UNIT-I

• Solar energy is the radiant light and heat from the sun
t h a t i s h a rn e s s e d u s i n g a r a n g e o f e v e r e v o l v i n g
technologies (electro magnetic radiation).

• It is an important source of renewable energy and its

technologies are broadly characterized as either passive
solar or active solar depending on how they capture
and distribute solar energy or convert it into solar power.
• Passive solar energy: Direct use for heating, lighting,
drying, ventilation purposes etc.

• Active solar energy: Conversion to electricity with the

aid of special instruments.
• The energy radiation from the sun is electro-megnetic
waves reaching the planet earth in three spectral
reagions:
i) Ultraviolet: 6.4% (λ≤ 0.38 μm)
ii) Visible: 48 % (0.38 μm ≤λ≤ 0.78 μm)
iii) Infrared: 45.6 % (λ≥ 0.78 μm) of total energy
• Due to large diatance between the sun and the earth the
bean of radiation received from the sun on the earth is
almost parallel.
• Direct radiation: Solar radiation that reaches to the surface of
the earth with out being diffused is called direct beam radiation.

• Diffused radiation: As sunlight passes through the atmosphere,

some of it is abosrbed, scattered, and reflected by the air
molecules, water vapour, cloud, dust and pollutants from the
power plants, forest fires etc. This is called diffusion radiation.

• Global solar radiation: The sun of diffuse and direct solar

radiation is called global solar radiation.
Measurement of solar radiation

• Some of the instruments that are used for the

measurement of solar radiations are

i) Pyranometer

ii) Pyrheliometer

iii) Sunshine Recorder

Pyranometer

• A type of actinometer used to measure irradiance of solar

energy within the preferred location as well as flux density
of solar radiation.

• The range of solar radiation extends between 300 & 2800

nm.

• The SI units of irradiance are W/m² (watts /square meter).

Pyranometer Design / Construction
Pyranometer Design / Construction

The pyrometer design or construction can be done using the

following three components.

i) Thermopile

ii) Glass Dome

iii) Occultation Disc

Pyranometer Design / Construction

i) Thermopile

As the name implies, it uses a thermocouple used to notice

dissimilarity in temperature between two surfaces. These are hot
(labeled active) and cold (reference) accordingly. The labeled active
surface is a black surface in flat shape and it is exposed to the
atmosphere. The reference surface depends on the difficulty of the
pyranometer because it changes from a second control thermopile
to the covering of the pyranometer itself.
Pyranometer Design / Construction
ii) Glass Dome
Glass dome in the pyrometer limits the response of spectral
from 300 nm to 2800 nm from 180 degrees of view. It also
protects the thermopile sensor from rain, wind, etc. This
construction of the second dome gives extra radiation
protection among the inner dome & sensor compared to a
s i n gl e do m e be c au s e a s e c o n d do m e w i l l re du c e t h e
instrument offset.
Pyranometer Design / Construction

iii) Occultation Disc

The occultation disc is mainly used to measure the radiation

of blocking beam & diffuse radiation from the panel surface.
Pyranometer Working

The working principle of the pyranometer mainly depends on the difference in temperature
measurement between two surfaces like dark and clear. The solar radiation can be absorbed
by the black surface on the thermopile whereas the clear surface reproduces it, so less heat
can be absorbed.

The thermopile plays a key role in measuring the difference in temperature. The potential
difference formed within the thermopile is due to the gradient of temperature between the
two surfaces. These are used to measure the sum of solar radiation.

But, the voltage which is generated from the thermopile is calculated with the help of a
potentiometer. The information of radiation needs to be included through planimetry or an
electronic integrator.
Pyranometer Types

Pyrometers are classified into two types

i) Thermopile pyranometer,

ii) Photodiode-based pyranometer.

