Cells

Cells are the basic units of life, all animals and cells are made up of cells. The cells are
made up of a living material called protoplasm. Protoplasm is made up of the nucleus,
cell membrane and the cytoplasm.

protoplasm Function

nucleus - It is an organelle surrounded by the nuclear membrane.

Functions:
- The nucleus controls all activities that happen within the
cell
- It is also responsible for cell division. (cells without a
nucleus cannot divide for example, red blood cells.
- Contains genetic information in the form of chromosomes.
- Chromosomes are long thread-like structures that are
made up of proteins and deoxyribonucleic acids.
- DNA stores hereditary information which provides
instruction to the cells to carry out its activities, such as
growth and cell reproduction.
- When a cell is dividing, the chromosomes will shorten into
thick rod-like structures.

Cell membrane - The cell membrane is a partially permeable membrane,

which means it allows only certain substances to pass
through and into the cell and out of the cells.
- A delicate structure that encases the entire cell, and is
made up of liquids (fats) and proteins.
Function:
- Controls the movement of substances in and out of the
cell.
- Cell wall is present only in plant cells and surrounds the
cell membrane. It is rigid as it is made up of cellulose.
- Functions of the cell wall:
- Protects the cell from injury
- Gives the cell a fixed shape

cytoplasm - A gel like liquid that fills the cells.

Functions:
- A place where numerous chemical reactions occur.
- It contains organelles, which are cell parts or structures
that carry out specific functions within a cell.
Animal and Plant cells

Organelle Function

Vacuole - It is a fluid-filled cavity that is encased by a vacuolar

membrane that is partially permeable.
Function:
- Stores substances within a cell

Functions in animals cells:

- Has small tiny and temporary vacuoles that store water
and food substances.

Function in plant cells:

- Vacuole is large, central and permanent, and contains cell
sap.
- Cell sap contains dissolved substances such as mineral
salts, sugars and amino acids.

Mitochondrion - Small and sausage shaped

( mitochondria for Function:
plural) - To carry out aerobic respiration to release the energy from
food through oxidation
- Energy released from aerobic respiration is used in cell
activities such as cell growth and cell reproduction.

Chloroplast - Present in only plant cells

function:
- Contains chlorophyll used to trap light during
photosynthesis

ribosomes - Small round structures that are either attached to the

rough endoplasmic reticulum or floating around freely in
the cytoplasm of the cell.
Function:
- Synthesizes proteins
Ribosomes that are attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum:
- Synthesizes proteins that are to be transported out of the
cell.
Ribosomes floating freely in the cytoplasm:
- Synthesizes proteins that are to be used within the
cytoplasm of the cell.

Rough - A site for protein synthesis

endoplasmic - There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum, the smooth
reticulum (RER) endoplasmic reticulum (SER) and the rough endoplasmic
reticulum. (RER)
- The membrane of the RER is continuous with the nuclear
membrane.
- The RER appears rough due to the ribosomes attached to
the surface.
Function:
- To transport proteins synthesized by the ribosomes to the
golgi body for modification to be transported out of the cell.

Smooth - Appears smooth due to the lack of ribosomes present on

endoplasmic its surface.
reticulum (SER) Function:
- Synthesizes lipids (fats), and steroids. (sex hormones in
mammals.)
- Converts harmful substances such as drugs or toxins into
harmless substances through a process called
detoxification.

Golgi body (or - Composed of several flattened membrane-bound sacs that

golgi apparatus) look like flattened discs.

Functions:
- Chemically modifies substances made by the ER
- Stores and packages the modified substances into
vesicles to be secreted out of the cell.
- Vesicles are small membrane bound sacs that are formed
by pinching off from membranes of certain organelles in a
cell, such as the RER or the golgi body.
- Vesicles transport substances within a cell. (function)

How the endoplasmic reticulum and the golgi body work together
to move substances made by the ER out of the cell.

- After the substances are synthesized by the ER, they are

pinched off from the membrane of the ER and packaged
into vesicles and transported to the golgi body.
- The vesicles then fuse with the membrane of the golgi
body to release the substances in the cell to be modified
by the golgi body.
- Once the substances are modified by the golgi body, they
are once again pinched off from the membrane of the golgi
body and packed into secretory vesicles and are
transported to the cell membrane.
- The secretory vesicles then fuse with the cell membrane
and the modified substances in the vesicles are released
 out of the cell.

Microscopes
Cells are too small to be seen with the naked eye, but they can be seen with the help of
a microscope.
Light microscopes:
- Produces coloured images
- Has a magnification of up to several hundred times
- Live and dead specimens can be used

Electron microscopes:
- Produces monochrome images
- Has a magnification of up to several hundred thousand times
- Only dead specimens can be used

Differentiation of cells
Cells have many features but their precise structure is closely related with the work they
do.
Differentiation is a process a cell goes through to become specialized to carry out
specific functions.

Examples of specialized cells:

Specialized image Adaptation to its function

cell

Red blood cell - Contains hemoglobin that

helps transport of oxygen
more efficiently.
- No nucleus in order to
contain more hemoglobin
to transport more oxygen
- Biconcave shape to
increase surface-to-volume
ratio to increase the rate of
diffusion of oxygen into the
cell.
- Flexible and can squeeze
through capillaries easily
Muscle cell - Contains mitochondria that
helps to release more
energy from food through
oxidation to provide more
energy that is needed in
the contraction and
relaxation of the muscle
cell.

Root hair cell - Has a long elongated

structure to increase the
surface area-to-volume
ratio of the cell to the soil
to increase the absorption
of water and mineral salts.
- (next chapter) contains
mitochondria to provide the
root hair cell with a larger
amount of energy carry
out active transport to
absorb the mineral ions in
the cell as the cell sap in
the cell has a higher
concentration of mineral
ions than in the cell, thus
energy is needed to go
against the concentration
gradient between the soil
and the root hair cell and
absorb mineral ions