KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND BUILDING ENGINEERING

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING IN CIVIL AND BUILDING ENGINEERING

TCBE 3106 HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING

ASSIGNMENT

LECTURER: DR. Eng. AMBROSE MUBIALIWO

GROUP MEMBERS

No. NAME REGISTRATION No. SIGNATURE

1. ATWINE JUNIOR 21/U/ECE/16440/PE

2. GIDUDU EMMA 22/U/ECE/1416/PE

3. KAKAIRE HERBERT 22/U/ECE/1465/PE

4. KASADHA JOVIN 21/U/ECD/16550/PD

5. ETRIMA GEOFFREY 22/U/ECD/1408/PD

6. KATABIRA RONALD 20/U/ECE/7831/PE

7. BAMUWALANA 20/U/ECW/14181/WKD
ALLAN

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Contents
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................3
CHAPTER TWO: RUNOFF AND RAINFALL CORRELATION...............................................................5
climatic variables.......................................................................................................................................6
Geographic variables.................................................................................................................................7
PREPARATION OF DATA.......................................................................................................................9
Instantaneous unit hydrograph.................................................................................................................13
CHAPTER THREE: GROUND WATER HYDROLOGY AND HYDRAULICS......................................15
Characteristics of Groundwater................................................................................................................15
References....................................................................................................................................................24
List of figures
Figure 1:Duration curve of daily, Bowie Creek near Hattlesburg. 1939-48..................................................9
Figure 2:The various components of a natural hydrograph.......................................................................12
Figure 3.S-hydrograph...............................................................................................................................15
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION.
Surface water is water stored or flowing on the earth’s surface. The surface
water system continually interacts with the atmospheric and subsurface water
systems. Water shed, or water catchment is the area of land draining into a stream
or a river at a given location. Suppose that precipitation of a constant rate begins
and continues indefinitely on a watershed; Initially, a large proportion of the
precipitation contributes to surface storage; as water infiltrates into the soil, there is
soil moisture storage. Retention is storage held for a long period of time and
depleted by evaporation, and detention is short term storage depleted by flow away
from the storage location. As the detention storages begin filling, flow away from
them occurs; unsaturated flow through the unsaturated soil near the land surface,
ground flow through saturated aquifers deeper down, and overland flow across the
land surface.
Run off is the drainage of precipitation from a catchment, which flows through
its drainage system. This occurs when the infiltration capacity of an area’s soil has
been exceeded. Surface run off is assumed to to take two components; channel
precipitation and interflow. Channel precipitation is that portion of total catchment
precipitation that flows directly through small natural channels on the land surface
to main drainage channel. A streamflow or discharge hydrograph is a graph or
table showing the flow rate as a function of time at a given location on a stream.
The hydrograph is an integral expression of the physiologic and climatic
characteristics that govern the relations between rainfall and runoff of a particular
drainage basin. Two types of hydrographs are particularly important: the annual
hydrograph and the storm hydrograph
Ground water is widely distributed under the ground and is a replenishable
resource unlike other resources of the earth. The problem in in ground water
investigation is the zones of occurrence and recharge. The modern trends are to
create more opportunity for recharge of ground water from natural resources like
rain. The ground water is free from pollution and the ground water storage is free
from atomic attacks. Ground water can be developed at a small capital cost in least
possible time, and intensive irrigation can be practiced with double and triple
cropping including commercial crops. Ground water can be used for supplemental
irrigation during periods of deficient surface supply, for the year round irrigation
practice.

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Flow of ground water except through coarse gravels and rockfill is lamina and the
velocity of flow is given by Darcy’s law (1856) which states that the velocity of
flow in a porous medium is proportional to the hydraulic gradient.

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CHAPTER TWO: RUNOFF AND RAINFALL CORRELATION
The first raindrops fall to the ground and are caught by the greenery there. The
term for this is interception storage. Rainwater that has reached the ground surface
ceases penetrating into the soil when rainfall intensity exceeds the soil's capacity
for infiltration. After surface puddles, ditches, and other depressions are filled
(depression storage), runoff is then produced. Consequently, runoff is the term for
precipitation that runs over a terrestrial surface.
The dynamic interaction of surface storage, soil infiltration, and rain intensity
affects the connection between rainfall and runoff in any thunderstorm. Runoff
happens when the amount of rain falls exceeds the soil's capacity for infiltration
when there are no physical obstacles blocking surface flow.

