UNIT-II

Stresses in Beams: Pure Bending, normal stresses in beams, shear

stresses in beams due to transverse and axial loads, composite beams.
Deflection of Beams: Differential equation of the elastic curve,
cantilever and simply supported beams, Macaulay’s method, area
moment method, fixed and continuous beams
Torsion: Torsion, combined bending & torsion of solid & hollow shafts,
torsion of thin walled tubes.
 Bending Stresses in Simple Beams

• The bending moment and shearing forces are setup at all

section of beam, when it is loaded with some external loads.
• The bending moment at a section tends to bends or deflect
the beam and the internal stresses resist its bending.
• The resistance offered by internal stresses to the bending, is
called bending stress, and the relevant theory is called the
theory of simple bending.
 It is convenient to imagine a beam to be composed of an infinite number of thin
longitudinal fibers. Each longitudinal fiber is assumed to act independently of every other fiber.
The beam will deflect downward and the fibers in the lower part of the beam undergo
extension, while those in the upper part are shortened.
These changes in the lengths of the fibers set up stresses in the fibers. Those that are
extended have tensile stresses acting on the fibers in the direction of the longitudinal axis of
the beam, while those that are shortened are subject to compressive stresses.
Neutral Surface: There always exists one surface in the
beam containing fibers that do not undergo any
extension or compression, and thus are not subject to
any tensile or compressive stress. This surface is called
the neutral surface of the beam.
The intersection of the neutral surface with any
cross section of the beam perpendicular to its
longitudinal axis is called the neutral axis. All fibers on
one side of the neutral axis are in a state of tension,
while those on the opposite side are in compression.
 Assumptions in the Theory of Simple Bending
The following assumptions are made in the theory of simple bending:
1. The material of the beam is perfectly homogeneous (i.e., of the same kind
throughout) and isotropic (i.e., of equal elastic properties in all directions).
2. The beam material is stressed within its elastic limit and thus, obeys Hooke’s
law.
3. The transverse sections, which were plane before bending, remains plane after
bending also.
4. Each layer of the beam is free to expand or contract, independently, of the
layer above or below it.
5. The value of E (Young’s modulus of elasticity) is the same in tension and
compression.
6. The beam is in equilibrium i.e., there is no resultant pull or push in the beam
section.
 Pure Bending
Pure bending is said to take place over a finite portion of a span when the bending
moment is a constant over that portion.
Prismatic members subjected to equal and opposite couples acting in the same
longitudinal plane
 Bending Stress
Consider a small length dx of a beam
subjected to a bending moment as shown in Fig. As
a result of this moment, let this small length of
beam bend into an arc of a circle with O as centre as
shown in Fig.
Let M = Moment acting at the beam,
θ = Angle subtended at the centre by the arc,
R = Radius of curvature of the beam.
Now consider a layer PQ at a distance y from
RS the neutral axis of the beam. Let this layer be
compressed to P′ Q′ after bending as shown in Fig.
We know that decrease in length of this layer
 Now from the geometry of
the curved beam, we find that the
two sections OP′ Q′ and OR′ S′ are
similar.
It is thus obvious, that the
strain (ε) of a layer is proportional
to its distance from the neutral
axis. We also know that the
bending stress,
σb = Strain × Elasticity = ε × E

Since E and R are constants in this expression,

therefore the stress at any point is directly proportional to
y, i.e., the distance of the point from the neutral axis. The
above expression may also be written as
Moment of Resistance
We have already seen that on one side of the neutral axis there are
compressive stresses and on the other there are tensile stresses. These stresses
form a couple, whose moment must be equal to the external moment (M).
The moment of this couple, which resists the external bending moment, is
known as moment of resistance.
Consider a section of the beam as shown in Fig. Let NA be the neutral axis
of the section. Now consider a small layer PQ of the beam section at a distance y
from the neutral axis as shown in Fig.
Let δa = Area of the layer PQ. We know that the intensity of stress in the
layer PQ,
This equation is known as Bending Equation.
 Position of Neutral Axis
At the neutral axis, there is no stress of any kind.
Consider a section of the beam as shown in Fig. Let be the neutral axis of the section.
Consider a small layer PQ of the beam section at a distance from the neutral axis. Let δa = Area
of the layer PQ. We know that intensity of stress in the layer PQ,
Since the section is in
equilibrium, therefore
total stress, from top to
bottom, must be equal
to zero.

Thus to locate the neutral axis of a section, first find out the centroid of the section and
then draw a line passing through this centroid and normal to the plane of bending. This line will
be the neutral axis of the section.
 Distribution of Bending Stress across the Section
• There is no stress at the neutral axis.
• In a simply supported beam, there is a compressive stress above the neutral axis
and a tensile stress below it.
• In a cantilever, there is a tensile stress above the neutral axis and compressive
stress below it.
• The stress at a point is directly proportional to its
distance from the neutral axis.
• If we plot the stresses in a simply supported beam
section, we shall get a figure as shown in Fig.
• The maximum stress (either compressive or
tensile) takes place at the outermost layer. Or in
other words, while obtaining maximum bending
stress at a section, the value of y is taken as
maximum
 Modulus of Section
The relation for finding out the bending stress on the
extreme fibre of a section.
From this relation, we find that the stress in a fibre is
proportional to its distance from the c.g. If ymax is the distance
between the c.g. of the section and the extreme fibre of the
stress, then,
Where, The term ‘Z’ is known as modulus of section or section modulus.

