Young Children (CCYC) is a major curriculum

effort that is based of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, Vygotsky’s zone
of proximal development and Feuertein’s concept of mediated learning. The
CCYC builds its instructional program around the child’s deficits in cognition
were mediated learning is applied. Estimates of a child’s maximum learning
potential are derived from his zone of proximal development that is determined
by comparing the child’s actual level of performance to his performance under
the teachers direct supervision.
Another intervention program is the Instrumental Enrichment program
wherein the child is trained to develop a sense of intentionality and a feeling of
competence as a result of structured mediated learning environments.
The Montessori Method on the other hand, aims to develop the child’s
sense of mastery, mastery of the environment and independence by focusing
on his or her perceptual and conceptual development as well as in the
acquisition of skills in self-care and daily living activities.
The curriculum and related instructional strategies in the in the Ypsilante
Perry Preschool Project were derived from Piaget’s cognitive development
theory. The cognitively oriented curriculum is used in teaching disadvantage
children with mild retardation who are three to four years old.
The Portage Project uses the precision teaching model to deliver a home-
based curriculum in language, self-help skills, cognition, motor skills and
socialization. The parents are trained to teach their children using behavior
modification procedures.
The Carolina’s Abcedarian Project includes parent training, social work
services, nutritional supplement, medical care and transportation. Its curriculum
is designed around the interaction of consumer opinions or the goals that
parents have for their children, Piaget’s development theory, developmental
facts (language, motor, socio-emotional, and cognitive/perceptive), adaptive
sets (winning strategies that generate age-appropriate success) and high risk
indicators (Hickson et al., 1995).

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Methods of Instruction

Teaching children with mental retardation requires explicit and systematic

instruction. One such method of teaching is the Applied Behavioral Analysis
(ABA) which is derived from the theory and principles of behavior modification
and the effect of the environment on the learning process.

Task analysis is the process of the breaking down complex or multiple skills
into smaller, easier-to-learn subtasks. Direct and frequent measurement of the
increments of learning is done to keep track of the effect of instruction and to
introduce needed changes whenever necessary. Active Students Response
(ASR) or the observable response made to an instructional antecedent is
correlated to student achievement. Systematic feedback through positive
reinforcement is employed whenever needed by rewarding the student’s
correct responses with simple positive comments, gesture or facial expressions.
Meanwhile incorrect responses are immediately corrected (error correct
technique) by asking the student to repeat the correct responses after the
teacher.
The application of learned skills in the natural environment is emphasized in the
Transfer of Stimulus Control method of instruction. Correct responses are
rewarded through positive reinforcement. Conversely, generalization and
maintenance of learned skills or the extent to which students can apply
correctly what they have learned across settings and overtime are measured
and recorded.

Educational Placement Alternatives

In the past children with mental retardation were usually placed in self-
contained classes. The special curriculum emphasized the communication arts,
mathematics, self-help skills, social and recreational skills, motor skills, and
prevocational and vocational skills. Though this traditional approach is still
relatively common, increasingly, students with mental retardation are now
included in main stream schools and even regular classes. This is particularly the
case for those with mild to moderate retardation. Typically, these students
receive their special education in either a resource room, where they work with
a special education teacher one-to-one or in a school group, or in the regular
classroom where the special education teacher works with them. In this model,
the amount of time students spend outside the regular classroom depends on

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their individual needs. Thus, some may spend nearly the entire day in the regular
classroom while others may be there for less than an hour.

Students with Mental Retardation in Inclusive Education

At present, many children with mild and moderate mental retardation are
enrolled in the regular classroom. They are mainstreamed in the academic
subjects under the tutelage of the regular teacher and the special education
teacher. The special education teacher provides individualized instruction on
the school subjects and tasks recommended by the regular teachers and
directs family members to help with assignments and class projects.
When students with mild and moderate mental retardation are enrolled in
regular classes, the regular teacher and the special education teacher work
together to help the child attain the goals and objectives set for the school
year. The educational placement is called Inclusive education because the
regular class has a disability who has been assess to be capable of learning side
by side with normal students. The Individual Education Plan (IEP) is prepared by
the teachers and parents to identify and indicate the goals for the school year
and the objectives and activities during the four quarters or grading periods for
successful inclusive education. As mentioned earlier, the child attends the
regular class and receives tutorial lessons from the special education teacher.
Family members are encourage to help the child with assignments and class
requirements.

