Magnetostatics

PYL101: Electromagnetics & Quantum Mechanics

Semester I, 2023-2024

Prof. Rohit Narula1

1 Department of Physics
The Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi

© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.

© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Copyright Notice

Ï My lectures and course materials, including presentations, tests, exams, outlines, and
similar materials, are protected by copyright and for the sole use of students
registered for PYL101: Electromagnetics & Quantum Mechanics in Sem-I 2023-2024
only. I am the exclusive owner of copyright in those materials I create. I encourage
you to take notes and make copies of course materials for your own educational use.
However, you may not, nor may you knowingly allow others to reproduce or
distribute lecture notes, audio, video, screenshots and other course materials publicly
or to internal university repositories such as the BSW without my express written
consent. This includes providing materials to commercial course material suppliers
such as CourseHero and other similar services. Students who publicly distribute or
display or help others publicly distribute or display copies or modified copies of my
course materials may be in violation of applicable law.

© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.

References

Ï Introduction to Electrodynamics, David J. Griffiths [IEDJ]

Ï Chapter V, Magnetostatics
Ï Chapter VI, Magnetic Fields In Matter

© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.

Lorentz Force Law

© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.

Current Carrying Wires Exert a Force Upon Each Other
experimental findings

Ï If the currents are anti-parallel, the wires repel.

Ï If the currents are parallel, the wires attract.
Ï Q: Is the force somehow due to the attraction/repulsion of charges?

© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.

Current Carrying Wires Exert a Force Upon Each Other
experimental findings

Ï Ans: No1 , in fact, a test charge q of either sign kept near a wire carrying current
experiences no force upon it, i.e., the wire seems to produce no electric field outside
it!
Ï Q: If electrons carry current, why’s there no electric field E out ?
1 Actually yes, there’s an axial electric field due to a resistive current carrying wire in the direction of its
current, but which is usually quite weak. This is briefly mentioned in The Feynman Lectures Vol. II.
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Current Carrying Wires are Macroscopically Neutral

Ï From the point-of-view of a test charge Q outside the current carrying wire, the wire
appears to be essentially electrically neutral, since the overall macroscopic line
charge density,
λ= λ− + λ+ = 0
|{z} |{z}
electrons ions
indicating that
1. the # of positively charged ions = # of electrons, and,
2. both are evenly distributed in the wire.
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Current Carrying Wires are Macroscopically Neutral

Ï At least in metals, electric current conduction is explained by the motion of

electrons, while the positively charged ionic cores remain fixed in place.
Ï Without a driving voltage, the electrons move about randomly with 〈v − 〉 = 0.
Ï The current I is,
I = λ− 〈v − 〉
where 〈v − 〉 is the average drift velocity of the electrons acquired due to the electric
field produced on account of the driving voltage.
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Current Carrying Wires are Macroscopically Neutral

Ï Bottom Line: While the overall macroscopic charge density λ = 0, we can still have a
current I due to the motion of one of the charge species w.r.t. the stationary ions.

© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.

The Magnetic Field

Ï Whereas a stationary charge produces only an electric field E in the space around it,
a moving charge generates, in addition, a magnetic field B .
Ï The sense/direction of this magnetic field B is given by the right hand rule, i.e.,
Ï It is clockwise to the wire when the conventional current points into the page, and
Ï Anti-clockwise when the conventional current points out of the page.
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Magnetic Forces

Ï The magnetic force on a charge Q , moving with velocity v in a magnetic field B , is

F mag. = Q(v × B )
known as the Lorentz Force law which can be generalized to
F = Q[E + (v × B )]
when an electric field E is also present.
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Lorentz Force Law for Line Currents

Ï Given a test current I , we can recast the Lorentz force law as,
Z
F mag. = (v × B )d q
Z Z · ¸
C
= I (d l × B ) = (I × B )d l [I = λv or I = λv ,A ]
s
where d l points in the direction of the current I .
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Lorentz Force Law for Surface Currents

Ï The test surface current density K , or the ’current per unit width ⊥ to it’ is defined
as, · ¸
dI C
K≡ = σv
d l⊥ s ·m
and the associated Lorentz Force Law is,
Z Z
F mag = (v × B )σ d a = (K × B ) d a
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Lorentz Force Law for Volume Currents

Ï The test volume current density J , or the ’current per unit area ⊥ to it’ is defined as,
· ¸
dI C
J≡ = ρv
d a⊥ s · m2
and the associated Lorentz Force Law is,
Z Z
F mag = (v × B )ρd τ = (J × B )d τ
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Cyclotron Motion

Ï Problem: What’s the motion of a charged particle of mass m moving with velocity v
in a magnetic field B ?
Ï It’s circular with radius R , with the magnetic force providing the centripetal
acceleration.
Ï Thus from Newtonian mechanics we get the cyclotron formula,
2
mv ⊥
Qv ⊥ B = or, p = QB R
R
Ï We can use p = mv ⊥ = QB R to experimentally find the momentum p , by sending the
charge through a known B field, and then measuring the radius R of its orbit.
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Cyclotron Frequency

Ï We can also derive the cyclotron frequency, i.e., the angular frequency with which
the charged particle of mass m and velocity v makes one complete circular orbit as,
v⊥ QB
ω = 2πν = 2π =
2πR m

Ï When there is a non-zero component of the particle’s velocity in a direction parallel

to B , i.e., v ∥ 6= 0 we get motion that reminds us of a spiral.

© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.

Magnetic forces do no work!!!
Ï Q: Can you reason why?
Ï Given the Lorentz Force law,
F mag. = Q(v × B )

Ï . . . the work done if Q moves an amount d l = v d t is,

dWmag = F mag. · d l = Q(v × B ) · v d t = 0

since v × B is evidently ⊥ to v
Ï While magnetic forces may alter the direction2 in which a particle moves, they
cannot speed it up or slow it down.
Ï While this derivation is simple enough, in practice it’s often hard to believe that the
magnetic force Fmag. indeed do no work.

2 Because F
mag. is always ⊥ to v .
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Who’s doing the work?
Setup

Ï A square (resistive) loop of side a is hooked up to a battery which causes a clockwise

current I to flow through it.
Ï The top, horizontal segment of the loop lies in a region where there’s a magnetic
field B = −B ẑ pointing into the page.
Ï The loop is connected to a mass m , whose downward gravitational force is exactly
counterbalanced by the upward magnetic force on the upper segment, and is thus
stationary.
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Who’s doing the work?

Ï The upward force applied by the magnetic field B (which acts into the plane of the
page) is Z
F mag . = I (d l × B ) = I B a ŷ

© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.

Who’s doing the work?

Ï If we now increase the current to I 0 , F mag

⋆
= I 0 B a ŷ exceeds the downward force of
gravity, and the loop rises, lifting the weight, by say, a height h .
Ï One might be tempted to conclude that the work done by the magnetic field is,
⋆
Wmag = F mag · h ŷ = I 0 B ah
where h is the distance that the loop rises.
Ï Q: However, we know that magnetic fields do no work, so where’s the flaw in our
reasoning?
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Who’s doing the work?

⋆
Ï When the loop is moving upward, F mag is not the entire magnetic force (we’re
missing the horizontal component!) due to the magnetic field . . .
Ï . . . because the charges in the wire no longer move purely horizontally with velocity
I0
w= λ, they also acquire an upward velocity u , i.e., the speed of the loop.
0
Ï The correct net magnetic force F mag = q(v × B ) is ⊥ to v d t (the net displacement
of the charge), and therefore it does no work on q .

© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.

Who’s doing the work?

Ï The vertical component of the magnetic force is,

Z
F mag . = I horz. (d l × B ) = (λw)(a x̂ × −B ẑ) = I 0 B a ŷ
0vert.

Ï The horizontal component of the magnetic force is,

0horz.
F mag . = q(u × B ) = λa(u ŷ × −B ẑ) = −λuB a x̂

0
Ï The total work done by the magnetic force F mag . in time d t is,
0 0horz. 0vert.
Wmag = F mag . · d l = F mag . · (w d t x̂) + F mag . · (u d t ŷ)

= −λuB awd t + λuB awd t

= −I 0 B ah + I 0 B ah = 0 (✓)
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
It was the Battery!
Ï Notice that the horizontal component of the magnetic force

0horz.
F mag . = q(u × B ) = λa(u ŷ × −B ẑ) = −λuB a x̂
opposes the flow of current I 0 x̂ .
Ï In order to keep the current fixed at I 0 , the battery would have to apply an equal but
0horz.
opposite force to Fmag . as,

0 0horz.
F batt. = −F mag . = +λuB a x̂

Ï The work done by the battery in time d t is,

0
Wbatt. = F batt. · (w d t x̂) = I 0 B ah
demonstrating that instead of the magnetic field, it’s the battery doing all the work!
Ï The magnetic field merely redirected the purely horizontal force of the battery into
the vertical motion of the loop/weight!
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
The Continuity Equation
Ï Consider the volume current density,
I
dI
J≡ ⇒I = J ·da
d a⊥ S
where we’ve used the fact that a represents a closed area.
Ï Now, because charge is conserved, whatever charge flows out through the surface
must come at the expense of what remains inside3 ,
I Z Zµ ¶
dq d ∂ρ
I= J ·da = − =− ρd τ = − dτ
S dt dt V V ∂t

Ï We now invoke the divergence theorem,

I Z
J · d a = (∇ · J )d τ
S V
3 Note that moving the derivative into the integral requires the use of the partial derivative since the charge
density ρ may also be a function of space.
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
The Continuity Equation

Ï . . . giving us the continuity equation,

∂ρ
∇· J = −
∂t

Ï The − means that an outward flow decreases the charge left in V .

© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.

Steady Charges & Currents
Ï Stationary charges ( ∂ρ = 0) produce electric fields that are constant in time, i.e., ∂E
= 0; hence
∂t ∂t
the term electrostatics.
Ï Steady currents ( ∂J = 0) produce magnetic fields that are constant in time i.e., ∂B
= 0; the
∂t ∂t
theory of steady currents is called magnetostatics.
Ï Formally, electro-magnetostatics means that both conditions,

∂ρ ∂J
= 0, and =0
∂t ∂t
are satisfied at all places and all times.
Ï In the electro/magnetostatic regime, the continuity equation reduces to,

∇· J = 0

i.e., there are "no charge pile ups".

Ï For a wire, the current flow I must be the "same" throughout the length of the wire.

© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.

Steady Charges & Currents
Ï Problem: Demonstrate that a (collection of) moving point charge(s) cannot possibly
constitute a steady current, i.e., ∂J
∂t 6= 0!
Ï Hint: Consider a volume charge density ρ(x, y, z, t ) due to a single point charge Q , moving
with a velocity v along the x direction.
Ï It’s volume charge density can be written as,

ρ(x, y, z, t ) = Qδ(x − v t )δ(y)δ(z)

, and the associated volume current density is,
J = ρv = Qδ(x − v t )δ(y)δ(z)v x̂
which gives us, ¡ ¢
∂J ∂ ρv
= = −vQδ0 (x − v t )δ(y)δ(z)v 6= 0
∂t ∂t
∂J
i.e., J is not a steady current, i.e., ∂t 6= 0.
Ï Magnetostatics only deals with the mathematical fictions of continuous current
distributions, while real charges are discrete.
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
The Biot-Savart Law

© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.

The Biot-Savart Law

Ï B due to a steady4 line current is given by the Biot-Savart law:

Z Z 0
µ0 I × ŝ 0 µ0 d l × ŝ
B (r ) = 2
d l = I
4π s 4π s2

Ï The integration is along the current path. d l 0 (’dee-ell’) is an element of length along the
wire, and s is the vector from the source to the point r .
Ï The constant µ0 = 4π × 10−7 N /A 2 is called the permeability of free space:
Ï The unit of the magnetic field B is N /(A · m) or Tesla (T ).
4 In a non-magnetostatic situation, the Biot-Savart law ceases to be true (it’s superseded by Jefimenko’s
equations), while Gauss’s law for magnetism and the Maxwell-Ampère law are still true.
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Example: The magnetic field of a current carrying wire
Biot-Savart Law

Ï (d l 0 × ŝ ) points out of the page, and has the magnitude,

d l 0 sin α = d l 0 cos θ

Ï Since l 0 = z tan θ ,
z
dl0 = dθ
cos2 θ
and z = s cos θ ,
1 cos2 θ
=
s2 z2
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Example: The magnetic field of a current carrying wire
Biot-Savart Law

Ï Thus the magnetic field,

Zθ 2 µ ¶
µ0 cos2 θ ³ z ´ µ0 I
B= cos θd θ = (sin θ2 − sin θ1 )
4π θ1 z 2 cos θ
2 4πz

and thus for an inifinite wire we have θ1,2 = ∓π/2 giving us,

µ0 I
B= ϕ̂
2πz

© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.

The force between two current carrying wires

Ï From the Lorentz force law, the force on wire 2 due to the B of wire 1 is,
Z µ ¶Z
µ0 I 1
F 2 = I 2 (d l 2 × B ) = I 2 dl 2
2πd
where clearly the force between two infinite wires is ∞
Ï However, the force per unit length is well-behaved,

µ0 I 1 I 2
f = f1 = f2 =
2πd
and is attractive when I 1 ∥ I 2 .
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
The Divergence and Curl of B

© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.

Straight-Line Currents

Ï The above Fig. shows the magnetic field of an infinite straight wire.
Ï Recall,
µ0 I
B= ϕ̂
2πr

Ï Let us integrate it around a closed circular path of radius R ,

I
µ0 I
B · dl = 2πR = µ0 I encl.
2πR
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Ampere’s Law
Ï It doesn’t have to be a circle; any loop that encloses the wire would give the same
answer!
Ï In fact we obtain Ampere’s Law,
I X Z
B · d l = µ0 I encl. = µ0 J · d a

Ï Applying Stoke’s theorem,

Z Z
(∇ × B ) · d a = µ0 J ·da

Ï We finally get5 ,
∂E
∇ × B = µ0 J +µ0 ϵ0
∂t
the differential form of Ampere’s Law.
5 Our ’derivation’ is not general enough because we had restricted ourselves to, 1. to a circular path, and 2.
to infinite steady current carrying wires. But for this course, it will suffice.
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Gauss’ Law for Magnetism
Ï The differential form of Gauss’ law for Magnetism states that