The general practice of writing the above equation is M = σ × Z, where σ denotes the
maximum stress, tensile or compressive in nature. We shall now consider the modulus of
section of the following sections:
1. Rectangular section. 2. Circular section.
 Strength of a Section
It is also termed as flexural strength of a section, which means the moment
of resistance offered by it. We have already discussed the relations :

It is thus obvious that the moment of resistance depends upon moment of

inertia (or section modulus) of the section. A little consideration will show that the
moment of inertia of beam section does not depend upon its cross-section area, but
its disposition in relation to the neutral axis.
We know that in the case of a beam, subjected to transverse loading, the
bending stress at a point is directly proportional to its distance from the neutral axis.
It is thus obvious that a larger area near the neutral axis of a beam is
uneconomical. This idea is put into practice, by providing beams of section, where the
flanges alone withstand almost all the bending stress.
EX-1 For a given stress, compare the moments of resistance of a beam of a square section, when
placed (i) with its two sides horizontal and (ii) with its diagonal horizontal.
The square section with its two horizontal sides and with its diagonal horizontal are
shown in Fig. Let a = Side of the square beam, M1 = Moment of resistance of section 1 and M2 =
Moment of resistance of section 2.
We know that the section
modulus of the beam section
with its two sides horizontal,
and moment of inertia of the beam section with its diagonal horizontal may be found out
by splitting up the section into two triangles and then adding the moments of inertia of the two
triangles about their base.
Sine the moment of
resistance of a
section is directly
proportional to
their moduli of
section, therefore
EX-2 A rectangular beam is to be cut from a circular log of wood of diameter D. Find the ratio of
dimensions for the strongest section in bending.
Given : D = Diameter of the circular log of wood.
Let b = Breadth of the rectangular beam section, and
d = Depth of the rectangular beam section.
We know that section modulus of the rectangular section.

Substituting this value of b in

equation
EX-3 Three beams have the same length, the same allowable
stress and the same bending moment. The cross-section of the
beams are a square, a rectangle with depth twice the width and
a circle as shown in Fig. Find the ratios of weights of the circular
and the rectangular beams with respect to the square beam.
Let a = Side of the square beam,
b = Width of a rectangular beam, 2b = Depth of the rectangular beam and
d = Diameter of a circular section.
Since all the three beams have the same allowable stress (σ) and bending moment (M),
therefore the modulus of section of the three beams must be equal.
EX-4 The channel section shown in Fig. (a) carries water to full depth. If the permissible
stress in the material is 150 MPa, find the spacing at which the channel should be supported. If
the Load/meter length of water is 4.8 kN/m.
We first locate the centroid of the channel section.

We will now calculate

the MI of the channel
section about the NA.
Z = section modulus is calculated from the larger value of
the extreme fibre distance of 371.3 mm.

Moment capacity of the section = σ Z = 150 x 1.36145 x106 = 204.2 kN m

From Fig (b), if l is the length between supports, assuming Simply Supported end conditions,
EX-5 The cross-section of a beam is shown in Fig. The beam is made of material with permissible
stress in compression and tension equal to 100 MPa and 140 MPa respectively. Calculate the
moment of resistance of the cross-section, when subjected to a moment causing compression
at the top and tension at the bottom.
Given: Permissible stress in compression (σc) = 100 MPa = 100 N/mm2
and permissible stress in tension (σt ) = 140 MPa = 140 N/mm2 .
Moment of resistance of the cross-section
First of all, let us find the centre of gravity of the section. We
know that the distance between the centre of gravity of the section
and its bottom face,

Now the moment of

resistance of the section, we shall
take the value of y equal to 60.2 mm
(i.e., greater of the two values
between y1 and y2).
 We also know that
moment of inertia of the
section about an axis through
its c.g. and parallel to x-x axis.

Moment of resistance of the cross-section is the least of the two values i.e.,
5474 × 103 N-mm
 Beams of Composite Section (Flitched Beams)
A composite section may be defined as a section made up of two or more
different materials, joined together in such a manner that they behave like a single piece
and, each material bends to the same radius of curvature.
In such cases, the total moment of resistance will be equal to the sum of the
moments of individual sections. Consider a beam of a composite section made up of two
different materials as shown in Fig.
Let E1 = Modulus of elasticity of part 1,
I1 = Moment of inertia of the part 1,
M1 = Moment of resistance for part 1,
σ1 = Stress in part 1,
Z1 = Modulus of section for part 1,
E2, I2, M2, σ2, Z2 = Corresponding values for part 2 and
R = Radius of the bend up beam.

We know that the moment of resistance for beam 1, M1 = σ1 × Z1

Similarly, the moment of resistance for beam 2, M2 = σ2 × Z2
 Now the Total moment of resistance of the composite section,
M = M1 + M2 = (σ1 × Z1) + (σ2 × Z2) ...(i)
We also know that at any distance from the neutral axis, the strain in both
the materials will be the same.

From the above two relations, we can find out the total moment of resistance of a
composite beam or stresses in the two materials.
But, if the sections of both the materials are not symmetrical, then one area of the
components is converted into an equivalent area of the other.
EX-6 A flitched timber beam made up of steel and timber has a section as shown in Fig.
Determine the moment of resistance of the beam. Take σS = 100 MPa and σT = 5 MPa.
Given : Width of each timber section (bT) = 60 mm ;
Depth of each timber section (dT) = 200 mm ;
Stress in timber (σT) = 5 MPa = 5 N/mm2 ;
Width of steel section (bS) = 15 mm ;
Depth of steel section (dS) = 20 mm and
stress in steel (σS) = 100 MPa = 100 N/mm2 .
We know that the section modulus of a rectangular body,
 Shearing Stress at a Section in a Loaded Beam
Consider a small portion ABDC of
length dx of a beam loaded with uniformly
distributed load as shown in Fig. (a).
We know that when a beam is loaded
with a uniformly distributed load, the shear
force and bending moment vary at every
point along the length of the beam.
Let M = Bending moment at AB,
M + dM = Bending moment at CD,
F = Shear force at AB,
F + dF = Shear force at CD, and
I = MI of the section about its neutral axis.
Now consider an elementary strip at
a distance y from the neutral axis as shown in
Fig. (b).Now let σ = Intensity of bending
stress across AB at distance y from the
neutral axis and a = Cross-sectional area of
the strip.
We have already discussed that
 Distribution of Shearing Stress over a Rectangular Section
Consider a beam of rectangular section ABCD of width and depth as shown in Fig. (a).
We know that the shear stress on a layer JK of beam, at a distance y from the neutral axis,
where
b = Width of the section.
F = Shear force at the section,
A = Area of section above y (i.e., shaded area AJKD ),
y = Distance of the shaded area from the neutral axis,
A y = Moment of the shaded area about the neutral axis,
I = MI of the whole section about its neutral axis,
Now draw the shear stress distribution diagram as shown in Fig. (b).
 Distribution of Shearing Stress over a Triangular Section
Consider a beam of triangular cross-section ABC of base b and height h as shown in Fig.
(a). We know that the shear stress on a layer JK at a distance y from the neutral axis,
Now draw the shear stress distribution diagram as shown in Fig. (b).
Distribution of Shearing Stress over a Circular Section
Consider a circular section of diameter d as shown in Fig. (a).