The runoff from a particular downpour relies on:

 Rainfall volume
 The intensity of rainfall is the total amount of rain that falls over time. A
measure of the intensity of rain is the height of the water layer that gradually
covers the ground.
 Infiltration rate of the soil
 The soil infiltration rate (IR), which can happen in a variety of situations, is
the volume flux of water going into the profile per unit of soil surface area.
When water is added to the soil, a thin layer (less than 2 mm thick), called as
the seal, is typically created, which frequently causes the IR to decrease
from its initial high rate.
 Storage capacity of the soil's surface
i. Therefore, Runoff = IR – SIR - SSC
ii. Where,
iii. IR – Rainfall intensity
iv. SIR - Rate of soil infiltration
v. SSC - Soil surface storage capacity
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  A catchment's contributing factors can be broadly categorized into the
following categories:

climatic variables
 Precipitation type:
 Precipitation comes in many different forms, such as snow, hail, and rain.
However, after melting, the snow penetrates into the ground. Snowfall runoff
is delayed because it takes snow a while to melt before turning into water
and permeating the earth.
 Storm Intensity:
 Intensity of rainfall and runoff are negatively connected. The discharge
increases as rainfall intensity increases.
 Continuity of Rainfall:
 Rainfall amount and intensity have a linear relationship. Rainfall volume
causes an increase in runoff. Consequently, if it rains for a long time, there
will be a lot of runoff.
 Distribution of rainfall across the catchment:
 Large runoff is produced as a result of the catchment's extensive rainfall. In
the lowest reaches of the watershed, runoff increases swiftly after heavy
rains. On the other hand, the upper areas of the watershed experience a slight
increase in runoff following significant rainfall.
 Storm movement direction:
 The amount of runoff is higher when a storm crosses a stream in the
downstream direction as opposed to the upstream direction.

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Geographic variables
 Soil Permeability: Surface runoff and soil permeability have the opposite
relationships. Runoff decreases as permeability increases.
 Plants: In order to survive and take up water from the soil, plants need water.
Consequently, there is less surface runoff in vegetated regions.
 Type of soil: Loose, coarse-grained soils have a higher capacity for
infiltration and produce less runoff than fine-grained and compacted soils.
 Catchment slope: A steeper slope enhances runoff, whereas a flat surface or
no slope will provide water time to absorb.
 Land use: The amount of runoff varies depending on how the land is used;
for instance, an area with a lot of vegetation will have less runoff than one
with little or no vegetation.
 Catchment shape: How the flow from various sites synchronizes with the
outlet depends on the shape of the watershed. Catchments with a circular or
fan shape create runoff at higher rates than those with an elongated shape
because runoff from numerous sites will almost likely arrive at the outlet at
the same time.
i. streamflow modeling
ii. Streamflow is the volumetric discharge expressed as a function of
time. The gathering and analysis of streamflow data is one of the key
hydrological responsibilities. Analysis of streamflow aids in;
 An explanation of the flow regime
 To assess the potential of different rivers
 To forecast potential river flows in the future.
 Curves of flow duration
The cumulative frequency curve known as the flow-duration curve (fig. 3)
shows the percentage of time that a specific discharge was met or exceeded

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 over a specified period of time. For instance, during the years 1939 to 1948,
Bowie Creek's daily mean flow (Fig. 3) was at least 144 cubic feet per
second 90% of the time. The fact that the flow-duration curve combines the
stream's overall discharge with its flow characteristics ranges in one curve
may be a simpler way to understand how it represents streamflow data. The
flow-duration curve offers a practical way to examine stream flow
parameters and contrast one or more basins with another.

Figure 1:Duration curve of daily, Bowie Creek near Hattlesburg. 1939-48

The daily, weekly, or monthly flows within a particular period are sorted according
to magnitude, and the percentage of time the flow equaled or surpassed the stated
values is computed in order to create a flow-duration curve. The curve shows the
average for the period under consideration rather than the flow distribution over a
single year and was produced by averaging the plotted points for the specified
discharges against the percentage of time that they were met or exceeded.

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PREPARATION OF DATA
There are two basic methods for producing flow-duration curves:

1. Using the calendar year

2. The total-period technique

The calendar-year method ranks the discharges for a certain year according to their
size. Orders 1, 2, 3, _, and _ are listed. This process is repeated for each year's
records. Each order number's discharges are averaged. A block diagram is plotted
using an ordinate in discharge units and an abscissa in time units. The calendar-
year method provides higher figures for low discharges and lower values for large
discharges when compared to the more precise total-period method.