Pyranometer Types

i) Thermopile pyranometer

This type of pyranometer is used to measure the flux density of the

solar radiation from a 180° angle. Usually, it measures 300nm to 2800
nm with a largely level spectral sensitivity. The first generation of this
pyranometer includes the sensor that works as an active part by
dividing black & white sectors equally. Irradiation was measured from
the two sectors like white & black within the temperature. Here, the
black sector is exposed to the sun whereas the white sector doesn’t
expose to the sun.
Pyranometer Types

i) Thermopile pyranometer

These pyranometers are normally used in climatology,

meteorology, building engineering physics, photovoltaic
systems & climate change research.
Pyranometer Types

ii) Photodiode-based pyranometer.

Photodiode based pyrometer is also known as a silicon

pyrometer. This is used to detect the segment of the solar
spectrum between 400 nm & 900 nm. This photodiode
changes the frequencies of the solar spectrum to current at
high speed. This change will be influenced through the
temperature with the raise in current, generated by the
temperature rise.
Pyranometer Types

ii) Photodiode-based pyranometer.

These types of pyranometers are executed wherever the amount of

irradiation of the noticeable solar spectrum needs to be measured and
it can be done by using diodes with exact spectral responses.

These are used in cinema, lighting technique & photography;

sometimes these are connected closely to photovoltaic system
modules.
Pyranometer Applications

Some of the the applications are

• The solar intensity data can be measured.

• Climatological & Meteorological studies

• PV systems design

• Locations of the greenhouse can be established.

• Expecting the requirements of insulation for building structures

Pyranometer Advantages and Disadvantages

The pyranometer advantages and disadvantages are

• The temperature coefficient is extremely small

• Standardized to ISO standards

• Measurements of performance ration & performance index are accurate.

• Response time is longer compare to PV cell

• The disadvantage of the pyranometer is, its spectral sensitivity is imperfect,

so it does not observe the complete spectrum of the sun. So errors in
measurements can occur.
Pyrheliometer

The pyrheliometer is one type of instrument, used to

measure the direct beam of solar radiation at the regular
o c c u rre n c e . T h i s i n s t r u m e n t i s u s e d w i t h a t r a c k i n g
mechanism to follow the sun continuously. It is responsive to
wavelengths bands that range from 280 nm to 3000 nm. The
units of irradiance are W/m². These instruments are specially
used for weather monitoring & climatological research
purposes.
Pyrheliometer
Pyrheliometer Construction & Working Principle

The external structure of the Pyrheliometer instrument looks like a

telescope because it is a lengthy tube. By using this tube, we can
spot the lens toward the sun to calculate the radiance. The
Pyrheliometer basic structure is shown below. Here the lens can be
pointed in the direction of the sun & the solar radiation will flow
throughout the lens, after that tube & finally at the last part where
the last apart includes a black object at the bottom.
Pyrheliometer Construction & Working Principle

The irradiance of solar enters into this device through a

crystal quartz window and directly reaches onto a thermopile.
So this energy can be changed from heat to an electrical
signal that can be recorded.

A calibration factor can be applied once changing the mV

signal to a corresponding radiant energy flux, and it is
calculated in W/m² (watts per square meter).
Pyrheliometer Construction & Working Principle

This kind of information can be used to increase Insolation

maps. It a solar energy measurement, that is received on a
specified surface region in a specified time to change around
the Globe. The isolation factor for a specific area is very
useful once setting up solar panels.
Pyrheliometer Circuit Diagram
The circuit diagram of the pyrheliometer is shown below. It
includes two equal strips specified with two strips S1 & S2
with area ‘A’. Here, a thermocouple is used where its one
junction can be connected to S1 whereas the other is
c o n n e c t e d t o S 2 . A re s p o n s i v e g a l v a n o m e t e r c a n b e
connected to the thermocouple.
The S2 Strip is connected to an exterior electrical circuit.
Pyrheliometer Circuit Diagram
The S2 Strip is connected to an exterior electrical circuit.
Once both the strips are protected from the radiation of solar,
then the galvanometer illustrates there is no deflection
because both the junctions are at equal temperature. Now
‘S1’ strip is exposed to the solar radiation & S2 is protected
with a cover like M. When S1 strip gets heat radiations from
the sun, then strip temperature will be increased, thus the
galvanometer illustrates deflection.
Pyrheliometer Circuit Diagram
Pyrheliometer Circuit Diagram
When current is supplied throughout the S2 strip, then it is adjusted
and the galvanometer illustrates there is no deflection. Now, again
both the strips are at equal temperature.
If the heat radiation amount occurred over the unit area within the
unit time on S1 strip is ‘Q’ & its absorption co-efficient, so the heat
radiation amount which is absorbed through the S1 strip S1 within
unit time is ‘QAa’. In addition, the heat generated in unit time within
the S2 strip can be given through VI. Here, ‘V’ is the potential
difference & ‘I’ is the flow of current through it.
Pyrheliometer Circuit Diagram