Now moment of the whole shaded area about

the neutral axis may be found out by integrating the
above equation between the limits y and r, i.e.,
 Now Substituting the value of y · dy in equation
when y = r, width b = 0. Therefore,
the limits of integration may be changed
from y to r, from b to zero in equation

Now substituting
this value of A y
in our original
formula for the
shear stress, i.e.,

At a point, where y = r, τ = 0,
and where y is zero, τ is maximum. We
also see that the variation of τ with
respect to y is a parabolic curve. We
see that at neutral axis τ is maximum.
Now draw the shear stress distribution diagram as shown in Fig. (b).
 Distribution of Shearing Stress over an I-Section
Consider a beam of an I-section as shown in Fig. (a)
Let B = Overall width of the section,
D = Overall depth of the section,
d = Depth of the web, and
b = Thickness of the web.
We know that the shear stress on a layer JK at a
distance y from the neutral axis,
(i)
Now we shall discuss two important cases
(i) when y is greater than d/2
It means that y lies in the
flange as shown in Fig. (a). In this
case, shaded area of the flange,
Now substituting these values of A and y in our
original equation (i) of shear force, i.e.,
 Thus we see that τ increases as y
decreases.
We also see that the variation of τ
with respect to y is a parabolic curve.
At the upper edge of the flange,
where y = D/2, shear stress is zero and at the
lower edge where y = d/2, the shear stress,

(ii) When y is less than d/2

It means that y lies in the web as shown in
Fig. (b). In this case, the value of AῩ for the flange
and the value of AῩ for the web above AB
Now substituting the value of AῩ from
the above equation, in our original equation of
shear stress on a layer at a distance y from the
neutral axis, i.e.,

Thus we see that in the web also τ

increases as y decreases. We also see that the
variation of τ with respect to y in the web also is a
parabolic curve. At neutral axis where y = 0, the
shear stress is maximum. Maximum shear stress,
Now, shear stress at the
junction of the top of the web
and bottom of the flange
Shear stress distributions for some other sections
EX-7. An I-section beam 350 mm × 200 mm has a web thickness of 12.5 mm and a flange
thickness of 25 mm. It carries a shearing force of 200 kN at a section. Sketch the shear stress
distribution across the section.
We know that moment of inertia of the I-section
about it centre of gravity and parallel to x-x axis
We also know that shear stress at the upper
edge of the upper flange is zero. And shear
stress at the joint of the upper flange and web

The shear stress at the junction suddenly increases from 2.78 MPa to.
We also know that the maximum shear stress,
EX-7. A cast-iron bracket subjected to bending, has a cross-section of I-shape with unequal
flanges as shown in Fig. If the compressive stress in top flange is not to exceed 17.5 MPa, what
is the bending moment, the section can take? If the section is subjected to a shear force of 100
kN, draw the shear stress distribution over the depth of the section.
Given: Compressive stress (σc) = 17.5 MPa = 17.5 N/mm2 and
shear force (F) = 100 kN = 100 × 103 N
Bending moment the section can take First of all, let us find out the
position of the neutral axis. We know that distance between
centre of gravity of the section and bottom face,

Distance of centre of gravity from the upper extreme fibre, yc = 350 – 198 = 152 mm
and moment of inertia of the section about an axis passing through its centre of gravity and
parallel to x-x axis,
 Bending moment the section can take
Shear stress distribution diagram We know that
the shear stress at the extreme edges of both
the flanges is zero. Now let us find out the shear
stress at the junction of the upper flange and
web by considering the area of the upper
flange. We know that area of the upper flange,
Shear stress at the junction
of the upper flange and web,

The shear stress at the junction suddenly increases from

Now let us find out the shear stress at the junction

of the lower flange and web by considering the area of the
lower flange. We know that area of the lower flange,
Shear stress at the junction of the lower flange and web,
The shear stress at the function suddenly increases from

Now let us find out the shear stress at

the neutral axis, where the shear stress is
maximum. Considering the area of the I-
section above neutral axis, we know that

Maximum shear stress,

Now draw the shear stress distribution diagram

over the depth of the section as shown in Fig.
 Torsion
Torsion is the twisting of a
straight bar when it is loaded by
twisting moments or torques that
tend to produce rotation about the
longitudinal axes of the bar.
For instance, when we turn a screw driver
to produce torsion our hand applies torque ‘T’ to
the handle and twists the shank of the screw driver.

Torsion is a moment that twists/deforms a member about its longitudinal axis

 TORQUE OR TURNING MOMENT OR TWISTING MOMENT
Twisting moments or torques are forces acting through a distance so as to
promote rotation.

Example Using a wrench to tighten a

nut in a bolt. If the bolt and wrench force
are all perpendicular to one another, the
moment is the force F times the length of
the wrench L.

The moments that produce twisting of bar are called torques or twisting moments.
Simple torque : T = F * L,
Unit of Torque (T) is N.mm or kN.mm
 Bars subjected to Torsion
Let us now
consider a straight bar
supported at one end
and acted upon by two
pairs of equal and
opposite forces.

Then each pair of forces form a couple that tend to twist the bar about its
longitudinal axis, thus producing surface tractions and moments.