All discharges are classified into classes in the total-period method based on
their magnitude.
Starting with the highest class, the totals are added up, and for each class, the
percentage of the total time is computed. The discharge is then used as the x-
axis for the data, and the time in percent of the overall period is used as the
y-axis.
Analysis of frequency
Flood frequency analysis is a method that hydrologists use to forecast flow
levels along a river that correspond to specific return periods or
probabilities. Using annual peak flow data that is available for a number of
years, flood frequency analysis is used to generate frequency distribution
graphs by determining statistical data such as mean, standard deviation, and
skewness. Flood frequency plays a crucial role in determining the frequency
of floods when planning dams, bridges, culverts, levees, highways, sewage
treatment facilities, water treatment facilities, industrial structures, etc.
The techniques for frequency analysis are as follows;
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1. Counting how many events occur at specific intervals (interval method)
2. The ranking system
3.Application of theoretical frequency distributions
Analyzing frequency using the ranking algorithm. Research, 2023; method
described to R.J. Oosterbaan
Ranking data for frequency analysis can be done in both ascending and
descending order. The steps for the ranking approach are as follows.
Sort the entire amount of data (n) in decreasing order by value (x), with the
highest value coming in front and the lowest value coming last.
Each value x should be given a serial number (r), with x1 being the highest
value and xn being the lowest (xr r = 1, 2, 3,..., n).
By dividing the rank (r) by the total number of observations plus one, you
may determine the frequency of exceedance.

r
F(x > xr) = n+1

Calculate the frequency of non-exceedance.

r
F(x ≤ xr) = 1 - F(x > xr) = 1 - n+1

Issues with frequency analysis

 The streamflow records from which the estimation method is formed
must be accurate. Frequency analysis isn't particularly useful when the
records are brief or of questionable quality.
 Each storm or low flow occurrence used in the data set is assumed to
be independent of one another. In annual maximum (or minimum)

8
 series, this is very simple to avoid; in peak threshold series, it is more
challenging.
 The hydrological regime has been assumed to have stayed constant
during the whole time of record. This might not hold true in areas of
the watershed where land use or climate change have taken place.

Hydrograph
An ongoing record of a stream or river discharge is called a hydrograph. A
particular catchment's response to a variety of special circumstances,
including the catchment's underlying geology, the amount of pre-existing
moisture, and the length of a storm, determines the shape of the hydrograph.

Hydrograph components
The various components of a natural hydrograph are shown in figure below.

Figure 2:The various components of a natural hydrograph.

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 Base flow, or the ground water intake to the stream, is all that is present at
first and it exponentially decreases over time. After the storm begins, the first
losses due to interception and infiltration are encountered, and then the surface
flow begins. The hydrograph rises gradually and reaches its peak value after a time
tp, which is calculated from the center of the net rain hydrograph and is also
known as the basin lag or lag time. Rainwater has been flowing into the catchment
storage up until this point and is now progressively draining from it because it
drops off and then changes slope at the inflection point. By this time, infiltrating
and percolating water have raised the ground water table, which now contributes
more to stream flow than it did at the beginning of the storm. The ground water
depletion curve, also known as the recession curve, is an exponential curve that
shows how the hydrograph and ground water table change after this point.

Unit hydrograph
An isolated rainfall of a certain unit length that falls uniformly across the whole
catchment area creates a unit volume of runoff (1 cm3) is referred to as a unit
hydrograph.

Derivation of the unit hydrographs

To create a unit hydrograph from an observed flood hydrograph, the following
procedures are used:

 Isolated (single-peaked), powerful storms that occurred uniformly across the

watershed created flood hydrographs with a substantial amount of runoff.
 Select a hydrograph of a flood that occurred as a result of the unit storm you
chose in item above.
 Distinguish between the base flow and the entire runoff.

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  To obtain the ordinates of direct runoff, subtract the relevant ordinates of
base flow from the ordinates of the total runoff hydrograph (at regular time
intervals).
 To determine the depth of net precipitation across the drainage basin, divide
the area of the drainage basin by the volume of direct runoff.
 Divide each ordinate of direct runoff by the depth of net precipitation to
obtain the ordinates of the unit hydrograph.
 Trace the ordinates of the unit hydrograph against the duration of direct
runoff. This will provide the basin's unit hydrograph.