Mainstreaming activities for children with the more severe forms of mental
retardation are more selective. They participate in social activities, sports and
co-curricular activities like Special Olympics, camping, scouting and interest
clubs. Often, the goals for students who need more extensive supports are more
social and behavioral than academic in nature. The activities center on peer
interaction, improving social skills, and helping non-disabled students become
more comfortable when interacting with persons with disabilities. To teachers
faced with the challenge of providing an optimal educational experience for
those with mental retardation, the justification for the students’ presence in their
classrooms is of little consequence. Rather, their concerns focus on the practical
matter of how best to teach them. Fortunately, there is a growing body of
knowledge regarding appropriate techniques for teaching students with
disabilities in regular classroom settings.
Here are some suggestions for the special education teachers and the
regular teachers in whose class’s students with mental retardation are
mainstreamed:

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 Together, study the students IEP and agree on the teachers’ roles and
responsibilities to make inclusive education and mainstreaming work.

 Set regular meetings with each other, with the students or their families to
assess how effective the program is going and what else needs to be
done.
 Encourage acceptance of the students by the classmates by setting an
example and giving the students the chance to show that he/she is more
like the others than different.
 Use instructional procedures that will be of benefit to the student, such as
demonstrating the more complex and difficult tasks, and providing
multiple opportunities for practice.
 When teaching abstract concepts, provide multiple concrete examples.

 Supplement verbal instructions with demonstration whenever possible.

 Assign a peer tutor to assist the student during independent activities.

 Vary the task in drills and practice activities.

 Encourage the use of computer-based tutorials and other appropriate
computer-based materials.

 In class lectures, utilize the lecture-pause technique.

 Have a volunteer tape-record reading assignments if the student is unable
to read.

 Use multilayered activities involving flexible learning objectives to

accommodate the needs of student with diverse abilities.
 Per students with mental retardation with non-disabled classmates who
have similar interest.
 Encourage regular students to assist the students with mental retardation
as they participate in class activities.

Regardless of a person’s level of functioning, transition services will be an

important part of his/her special education program particularly at the high
school level. This services provide the bridge to life after school and help the full-
time, transition specialists, these programs not only provide vocational training,
but also focus on issues such as job responsibility, social interactions, and home
and community living skills.

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Post-Test
Directions: Encircle the letter of the best answer.
1. It is defined Mental retardation is a developmental disability that first appears
in children under the age of 18. It is defined as an intellectual functioning level
(as measured by standard tests for intelligence quotient) that is well below
average and significant limitations in daily living skills (adaptive functioning).

A. Mental Retardation B. Down Syndrome

2. It is caused by chromosomal abnormality, the most common is trisomy 21 in
which the 21st set of chromosomes is a triplet rather than a pair.

A. Mental retardation B. Down Syndrome

3. Refers to the existence of lowered intelligence of unknown origin associated
with a history of mental retardation in one or more family members.

A. Cultural-familial retardation B. Mental Retardation

4. The World Health Organization (WHO, 1984) defines as measures taken at the
community level that use and build on the resources of the community to assist
in the rehabilitation of those who need assistance including the disables and the
handicap persons, their families and their community as a whole.
A. Community-based rehabilitation B. Urban Base Program Services

5. It is a triplet or repeat mutation on the X chromosome interferes with the

production of FMR-1 protein which is essential for normal brain functioning.

A. Fragile X syndrome B. Down Syndrome

Read and Respond

1. What makes mental retardation a complex, rather than a simple,
developmental disability?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

2. What assessment procedures are used in the Philippines to identify children

and youth with mental retardation?

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______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

3. Do you favor inclusive education for students with disabilities? Explain your
stand on the issue.

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

4. What strategies are used in the teaching students with mental retardation?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Homework
1. How old were you when you learned to do those skills for the first time?
2. What skills can Raymond not do yet for a teenager his age?

3. How do you feel about being a person with developmental disability like
Raymond?

4. How can you take care of yourself so that you will continue to develop
normally and be a successful adult?

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