Then we can write the moments as

 Torsional Loads on Circular Shafts
Interested in stresses and strains of circular
shafts subjected to twisting couples or torques.
• Turbine exerts torque T on the shaft.
• Shaft transmits the torque to the Generator.
• Generator creates an equal and opposite torque T.

a. A generator provides power at a constant

revolution per minute to a turbine
through shaft AB.
b. Free body diagram of shaft AB along with
the driving and reaction torques on the
generator and turbine, respectively.
 Torsional Loads on Circular Shafts

• In many engineering applications, members are required to carry torsional

loads.
• Consider the torsion of circular shafts. Because a circular cross section is an
efficient shape for resisting torsional loads.
• Circular shafts are commonly used to transmit power in rotating machinery.

in this topic, we will develop formulas for the stresses and deformations
produced in circular bars subjected to torsion, such as drive shafts, thin-
walled members
 Net Torque Due to Internal Stresses
Net of the internal shearing stresses is an internal torque, equal and opposite
to the applied torque,
If ‘τ’ is the shear stress developed
in the element, then, the elementary
resisting force is:
dF = τ × dA
Elementary resisting torsional moment
is:
dT = dF × r = τ × dA × r
Total resisting torsional moment is,
 Pure torsion
 A member is said to be in ‘Pure torsion’, when its cross sections are subjected to
only torsional moments or torque and not accompanied by axial forces and
bending moment.
 When subjected to torsion, every cross-section of a circular shaft remains plane
and undistorted then the bar is said to be under pure torsion.
 Cross-sections for hollow and solid circular shafts remain plain and undistorted
because a circular shaft is axisymmetric.
 Cross-sections of noncircular (non-axisymmetric) shafts are distorted when
subjected to torsion
 Shaft Deformations
 Deformation of a circular shaft
caused by the torque T.
 The initially straight line AB
deforms into a helix.
 The length L of the shaft remains
constant.

From observation, the angle of twist ɸ of the shaft is

proportional to the applied torque T and to the shaft length L.

ɸ ɸ
 Torsional Stresses and Strains
The following assumptions are made while finding out shear stress in a circular shaft
subjected to torsion :
• The material of shaft is uniform throughout the length (Homogeneous &Isotropic)
• The twist along the shaft is uniform.
• The shaft is of uniform circular section throughout the length.
• Circular cross sections remain plane (do not warp) and perpendicular to the axis of the
shaft.
• Cross sections do not deform (there is no strain in the plane of the cross section).
• The distances between cross sections do not change (the axial normal strain is zero).
• Each cross section rotates as a rigid entity about the axis of the shaft.
Although this conclusion is based on the observed deformation of a cylindrical
shaft carrying a constant internal torque, we assume that the result remains valid even if
the diameter of the shaft or the internal torque varies along the length of the shaft.
 Torsional Stresses and Strains
Consider a circular shaft fixed
at one end and subjected to a torque
at the other end.
Let T = Torque in N-mm,
L = Length of the shaft in mm and
r = Radius of the circular shaft in mm.

Because the cross sections are separated by an infinitesimal

Distance dx, the difference in their rotations, denoted by the angle
dθ, is also infinitesimal.
As the cross sections undergo the relative rotation dθ, CD
deforms into the helix CD. By observing the distortion of the shaded
element, we recognize that the helix angle γ is the shear strain of
the element.
We know that shear strain = Deformation per unit length
 Torsional Stresses and Strains
Shear strain of a material element caused by twisting of the shaft:
From the geometry of Fig. we obtain
DD´= ρ dθ=γdx ,
from which the shear strain is

The quantity dθ/dx is the angle

of twist per unit length, where θ
is expressed in radians. Then,
and the shear strain inside the bar can be obtained

for a circular tube, it can be obtained

 Torsional Stresses and Strains
The corresponding shear stress τ, is determined from Hooke´s law:

Where G : shear modulus of elasticity

The maximum shear stress,
denoted by τ max , occurs at the surface of
the shaft. the maximum values τmax and
γmax occur at the outer surface, therefor
 Torsional Stresses and Strains
Fig. shows a cross section of the shaft
containing a differential element of area dA loaded
at the radial distance ρ from the axis of the shaft.

The shear force acting on this area is directed perpendicular to the radius.
dP = τdA = G (dθ/dx) ρ dA,
Hence, the moment (torque) of dP about the centre o is,
dM = ρ dP = G (dθ/dx) ρ 2dA.
Summing the contributions and equating the result to the internal torque yields
 Torsional Stresses and Strains
is the polar moment of inertia of the cross sectional area,

we can write this equation as G (dθ/dx) J = T , or

The rotation of the cross section at
the free end of the shaft, called the angle
of twist θ, is obtained by integration:

This is known as Torsion formulas.

T = Torsional moment (N-m), J = Polar moment of inertia (m4),

τ = Shear stress (N/m2) r = Radius of the shaft (m)
G = Modulus of rigidity (N/m2) θ = Angle of twist (radians)
L = Length of the shaft (m)
 Polar moment of inertia ( J )
the polar second moment of area, J is defined as
For a solid shaft

For a hollow shaft

 polar section modulus ( Z )
In the case of torsion, the torque is about the longitudinal axis and polar MI
of the section is also about that axis.
Polar section modulus is defined as the polar moment of inertia divided by
the distance to the extreme fibre of the section.
In the case of circular and hollow circular sections, the extreme fibre
distance is either the radius or external radius. Thus,

For a solid circular section:

For a hollow circular section:

 Torsional Rigidity OR STIFFNESS (GJ)
The quantity G J is called torsional rigidity (or stiffness). This is similar to
EI, which is called flexural rigidity.