When heat absorbed is equivalent to the heat generated, so

QAa = VI

Q=VI/Aa

By substituting the values of V, I, A and a, the value of ‘Q’

can be calculated.
Pyrheliometer Types
There are two types of Pyrheliometers like SHP1 and CHP1
SHP1
The SHP1 type is a better version compare with CHP1 type,
as it is designed with an interface including both improved
analog o/p & digital RS-485 Modbus. The response time of
this kind of meter has below 2 seconds & independently
calculated temperature correction will range from -40°C to
+70°C.
Pyrheliometer Types

There are two types of Pyrheliometers like SHP1 and CHP1

CHP1

The CHP1 type is the most frequently used radiometer used to

measure solar radiation directly. This meter includes one thermopile
detector as well as two temperature sensors. It generates an utmost
o/p like 25mV beneath usual atmospheric situations. This type of
device totally obeys the most recent standards which are set by ISO
and WMO about the criteria of the Pyrheliometer.
Difference between Pyrheliometer and Pyranometer
Pyrheliometer Applications

The applications of this instrument include the following.

• Scientific meteorological

• Observations of Climate

• Testing research of Material

• Estimation of the solar collector’s efficiency

• PV devices
Pyrheliometer Advantages

The advantages of the Pyrheliometer include the following.

• Very low power consumption

• Operates from a wide range of voltage supplies

• Ruggedness

• Stability
Sunshine Recorder

A sunshine recoder is a device that records the amount of

sunshine at a given location. The results provide information
about the weather and climate as well as the temperature of
the geographical area.

There are two types of sunshine recorder

i) Compbell-Stokes Recorder

ii) Blake- Larsen Recorder

Campbell-Stokes Sunshine Recorders

A Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder concentrates sunlight

through a glass sphere onto a recording card

placed at its focal point. The length of the burn trace left on
the card represents the sunshine duration.

The device’s structure is shown in Figure (a)

Campbell-Stokes Sunshine Recorders
A homogeneous transparent glass sphere L is supported on
an arc XY, and is focused so that an image of the sun is
formed on recording paper placed in a metal bowl FF'
attached to the arc. The glass sphere is concentric to this
bowl, which has three partially overlapping grooves into
which recording cards for use in the summer, winter or spring
and autumn are set (Figure b).
Campbell-Stokes Sunshine Recorders

Three different recording cards (Figure c) are used depending on the

season. The focus shifts as the sun moves, and a burn trace is left on
the recording card at the focal point. A burn trace at a particular
point indicates the presence of sunshine at that time, and the
recording card is scaled with our marks so that the exact time of
sunshine occurrence can be ascertained. Measuring the overall
length of burn traces reveals the sunshine duration for that day. For
exact measurement, the sunshine recorder must be accurately
adjusted for planar leveling, meridional direction and latitude.
Campbell-Stokes Sunshine Recorders

Reading of Recording Paper

To obtain uniform results for observation of sunshine duration with a

Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder, the following points should be
noted when reading records:

(a) If the burn trace is distinct and rounded at the ends, subtract half
of the curvature radius of the trace’s ends from the trace length at
both ends. Usually, this is equivalent to subtracting 0.1 hours from
the length of each burn trace.
Campbell-Stokes Sunshine Recorders

(b) If the burn trace has a circular form, take the radius as its
length. If there are multiple circular burns, count two or three
as a sunshine duration of 0.1 hours, and four, five or six as
0.2 hours. Count sunshine duration this way in increments of
0.1 hours.
Campbell-Stokes Sunshine Recorders

(c) If the burn trace is narrow, or if the recording card is only

slightly discolored, measure its entire length.