Application of unit hydrograph

A unit hydrograph has two uses:

i. First, it can be used to build a unit hydrograph of desired duration from one
of known duration using the S-curve approach or the superposition concept.
ii. From the unit hydrograph thus produced, to determine the flood hydrograph
corresponding to a single storm or a string of storms. For design purposes, a
design storm is assumed, and a design flood hydrograph is created using a
unit hydrograph.

Instantaneous unit hydrograph

An instantaneous unit hydrograph is one produced by an effective rainfall of 1 mm
and has an infinitesimal reference duration, or a duration that approaches towards
zero. The instantaneous unit hydrograph, in accordance with the systematic notion,
represents the catchment's response to an immediate impulse. Because we must
divide the rainfall into numerous short durations and then determine its response,
the instantaneous unit hydrograph is mostly employed when rainfall duration and
intensity are variable. S-curves can also be used to obtain the instantaneous unit
hydrograph; however, this is only a rough method known as Clark's method.

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S-hydrograph
A S hydrograph is a hydrograph that is created by steady effective rainfall that lasts
for an endless amount of time. Because of how the hydrograph's shape resembles
the letter "S," it is known as a "S" hydrograph.

Figure 3.S-hydrograph

According to the understanding of the rainfall-runoff process, a point will

ultimately be reached where the direct runoff rate will be equal to the effective
rainfall rate as the rainfall is occurring at a constant rate eternally. The term "point
of equilibrium" refers to this location. When equilibrium is reached, the
hydrograph's ordinate matches the rate of effective precipitation, and its curve
moves in a straight line parallel to that axis, becoming a S hydrograph.

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CHAPTER THREE: GROUND WATER HYDROLOGY AND
HYDRAULICS.
Characteristics of Groundwater.
Water found in rock cracks, soil pores, and fractures below the surface of the
Earth is known as groundwater. It provides water for drinking, agriculture,
and industrial use, making it a crucial natural resource. The following are
some essential traits of groundwater:
i) Availability: Most of the freshwater resources on Earth come from
groundwater, which is a key source of freshwater. However, according on
the local geology and hydrology, its availability may vary.
ii) Quality: Compared to surface water, groundwater typically has better
quality and is less prone to pollution. However, human activities like
farming and industrial processes, as well as natural sources like mineral
deposits, can still contaminate it.
iii) Movement: The permeability, porosity, and hydraulic conductivity of
the surrounding materials all affect how slowly groundwater travels through
the soil and rock strata. Human actions like land use changes and
groundwater pumping may have an impact on this movement.
iv) Recharge: Groundwater can be recharged through precipitation and
infiltration, and this process can take months or years to complete. The
recharge rate can vary depending on factors such as climate, soil type, and
vegetation cover.
v) Storage: The amount of groundwater that may be stored depends on
the local geology and hydrology and is kept in the soil and rock layers. Wells
and other groundwater pumping facilities can be used to extract it.