From the torsion equation,

When unit angle of twist is produced in unit length.

we have T = G × J × (1/1) = GJ (N-mm2)
Thus Torsional stiffness ‘GJ’ can be defined as torque required to produce
unit angle of twist in unit length.
Torsional stiffness is inversely proportional to the length of the shaft. When
the length is more, stiffness decreases.
 Comparison of Axial and Torsion formulae.
EI = Axial rigidity GJ = Torsional rigidity
GJ
Axial Stiffness kT  Torsional Stiffness
L
1
Axial Flexibility fA  k A
Torsional Flexibility fT  k 1
T
P T 
  Axial stress   Torsional stress
A J
Pi Li Ti Li
Axial displacement   Torsional displacement   
i Ai Ei i J i Gi

Bending Torsion
Equation Equation
EX-8 A shaft is subjected to a torque of 16,000 Nm. If the maximum permissible stress in the
material of the shaft is 65 N/mm2, find (i) the diameter of a solid shaft and (ii) the dimensions
of a hollow circular shaft if the thickness is 10% of the internal diameter.
Given: Torque = 16,000 Nm = 16 x lo6 Nmm, Permissible shear stress = 65 N/mm2
We have T/J=τ/r
EX-9 A hollow circular shaft has an external diameter of 120 mm and the internal
diameter is three-fourths the external diameter. If the stress at a fibre inside is 36
MPa, due to a torque T applied, find this torque, the maximum shear stress, and
the angle of twist per unit length. G = 85 MPa.
 Torsional Moment of Resistance
In the case of bending stress distribution, we have defined the term
moment of resistance as the maximum moment that can be carried by the section
without exceeding the maximum permissible stress in tension or compression.
On similar lines, torsional moment of resistance is the maximum torque that
can be carried by the section without exceeding the maximum permissible shear
stress.
Torsional moment of resistance, Tm = Zp τ, where τ = permissible shear stress

For a Solid circular shaft section,

For a hollow circular section,

EX-10 Compare the weight per metre length of a solid circular shaft to that of a hollow circular
shaft (the inside diameter being 70% of the outside diameter) if they are made of the same
material, same length, and have the same torsional resistance.
 Stressed on Inclined Plane
(a) element in pure shear generated due to applied torque,
(b) stresses acting on inclined plane of a triangular stress element,
(c) forces acting on the triangular stress element (FBD).

u 

Equilibrium normal to plane,   Ao sec  Ao sin   Ao tan  cos      sin 2

Equilibrium along plane,   Ao sec  Ao cos   Ao tan  sin      cos 2
 Stressed on Inclined Plane
Maximum/Minimum shear stress Maximum/minimum normal stress
occurs at  = 0o or 90o plane occurs at =+45 or -45o plane

Graph of  and  versus .

    cos 2     sin 2
 Torsional Failure Modes
Remember: Ductile materials are weak in shear and brittle materials are weak in
tension. Thus, for ductile material failure occurs on maximum shear stress plane, and
for brittle material failure occurs on maximum normal (tensile) stress plane.
When subjected to torsion
a ductile specimen a brittle specimen breaks
breaks along a plane of along planes perpendicular to
maximum shear, i.e., a the direction in which tension
plane perpendicular to is a maximum, i.e., along
the shaft axis. surfaces at 45o to the shaft
axis.

Try on a Reason: Brittle materials are

weak in tension and maximum
piece of normal stress (tensile) plane in
chalk! this case is 45o
 STEPPED SHAFTS AND SHAFTS OF VARYING SECTIONS
In case the diameters of different lengths of shafts vary, as shown in Fig. it is necessary
to consider the shafts in different parts. Sometimes, the torque may also vary with change in
section. It is only necessary to consider appropriate lengths, either due to change in diameter
or change in torque, and compute the stresses at different sections and angles of twist between
sections.
In Fig. the angle of twist between A and D should be calculated as the algebraic sum of
the angles of twist between different sections.
The angle of twist is considered positive when the right section rotates clockwise
relative to the left section.

Ti Li
 
i JiGi
 SHAFTS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL
Shafts in series When two shafts are Shafts in parallel Two shafts are said to
connected in series as in Fig (a). the be in parallel configuration, when one
shafts are subjected to the same shaft is placed surrounding the second
torque. The shafts can be of the same shaft as in Fig. (b). the applied torque is
material but of different diameters or shared by the two shafts in some
can be of different materials. proportion in the parallel case.
Statically Indeterminate Shafts
Given applied torque, find torque reactions at
A and B.
Equilibrium, TA  TB  120 N.m
Compatibility,
TA L1 TB L2
  1  2   0
J1G J 2G
Solve Equilibrium and Compatibility
 L1 J 2 
TA 1    120 N  m
 L2 J1 
 DESIGN OF SHAFTS
Shafts are designed based upon the torque to be carried, permissible shear stress of the
material of the shaft, and stiffness. there are two criteria for the design of shafts:-strength and
stiffness.
is the equation defining is the equation specifying
the strength of the shaft the stiffness of the shaft.

Strength design The maximum shear stress occurs at the surface of the shaft.
For a solid circular section For a hollow circular section
T T d 16T T T do 16T 16T di
  r    r   d  where,  
( d 4 / 32) 2  d 3
o
J J ( (d 04  d i4 ) / 32) 2  (d 04  d i4 )  d 03 (1  4 ) do

Stiffness criterion Stiffness criterion is specified in terms of the angle of twist θ. The angle of
twist θ is specified as not to exceed a certain value θmax, in a certain length L. then J = TL/G
θmax , The radius or diameter of the shaft can be determined from the value of J.
When the shaft is designed from the strength and stiffness criteria, the radius (or
diameter) obtained will not be the same from the two criteria. We have to select the maximum
of the two values obtained from applying the criteria.
 Combined Bending Moment, Torsion And Axial Thrust In Shafts
Many practical applications occur where bending and torsion arise simultaneously so
that this type of loading represents one of the major sources of complex stress situations.
For shafts subjected to the simultaneous application of a
bending moment M, torque T and axial force P. Maximum direct stress
(σx) & Shear stress τxy in element A
We know that the Principal normal stresses
(σ1,2) & Maximum shearing stress (τmax) Maximum Principal Stress (σmax ) &
Maximum shear stress (τmax )

Equivalent bending moment (Me) & Equivalent torsion (Te).