(d) If a distinct burn trace diminishes in width by a third or

more, subtract 0.1 hours from the entire length or each place
of diminishing width. However, the subtraction should not
exceed half the total length of the burn trace.
Blake- Larsen Recorder

Designed few years ago, the Blake Larsen sunshine recorder

is a more sophisticated sunshine recorder that uses sensors
to detect solar radiation and record them.

The recorder unit and PC software produce a fully automated

system to measure the duration of bright sunlight from dawn
to dusk.
Blake- Larsen Recorder

The system can be easily integrated into WEB based weather

recording systems.
Blake- Larsen Recorder

The main advantages of this are:

The system can produce results which are far more accurate
than, the Campbell Stokes recorder which requires manual
intervention and skilled interpretation.
Solar Collector

Solar collectors transform solar radiation into heat and transfer that
heat to a medium (water, solar fluid, or air). Then solar heat can be
used for heating water, to heating or cooling systems, or for heating
swimming pools. Solar cooling technologies demand high
temperatures and not all the type of solar collectors are capable of

producing them. The collectors needed are based on technologies,

which can supply hot water at relatively high temperature (90-150 C).
Solar Collector (Types)
1. Non concentrating of flat plate type solar collector
• Flat Plate Collector:
 Liquid based,
 Air based and
 Evacuated tube
2. Concentrating type solar collector
• Line focusing type
• Point focusing type
Solar Collector

• Flat plate collectors may be used for water heating and

most space heating applications

• Concentrating collectors uses mirror or lenses to focus the

collected solar energy on smallet areas to obtain high
working temperature.
Solar Collector
Flat-plate collectors are the most widely used kind of
collectors in the world for domestic water-heating systems and
solar space heating/cooling. The first accurate model of flat
plate solar collectors was developed by Hottel and Whillier in
the 1950's.
A typical flat-plate collector consists of an absorber,
transparent cover sheets, an insulated box and fluid passage
tubes
Solar Collector
The transparent cover of glass or plastic allows short wave
solar radiation (Beam, diffuse radiation) to enter the box and
fall on the black plate but it prevents the long wave ( Thermal)
radiation emitted by the black plate from being lost.
The radiation is absorbed by absorber plate which is coated
with black abosrber paint. The fluid tubes which are connected
to absorber plate abosrb the hrat and transferred to the water
passing through the tube and gets heated.
Solar Collector
The hot water collected from all the tubes flow into a storage
tank.
Insulation (paddy husk, saw dust, glass wool) provided to the
absorber plate to avoid loss of heat by conduction.
Loss of heat by re-radiation is avoided by having good
absorber coating
The convective loss is reduced by minimizing the air gap
between the glass covers.
Solar Collector
Solar Collector
Characteristics of Flat Plate Collector
• Used for moderate temperature up to 100 C
• Normally do not need tracking of sun
• Mechanically simple
• Best for water heating, air conditioning, boiler feed water
etc.
Solar Collector

Another kind of collector that can be used for water heating is

the evacuated tube collector.

The collector contains an array of evacuated glass tubes.

Each tube contains a long thin balck absorber plate thermally

attached to a pipe inside the glass tube.

The vacuum inside the tube prevents heat loss, and water
temperature upto 100 0C can be reached.
Concentrated Solar Collector

Main types of concentrating collectors are:

• Parabolic trough collector

• Mirroe strip reflector

• Flate plate collector with adjustable morrors

• Compounded parabolic concentrator

Concentrated Solar Collector

Concentrating collectors have large mirror systems to focus

beam solar radiation onto a pipe containing water or liquid or
on to a small receiver.