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vi) Temperature: Aquifer location and depth can affect the temperature of
the groundwater. The fact that groundwater is often colder than surface
water can have significant ecological and hydrological effects.
vii) Salinity: The geology and location of the place can affect the salinity
of groundwater. The use of groundwater for irrigation and human use may
be constrained in some regions due to its high salinity.
These are some of the fundamental qualities of groundwater that
management and conservation efforts should take into account.
Occurrence of Groundwater.
Water that is found in the pore spaces and fractures of soil and rock
formations below the surface of the Earth is known as groundwater.
Depending on the local geology and hydrology, it can be found at different
depths in the subsurface environment.
Infiltration of surface water and precipitation into the soil and rock strata
results in the formation of groundwater. When it rains, some of the water
seeps into the ground and is absorbed by plants, while the remainder runs off
into streams and rivers. A fraction of this water also recharges the
groundwater system by infiltrating into the subterranean environment.
The area's geological features are directly tied to the presence of
groundwater. Groundwater can exist at relatively shallow depths and can be
reached through wells or springs in regions where the underlying geology is
made up of porous and permeable rocks like sandstone, limestone, or gravel.
In contrast, groundwater may be found at higher depths and may require
more sophisticated drilling techniques to access in regions where the
underlying geology is made of impermeable rocks like shale or granite.
The local hydrological features have an impact on the presence of
groundwater as well. Groundwater is more prevalent in areas with high
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precipitation and low evapotranspiration rates because these regions often
have a higher rate of groundwater recharge. In contrast, regions with high
evapotranspiration and little precipitation tend to have lower recharge rates,
which reduces the presence of groundwater.
The presence of groundwater must be taken into account when managing
and conserving water supplies. Understanding the local geology and
hydrology as well as the potential effects of human activities like
groundwater pumping and land use changes is essential for the sustainable
use of groundwater resources.
Groundwater Hydraulics: Darcy’s Law.
A key idea in groundwater hydraulics, Darcy's rule describes how water
moves through porous medium like soil and rock formations. The law, which
was first put forth by Henry Darcy in the middle of the 19th century, asserts
that the hydraulic gradient and the hydraulic conductivity of the porous
medium are directly related to the rate of groundwater flow.
Darcy's law states that groundwater flows similarly to how water flows from
high elevations to low elevations: from locations with high hydraulic head to
areas with low hydraulic head. How quickly water can pass through a porous
medium is determined by its hydraulic conductivity; more permeable
materials have greater hydraulic conductivity values.
Using groundwater hydraulics based on Darcy's law, one may forecast
groundwater flow and evaluate how human activities like pumping and
changing land use would affect groundwater resources. It is possible to
calculate the rate and direction of groundwater flow, as well as the volume
of water that may be sustainably removed from a given aquifer, by
measuring the hydraulic conductivity and hydraulic head of a groundwater
system.
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However, it is important to note that Darcy's law is a simplified model that
does not take into account the complex interactions between water and the
porous medium, such as;
i. The effects of heterogeneity.
ii. Anisotropy.
iii. Nonlinearity.
Therefore, more advanced models and techniques, such as numerical
modelling and field testing, may be necessary to accurately predict manage
groundwater resources.
Examples.
1.In a certain alluvial basin of 100km2, 90Mm3 of ground water was
pumped in a year and the ground water table dropped by about 5m during
the year. Assuming no replenishment, estimate the specific yield of the
aquifer. If the specific retention is 12%, what is the porosity of the soil?
Solution (1) Change in ground water storage, ΔGWS=Aaq x ΔGWT x Sy
90 x 10^6 = (100 x 10^6) x 5 x Sy
Sy = 0.18
Solution (2) Porosity n =Sy +Sr =0.18 +0.12 =0.30 or 30%.
2. An artesian aquifer, 30m thick has a porosity of 25% and bulk modulus of
compression 200kg/cm2. Estimate the storage coefficient of the aquifer.
What fraction of this is attributed to the expansibility of water?
Solution S = γwnb(1/Kw +1/nKs) = 1000 x0.25 x 30{(1/2.14 x 108)
+(1/0.25 x 2 107)}
=7500(0.46 x 10-8 + 20 x 10-8) =1.54 x 10-3
Storage coefficient due to expansibility of water as a percentage of S above
= (7500 x 0.467 x 10-8) / (7500 x 20.467 x 10-8) x 100 =2.28%, which is
negligible.
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Steady flow: Simulation of common groundwater problems.
The term "steady flow" describes a situation in which the direction and rate
of groundwater flow are both constant across time. In groundwater
modelling, steady flow simulation is used to both detect and address
common groundwater issues as well as predict how a groundwater system
would behave under various situations.
Some common groundwater problems that can be simulated using steady
flow modelling include:
i) Groundwater contamination:
Steady flow modelling can be used to identify probable sources of
contamination, simulate the passage of contaminants through the
groundwater system, and assess the efficacy of various remediation
techniques.
ii) Saltwater intrusion: In coastal places, excessive groundwater pumping
can result in saltwater infiltration and contamination of the freshwater
supply. The movement of saltwater can be simulated, the magnitude of the
intrusion can be predicted, and various management approaches to stop or
lessen the issue can be evaluated using steady flow modelling.
iii) Groundwater depletion: Excessive groundwater pumping can deplete
the aquifer and reduce the amount of water available for ecological and
human requirements. The effects of various pumping rates and management
techniques on the aquifer's water level and recharge can be predicted using
steady flow modelling.
iv) Subsidence: In locations where groundwater is often pumped, the
removal of water from the aquifer can cause the ground to sink, resulting in