 Power, Torque & Speed
The main purpose of a shaft is to transmit power from one shaft to another in factories
and workshops.
For linear motion For rotational motion
Power = force x velocity Power = Torque x angular velocity.
Now consider a rotating shaft, which transmits power from one of its ends to another.
Let N = No. of revolutions per minute and T = Average torque in kN-m.
Power = Torque x angular velocity
= T (N-m).w (rad/sec)
P = T.(2  N/60) watt (1 W = 1 Nm/s = 1 J/S)
 If the power is given in horse power(HP), then 1 metric horse power = 750 watts.
 T = 60 P / 2  N gives the average torque. The maximum torque may be above this average
value by 20 to 40%. The shaft has to be designed for the maximum torque.
 The design torque is always more than the average torque for taking into account the
weakness in the shaft by the cuts and holes drilled for attaching gears, pulleys, etc
 Torsion of Thin Walled Tube
Consider the thin-walled tube of outer radius R and thickness t shown in
Fig. The polar moment of inertia of this tube whose external diameter is D = 2R
and internal diameter is D - 2t is

Since t is very small, its higher powers can be

neglected. Thus J = πD3t/4.
EX-11 A solid shaft of 80 mm diameter is to be replaced by a hollow shaft of external diameter
100 mm. Determine the internal diameter of the hollow shaft if the same power is to be
transmitted by both the shafts at the same angular velocity and shear stress.
EX-12 A solid steel shaft has to transmit 100 kW at 160 r.p.m. Taking allowable
shear stress as 70 MPa, find the suitable diameter of the shaft. The maximum
torque transmitted in each revolution exceeds the mean by 20%.
EX-13 A solid shaft is subjected to a torque of 1.6 kN-m. Find the necessary diameter of the
shaft, if the allowable shear stress is 60 MPa. The allowable twist is 1° for every 20 times
diameters length of the shaft. Take C = 80 GPa.

We shall provide a shaft of diameter of 61.6 mm

(i.e., greater of the two values).
EX-14 A shaft has to transmit a torque of 30 kNm. The maximum shear stress is not to exceed 100
MPa and the angle of twist is not to exceed 1o “/meter length. G = 80 GPa. Design the shaft
according to the given specifications if it is a (i) solid circular shaft and (ii) hollow circular
shaft of internal diameter 90% of the external diameter.
(i) Solid circular shaft

Since the value obtained from stress consideration is higher, d = 152.8 mm.
EX-15 A shaft is made by rigidly joining an aluminium rod 2 m long to a steel rod 1.5 m long. The
rods are of diameter 80 mm and are subjected to torques as shown in Fig. Find the
maximum stresses and the maximum angle of twist in the shaft. G = 85 GPa for steel and 30
GPa for aluminium.
EX-16 A composite shaft is made by enclosing a solid aluminium rod, 60 mm dia., in a brass tube
10 mm thick. Find the maximum torque that can be applied to this shaft if the stress in brass is
limited to 50 MPa and that in aluminium to 35 MPa. G = 40 GPa for brass and 28 GPa for
aluminium.
We have the deformation condition that the angle of twist
is the same for the brass tube and aluminium bar at any section.
Let TAl and Tb be the torques carried by the aluminium rod and
brass tube, respectively. Considering a length L of this shaft, we
can state that
and

Maximum torque = TAI +Tb = 1.1133 + 3.4361 = 4.5449 kNm

 Deflection of Beams
• Under the action of the loads, a beam bends and the bent shape is known as the elastic
curve. The elastic curve is the shape taken by the longitudinal, centroidal axis of the beam due
to bending.
• The vertical movement of a point on the elastic curve is called deflection. The deflection at a
point in a beam can be defined as the vertical distance between the point on the un-deflected
axis and the corresponding point on the deflected axis.
• The slope at a point on the elastic curve is the angle that the tangent to this curve makes
with the unbent beam axis. The slope of beam axis at a point is defined as the angle between
the tangent to the elastic curve at that point and the un-deflected beam axis.
• We already know the differential relationships between load intensity, SF, and BM:

=F

=W
 Differential Equation of Elastic Curve
Taking any curve as shown in Fig. take any point P on the curve. Set in the X - Y axis
system, P’ is a point at an incremental distance ds along the curve. Also dx and dy are the
distances along the X - and Y-axes from P to P’. As the distance ds is very small, we can take
As the distance ds is very small, we can take, ds2 = dx2 + dy2
If the radius of the curve at P is R and the angle between the
radii to P and P’ is dα , then R dα = ds.
the deflection as well as the slope of the beams are extremely small. Thus dyldx, which gives
the slope of the elastic curve at a point, is very small and its square is still smaller. Therefore,

This second-order
differential equation,
is known as the
equation for the
elastic curve.
 SIGN CONVENTION

Beams are generally subjected to gravity loads, leading to deflection downwards. To

make the deflection downwards positive in the expression for EI d2y/dx2, a negative sign is
prefixed to M to be consistent with the sign convention for BM. Thus,

where M is positive if sagging and negative if hogging. The

deflection in this case is positive if measured downwards
 Methods, Relationship and Boundary conditions
Several methods are available for calculating the deflection and slope in beams. They are all based upon
the fundamental expression we have derived for curvature. We will discuss two of them. These are
(i) Macaulay’s method, based upon the fact that d2y/dx2 when integrated twice yields y.
(ii) Area-Moment method, wherein the slope and deflection are calculated from the area of the BM diagram and
the moment of the area of the BM diagram.
 MACAULAY’S METHOD
Macaulay’s method allows one to write a BM equation that is valid for the whole beam. It
involves using the terms selectively, depending upon the segment under consideration. In
using this method, you must remember the following points.
(i) Take the origin at the leftmost end of the beam.
(ii) Express the BM equation for the rightmost segment of the beam.
The basic principle in the double integration method is to integrate the expression EI d2y/dx2
twice to obtain an equation for y in terms of x.
The constants of integration, C1 and C2,
are evaluated from the boundary
conditions.

where C1 is a constant of integration.

where C2 is the second constant of integration.