The mirror is moved manually or automatically to follow the

movement of the sun.

These collectors produces higher temperature than flat plate

collectors.
Solar Water Heater
Solar Water Heater

The Sun rays fall on the Solar Collector. A black absorbing

surface (absorber) inside the collector, which absorbs solar
radiation and transfers the heat energy to water flowing.
Heated water is collected in a tank which is insulated to
prevent heat loss. Then Circulation of water from the tank
t h ro u g h t h e c o l l e c t o r a n d b a c k t o t h e t a n k c o n t i n u e s
automatically.
Solar Water Heater

A Solar Water Heater consists of a Collector panel to collect

solar energy and an Insulated Storage Tank to store hot water.

Solar water heating systems uses vaccum tubes made of

borosilicate glass with special coating to absorb the solar
energy and are called as Evacuated Tube Collector System
(ETC Systems)
Solar Water Heater

Air between the gap of two glass tubes is evacuated. it results in high
level of vacuum which acts as the best insulation to minimize the heat
loss from inner tube. The black coating on the inner tube absorbs the
solar energy and transfers it to the water. The water on the upper side
of vaccum tube becomes hot and thus lighter so it starts moning
upwards inthe tank. At the same time cold water which is heavy
comes is stored at the bottom.
Solar Cooling System

Solar cooling is a system that converts heat from the sun into
cooling that can be used for refrigeration and air conditioning.
A solar cooling system collects solar power and uses it in a
thermally driven cooling process which is in turn used to
decrease and control the temperature for purposes like
generating chilled water or conditioning air for a building.
Solar Cooling System

There are many different cooling cycle techniques using

various different principals to function. Three of the most
popular techniques include:

• absorption cycles

• desiccant cycles

• solar mechanical cycles

Solar Cooling System (Working)
Regardless of the technique being used, a solar cooling system typically
includes three core components:

• A solar collector, such as a solar panel, which is used to convert solar

radiation into heat or mechanical work.

• A refrigeration or air conditioning plant that is used to produce the

cooling.

• A heat sink that collects any rejected heat and radiates it away from
the system.
Solar Cooling System (Working)

While techniques used to achieve solar cooling vary, the end goal remains the
same: utilize an external heat source, like a solar panel, to collect ambient
temperature and then use that heat with a refrigerant to create pressure within
a closed loop of refrigerant, thus enabling the solar cooling system to work.

A refrigerant is a substance or mixture that absorbs heat from the environment

and can create refrigeration or air conditioning if it is combined with the other
necessary components, like compressors and evaporators. In most cooling
cycles, the refrigerant will transition from the liquid phase to the gas phase and
then back again to achieve its cooling purpose.
Solar Cooling System (Working)
In absorption cycles, the cooling process relies on the evaporative cooling
of a refrigerant. Since vaporization requires energy input, the process
takes heat from the system, leaving the remaining fluid cooler than
before. Absorption cycles complete pressurization by dissolving a
refrigerant in an absorbent, or something that soaks up liquid easily,
instead of using a mechanical compressor. Absorption cooling cycles
possess four specific, major components: an absorber, a generator, a
condenser and an evaporator. The evaporator is, essentially, the
refrigeration or air conditioning plant used in all cooling systems since it
is where the cooling occurs.
Solar Cooling System (Working)
In an absorption cycle, the cooling process progresses as follows:

i) The absorber holds an absorbent-refrigerant mixture that is delivered

to the generator through a liquid pump.

ii) The generator takes the absorbent-refrigerant mixture and heats it up

using the external solar energy that has been collected through a source
such as a solar panel. The solution starts to boil in reaction to the heat,
turning water into vapor which flows to the condenser.
Solar Cooling System (Working)
iii) The condenser liquefies the water vapor, rejecting heat in the process
which is collected by the heat sink. The new liquid condensate is then
directed towards the evaporator through an expansion valve.

iv) Finally, evaporation of the refrigerant at low pressure causes the

evaporator to absorb the heat from the cooled space, creating the cooling
effect.