17
subsidence and other issues like infrastructure damage and an elevated risk
of flooding. The amount and rate of subsidence can be predicted using
steady flow modelling, which can also be used to assess various mitigation
measures.
In steady flow simulation, the groundwater system and its behavior under
various circumstances are modelled numerically. These models typically
consist of a series of mathematical equations that be solved numerically
using techniques like finite difference or finite element analysis, such as
Darcy's law, mass balance equations, and boundary conditions.
Steady flow modelling can assist stakeholders and decision-makers in better
understanding and managing common groundwater concerns, resulting in a
more efficient and sustainable use of this priceless resource.
Pumping tests and Analysis.
Pumping tests are outdoor experiments carried out to determine an aquifer's
hydraulic characteristics and to assess the operation of the well by observing
how the groundwater system reacts to pumping. The test involves
continuously pumping water from a well while keeping track of how the
water level in the well and surrounding observation wells changes over time.
The following steps are typically involved in a pumping test:
i) Well installation: A well is dug or put in place in the aquifer of
interest, and apparatus is installed to track the water level, including pressure
transducers and data recorders.

ii) Pumping: For a period of time, often lasting a few hours to several
days, water is pumped continuously from the well.

18
iii) Monitoring: Throughout the pumping and recuperation periods, the
water level in the pumped well and surrounding observation wells is
regularly checked.
iv) Analysis: The information gathered during the pumping test is
examined to determine the hydraulic conductivity, transmissivity, and
storage coefficient of the aquifer as well as to assess the well's performance.
The analysis of pumping test data involves the use of various mathematical
models and equations to interpret the observed changes in water level and
estimate the hydraulic properties of the aquifer. Some commonly used
models include:
i) The Theis equation: Based on the drawdown (i.e., the drop in water
level) in the pumped well over time, this model is used to estimate the
hydraulic conductivity and storage coefficient of the aquifer.
ii) The Jacob straight-line method: Using the slope of a straight line
drawn on a plot of the logarithm of drawdown versus time, this method
estimates the transmissivity of the aquifer.
iii) The Cooper-Jacob method: By accounting for the impacts of delayed
yield and partial well screen penetration, this approach is a modified version
of the Jacob straight-line method.
Pumping tests are crucial for managing groundwater resources because they
offer useful data on the aquifer's hydraulic characteristics and the
effectiveness of wells. This data can be used to calculate sustainable
pumping rates, evaluate potential pumping effects on the surrounding
groundwater system, and optimize well design and operation.
Geophysical Methods.
Based on the physical characteristics of rocks and soils, geophysical
technologies are procedures used to scan and map underlying geologic
19
features and structures. These techniques are frequently employed in many
different professions, such as engineering, mineral exploration, and
environmental evaluation.
Some common geophysical methods include:
1. Seismic methods: Sound waves are produced and
recorded using seismic techniques. These sound waves
travel through the subsurface and are reflected back by
various rock strata and geological formations.
Geophysicists may create representations of the
subsurface and pinpoint features like faults, stratigraphic
layers, and hydrocarbon sources by analysing the
duration and amplitude of these reflections.
2. Electrical methods: Electrical approaches entail
measuring the sub-surface's electrical resistivity, which
varies based on the mineral content and fluid saturation
of the rocks and soils. Maps of subsurface features
including geologic contacts, mineral deposits, and
groundwater resources can be made using this data.
3. Magnetic methods: Magnetic methods entail
assessing the magnetic qualities of soils and rocks, which
can be impacted by the presence of magnetic minerals
like iron oxide. These techniques are frequently used in
environmental assessment to map buried metal items and
contaminated soils, as well as in mineral prospecting to
locate ore reserves.
4. Gravity methods: Gravity methods measure the
gravitational attraction between the subsurface and the
20
 surface of the Earth. This gravitational pull can be
affected by variations in the density of the rocks and
soils. Geophysicists can locate subsurface features like
faults, salt domes, and mineral deposits by mapping these
fluctuations.
5. Ground-penetrating radar (GPR): GPR works by
sending and receiving high frequency electromagnetic
waves that travel deep into the earth and bounce back off
of its features and interfaces. This technique is frequently
used in environmental assessment and engineering to
map the location and depth of buried features and items,
such as utilities, foundations, and buried garbage.
To offer a more thorough understanding of the subsurface, geophysical
methods are frequently employed in conjunction with other geology and
geotechnical data. These techniques can aid in the decision-making process
for resource exploration and development, environmental assessment and
clean-up, and infrastructure planning and design by giving precise
information on subsurface geology and hydrology.

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References
1.Shaw, E. M., Hydrology in practice, chapman and Hall, 1994, London,
UK.
2.Mansell, M.G. Rural and urban hydrology, Thomas Telford,2003, London,
UK.

3.H.M. Raghunath. Hydrology Principles Analysis and Design, New age

internet

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