 Cantilever beam carrying Uniformly Distributed load
A cantilever beam of span l carries a UD load of w kN/m. Derive the general equations for slope and
deflection along the length of the beam and find the slope and deflection at the free end. EI is constant.
The reactions at the fixed support are a vertically upward force of wl and an anti-clockwise
couple wl2/2 The BM equation at a section of a distance x from A is
This is positive. The deflection is, therefore, downwards at B.
 Cantilever with point load
A cantilever carries a concentrated load at the free end. Derive general expressions for slope
and deflection, and find the deflection and slope at the free end.
The reactions at A are an upward force of P and an anticlockwise couple of Pl. The general BM
equation at x is

The boundary conditions are at x = 0, y = 0 and at x = 0, dyldx = 0. Substituting these in the

above equations, C1 = 0 and C2 = 0. The general expressions for slope and deflection are
Note If the load acts at a distance a from A as
in Fig.(c), the same procedure is adopted to
find the slope and deflection at B.
 Cantilever with varying load
A cantilever beam carries a load varying from zero at the free end to w/m at the fixed end.
Find the slope and deflection at the free end.
The beam with the loading is shown in Fig. The bending moment at section x from A
can be written as
 Cantilever with couple load
A cantilever beam carries a clockwise couple of moment M at the free end. Find the slope and
deflection at the free end. If the couple were applied at a distance a from the fixed end what
will be the slope and deflection at the free end.
 If the couple were applied at a distance a from the fixed end, then the BM diagram and
deflected shape will be as shown. Note that there is no bending moment from a to L and hence
the beam remains straight in this part.
Slope and deflection at the point of application of the couple can be obtained by
applying the above formulae by putting a in place of L.
 Simply Supported Beams with eccentric point load
A simply supported beam of span 1 carries an eccentric concentrated load P as shown in Fig.
Derive the general expressions for slope and deflection.
The reaction at the left end A is Pb/L. The general expression for BM is
NOTE - Macaulay proposed that the expression Mx =
(Pb/L)x - P(x - a) be used for the BM and be valid for the
whole beam with the condition that the term P(x - a)
becomes zero if 0 ≤ x ≤ a. In other words, the term (x- a)
becomes zero whenever this term is negative. It must be
remembered that this applies to evaluating the constants
and obtaining values from the equations for dy/dx and y.
From the condition x= 0, y = 0, C2 = 0. Note that P(x-a)3/6 is zero
as (x-a) is negative for x= 0. From the condition x= l, y = 0, we get
To obtain the maximum deflection, we have to locate
the value of x, where dyldx = 0. In the beam shown,
it will be in the portion AC where x < a.

If a = b, i.e., if the load is acting at the centre, then a

= b = l/2 then
 Simply Supported Beams with couple load
A simply supported beam carries a couple at a distance a from the left support. Derive general expressions for
slope and deflection.
The beam is shown in Fig. The reactions are (M/l) ↓ at A and (M/l) ↑ At B. The general equation for BM is
At x = l,

The deflection at C, the point

of application of the couple,

The condition x = 0, y = 0 yields C2 = 0.

The condition x = l, y = 0 gives Let us obtain the slopes. At x = 0,
 Simply Supported Beams with couple load
If the couple were applied If the simply supported beam
at the centre, a = b = l/2, were to be subjected to a
couple at A, i.e, a = 0, then
setting a = 0 and b = l in these
equations

Substituting this value in the

equation for y
 In Macaulay’s method, certain cases of loading need special techniques for
arriving at the BM equation valid for the whole beam. These cases are:
1- Uniformly Distributed Load not Extending to the Right End
The case is shown in Fig. (a). The starting point of the load at the left does not pose any
problem. In stating the BM equation, while the left end point of the load can be represented
by the expression (x - a) as in w(x - a)2/2, the limit of the load on the right side cannot. To get
over this difficulty, equal downward and upward loads are added as in Fig. (b). Note that the set
of loads added is in equilibrium and does not affect the beam behaviour in any way. From Fig.
b, we get the BM as

Note that the second term is valid

from x = a to x = l while the third
term is valid from x = (a + c) to x = l.
 2- Triangular Load
Such a load is shown in Fig.(a). In this case, while the load extends over the whole length
of the beam, there are two different load lines, one on each half, which cannot be expressed
mathematically by a single expression.
Here again the procedure is to add and subtract equal loads as shown in Fig.(b). The load
line on the left half is extended up to the full length of the beam. The load that is added is a
triangular load, with intensity 2w on the right support and zero at the middle of the span. An
equal load is added acting upwards. Note that the shapes of the two
triangles are not similar but that the intensity at
every point is the same. The BM equation can
now be expressed as, from Fig.(b),
 Simply Supported Beams carrying triangular load
A simply supported beam is subjected to a load varying uniformly from w at the centre to zero at the supports.
Derive general expressions for slope and deflection, and find the slope at the supports and the maximum
deflection. EI is constant.
The beam with the loading is shown in Fig.(a). As discussed earlier, the general equation for BM can be
formulated by adding and subtracting loads as shown in Fig.(b). The reaction at A is wl/4. The general equation for
BM is
The condition x = 0, y = 0 gives C2 = 0.
The condition x = l, y = 0 yields

The maximum deflection, from

considerations of symmetry, is at the
centre, at x = l / 2
Ex-17An overhanging beam of span L and overhanging length a carries a load varying from
w/m at the left support to zero at the free end. Find the slope at the supports, deflection at the
free end and maximum deflection. Take L = 8 m; a = 2 m; w = 30 kN/m.
Ex-18 A simply supported beam, of span 12 m, carries loads as shown in Fig. (a). Calculate the
slope at the ends and deflection at mid-span. EI is constant.

The general equation for BM is stated after

adding and subtracting equal loads as
shown in Fig. (b). The BM equation is
expressed for the last segment at the right as
Moment Area Method
 Moment Area Theorems
Theorem - 1 Theorem 2:
When a beam is subjected to external The vertical distance between any point on the
loading, it under goes deformation. Then elastic curve and intersection of a vertical line
the intersection angle between tangents through that point and tangent drawn at some
drawn at any two points on the elastic curve other point on the elastic curve is given by the
is given by the area of bending moment moment of area of bending moment diagram
diagram divided by its flexural rigidity (EI). between two points taken about first point
divided by flexural rigidity (EI).