At the end, the vaporized refrigerant returns to the absorber and the
cycle repeats. Solar power is responsible for driving this cycle.
Solar Cooling System (Working)
Desiccant cooling systems rely on cycling dehumidification-humidification
processes. It uses substances and materials that readily attract water
from their surroundings for dehumidification. These materials are known
as desiccants. The desiccants are regenerated in the cycle by applying
solar power.
Solar Cooling System (Working)

Desiccant cooling systems can operate with both liquid and solid desiccants. The
desiccant cooling process progresses as follows:

1. Desiccants absorb the water vapor and remove the moisture from the process air in
the dehumidification, or absorber, unit. A transfer results from the difference in vapor
pressure, thus releasing heat due to the condensation of water and creating a heat
exchange.

2. The air is then introduced into the space or into an evaporative cooler for further
cooling while the diluted desiccant is sent to the regenerator. However, before the
diluted desiccant can enter the regenerator, it must pass through a liquid-liquid heat
exchanger and a heating coil in order to raise its temperature.
Solar Cooling System (Working)
3. Once in the regenerator, the heated, diluted desiccant is
exposed to regenerative air, causing moisture to transfer from
the diluted solution to the air. This transfer is due to the
created difference in vapor pressure.
4. Next, the resulting, more concentrated desiccant passes
through the liquid-liquid heat exchanger once again as well as
a cooling coil and then moves back into the dehumidification
unit, allowing the cycle to repeat.
Solar Cooling System (Working)

The third technique, solar mechanical cycles, works very differently

from the absorption and desiccant cycles. Instead of creating an
entirely new system, solar mechanical cycles attempt to combine solar
powered mechanics with conventional cooling systems. In this cycle,
solar power is used to fuel the actual engine that produces the energy
used to operate the entire cooling system instead fueling the
absorption chiller, like it does in both the absorption and desiccant
cycles.
Solar Cooling System (Application)

Solar cooling is primarily intended for two main purposes:

refrigerating food storage and space cooling, or air
conditioning. Solar cooling can be seen in vehicles like RVs and
campers which use the system for refrigeration. Vapor
absorption refrigeration systems, which are used in industries
where extremely low process temperatures are required as
well as large thermal capabilities, also display the use of solar
cooling.
Solar Cooling System (Application)

Perhaps the most beneficial application of solar cooling is its ability to

provide cooling systems to countries that otherwise would not be able
to handle the total electric and energy cost and burden required by
conventional cooling systems. Solar cooling greatly reduces the
amount of energy required to refrigerate necessities such as vaccines
and agricultural products, which, in turn, creates cost savings and
benefits the environment by using renewable energy and reducing the
use of ozone depleting materials.
Solar Energy Storage

Definition:

A device that reserves energy for later consumption that is

charged by a connected solar system. The stored electricity is
consumed after sundown, during energy demand peaks, or
during a power outage. Most common on residential or
commercial buildings.
Solar Energy Storage
Solar Energy Storage (Sensible Heat Storage)

• Heating a liquid or solid which does not vhange phase

comes under this category.

• Heat that causes a change in temperature in an object is

called sensible heat.

• The quantity of heat stored is proprtional to the temperature

rise of the material
Solar Energy Storage (Latent Heat Storage)

• All pure sunstances in nature are able to change their state:

from solid to liquid and liquid to gas)

• In this system heat is stored in a material when it melts and

heat is extracted from the system when it freezes.

• Heat can also be stored when liquid changes to gaseous

state. But as the volume change is large, such a system is
not economical.
Solar Energy Storage (Thermo Chemical Storage)

• With a thermo chemical storage system, solar heat energy

can start an endothermic chemical reaction and the new
products of reaction remain intact.

• To extract energy, a reverse exothermic reaction is allowed

to take place.