112
 Area and Position of the Centre of Gravity of Parabolas
A parabola is defined as a figure having at least one of its sides a parabolic curve. In Fig.
the side is a parabolic curve, whereas and are straight lines. A parabolic curve is generally,
expressed as , where is the degree of parabolic curve.
we have to find the areas and positions of the centre of gravity of various parabolas.
The following table gives these two values for various degrees of concave parabolic curves:

The values of area (A) and distance (x) may also be

expressed as :
 A beam with an external Load
Consider a simply supported beam AB of length l and
carrying a point load W at i.e., the centre of the beam as
shown in Fig. (a). We know that the reaction at A,

Now draw the bending moment diagram with the above two moments. The positive bending moment is
drawn above the reference line, where negative is below it as shown in Fig. (b). Such a bending moment diagram is
called component bending moment diagram. Now in order to find the slope at B, let us consider the bending
moment diagram from C to B.
∴ Area of bending moment diagram from C to B
and distance of centre of gravity of the bending moment diagram from B,

and deflection at point C

 Simply supported Beam with an Eccentric Point Load

Now draw the compound bending moment Diagram as shown in

Fig. (b). We know that area of the positive bending moment Diagram, and
area of negative bending moment diagram

From the geometry of the loading, the slope and deflection

cannot be found out directly.
Now draw vertical lines through A and B. Let AA1 and BB1 be
equal to intercepts of the tangents at A and B as shown in Fig. c). We
see that, AA1 = θB X l
 Now consider any section X at a distance x from B. We find that the area of
bending moment diagram between X and B
∴ Change of slope between X and B

Now for maximum deflection, the slope at X should

be equal to zero. Or in other words, the change of slope
between B and X should be equal to the slope at B

We have seen that the area of bending moment diagram between X and B,

and distance of centre of gravity of bending moment diagram from B,

Now for maximum deflection, substituting the value of

 Simply Supported Beam with a Gradually Varying Load

AA1 = θB × l and BB1 = θA × l

Now consider any section X, at a

distance x from B. We find that
the area of bending moment
diagram between X and B,
Now for maximum deflection, the slope at X should be equal to zero, or in other words
the change of slope between B and x should be equal to the slope at X,
At x = l / 2

x = 0.519
Ex-19 A cantilever of length 2a is carrying a load of W at the free end, and another load of W at
its centre. Determine, by moment area method, the slope and deflection of the cantilever at
the free end

∴ Total area of bending moment diagram

and slope of the cantilever at the free end B

We also know that total moment of the bending moment diagram about B,

Deflection of the cantilever at the free end B

Fixed end moment due to a point load at the mid span:
 1 WL   M M B 
  L   A L
2 4 2
 AB       0
EI
WL
 M A M B  - - - - -  (1)
4
 1 1   1 2   1 WL L
 M A L  L    M B L  L     L
2 3  2 3  2 4 2
AA 1
 
EI

3
M A  2M B  
WL      (2)
8
From (1) and (2) we get
WL
MB 
8
WL WL  WL  WL
 MA   MB      
4 4  8  8
Both moments are negative and hence they produce hogging
bending moment. 119
Fixed end moment for various types of loading

120
Development of Slope Deflection Equation for a Continuous Beam

Span AB after deformation

Effect of rotation at B

Effect of loading

Effect of yielding of support B

Effect of rotation at A
 4 EI 2 EI 6 EI 2 EI  3 
Hence M  F AB    B    F AB  2 B 
L  L 
AB A A
L L L 2

4 EI 2 EI 6 EI  2 EI  3 
Similarly M  F BA  B     F BA  2 B 
L  L 
BA A A
L L L2

2EI  3 
M AB  FAB  2    
Slope Deflection Equations
L  L 
A B

2EI  3 
MBA  FBA   2 A  B  
L  L 

122
Ex- 20 Analyze the propped cantilever shown by using slope deflection method.
Then draw Bending moment and shear force diagram.
2 2
wL wL
F AB   , F BA  
12 12
Slope deflection equations
wL2 4EI wL3
MBA   B  0  EIB  
2EI
M AB  FAB  (2  A   B  12 L 48
L
 wL 2 2 EI Substituting in equations (1) and (2)
  B  (1)
12 L wL2 2 wL3  wL2
2 EI MAB      
M BA  FBA  (2  B   A  12 L  48  8
L
wL 2 4 EI
  B  (2)
12 L
wL2 4  wL3 
Boundary condition at B MBA= 0 MBA     0
12 L  48123

 Free body diagram

wL2 L
 MB  0 RA  L   wL 
8 2

5
V  0 RA  wL
8
5
RB  wL  R A  wL  wL
8 3
SX   wL  wX  0
3 8
RB  wL
8 3 9
X  L  Mmax  wL2
8 128 124
Ex- 21 Analyze two span continuous beam ABC by slope deflection method. Then draw
Bending moment & Shear force diagram. Take EI constant

 Wab 2 100  4  22
FAB    44.44KNM
L2 62
Slope deflection equations
Wa 2b 100  42  2
FBA  2
 2
 88.89KNM
L 6

 wL2 20  52
FBC    41.67KNM
12 12

 wL2 20  5 2
FCB    41.67KNM
12 12
125
 2EI
MBC  FBC  (2B  C  MBA  MBC  88.89 
2 4 2
EIB 41.67  EIB  EIC
L 3 5 5
2EI
 41.67  (2B  C  22 2
5  47.22  EIB  EIC  0      (5)
15 5
4 2
 41.67  EIB  EIC  (3 ) 2 4
5 5 MCB  41.67  EIB  EIC  0      ( 6)
5 5
2EI
MCB  FCB  (2C  B  EIB  20.83
L EIC  41.67
2EI
 41.67  (2C  B  1
5 MAB  – 44.44  ( 20.83  51.38 KNM
4EI 2 3
 41.67  C  EIB  ( 4)
5 5 2
MBA   88.89  ( 20.83   75.00 KNM
Boundary conditions 3
4 2
i. -MBA-MBC=0 MBC  – 41.67  ( 20.83  ( 41.67  75.00 KNM
5 5
MBA+MBC=0 2
MCB   41.67  ( 20.83   4 ( 41.67   0
ii. MCB=0 5 5 126
 BM and SF diagram

Free body diagram

127