∇·B = 0
which famously implies that magnetic monopoles do not exist.
Ï The integral form of Gauss’ law is then,
I
B ·da = 0
S

Ï Unlike positive, and negative electric charges which act as sources (hence the
non-zero divergence of E due to an isolated charge), magnetic monopoles are
deemed to not exist.
Ï Alternatively, magnets only come in pairs, i.e., both the north and south poles are
coincident.
Ï Since ∇· B = 0 (no sources), the field lines for B are always (completely) closed/loopy,
while the field lines for E must start/end at positive/negative source charges.
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
What then are the ’poles’ of a magnet?

Ï Note that ∇ · B = 0 prohibits the magnetic field from having any poles!
Ï So why do we have poles when we talk about everyday permanent magnets?
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
What then are the ’poles’ of a magnet?

Ï But, in fact these lines continue even through the source and make closed ellipsoids,
consistent with ∇ · B = 0
Ï What we call a pole is usually the place when field-lines physically impinge the
material source of the field (eg. earth, magnet).
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
The Field Due to a Solenoid

Ï Def: A solenoid is a coil whose length is substantially greater than its diameter,
often wrapped around a metallic core, which produces a nearly uniform axial
magnetic field inside it when an electric current is passed through it.
Ï Problem: Find the magnetic field B of a very long solenoid, consisting of
n = N /L closely wound turns per unit length, carrying a steady current I , on a
cylinder of radius R .
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
The Field Due to a Solenoid
the radial component B r

Ï Proposition: If we reverse the direction of the current, the radial component B r

should be negative.
Ï But reversing I is physically equivalent to turning the solenoid upside down, which
shouldn’t alter the radial field.
Ï The magnetic field cannot have a radial component! i.e.,

Br = 0
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
The Field Due to a Solenoid
azimuthal component

Ï Q: What about the circumferential/azimuthal component B ϕ ?

Ï Symmetry demands that B ϕ should be constant around an Amperian loop
concentric with the solenoid, and thus,
I
B · d l = B ϕ (2πr ) = µ0 I encl. = 0
since the loop encloses no current through it.6
6 This is only strictly true in the tightly-wound limit n = N → ∞.
L
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
The Field Due to a Solenoid
axial component

Ï So the magnetic field of an infinite, closely wound solenoid is purely axial.

Ï From the right-hand rule, we expect that it points upward inside the solenoid and downward
outside.
Ï Of course, we expect B z to approach zero as you go very far away.7

7 Actually, this statement is a bit facile, since as you might recall that the electric field of an infinitely large
plane sheet remains constant all the way up to ∞. The physically reasonable expectation that the "fields
must go to zero far away from the charges(currents)" presumes that the charges(currents) are distributed over
a finite region. When you have an infinitely extended charge(current) distributions we must use
Coulomb’s(Biot-Savart) law for a static(steady) charge(current) to ensure that the field is indeed zero far away.
At any rate, real charges(currents) cannot truly be infinitely extended so this isn’t really a problem.
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
The Field Due to a Solenoid

Ï Consider the Amperian Loop 1. which gives us,

I
B · d l = [B z (a) − B z (b)]L = µo I encl. = 0

telling us that the field outside the solenoid is zero, since it must fall of to zero far away
from the solenoid.
Ï Consider the Amperian Loop 2. which gives us,
I
B · d l = B z L = µ0 I encl. = µ0 N I = µ0 nLI

where B is the axial and constant everywhere inside the solenoid.

© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
The Field Due to a Solenoid

Ï Thus the solenoidal magnetic field reads

(
µ0 I n ẑ (inside)
B=
0 (outside)

© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.

The Field Due to a Toroidal Coil
HW

Ï Problem: A torus shown above is wound with N = 100 turns of wire, uniformly wound
around the torus. The coil thus formed carries a current I = 1 A. Calculate the magnetic flux
density B everywhere in space. The torus has a rectangular cross section and the
permeability of the core is µ0 .
Ï Ans8 :


0 r <a
B = 4.167 × 10−4 T a <r <b (avg field)


0 r >a
8 The magnetic field B lies wholly within the torus. Because of the field containment, the magnetic field
generated in a torus does not affect or interfere with other devices.
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Continuity Conditions

© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.

Continuity of B ⊥

Ï Applying Gauss’ Law for magnetism in integral form,

I
B ·da = 0
to a wafer-thin pillbox straddling the surface we get for the normal components,
above below
B⊥ = B⊥
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Discontinuity of B ∥

Ï As for the tangential components, an Amperian loop running perpendicular to the

surface current density K ,
I
B · d l = (B ∥above − B ∥below )l = µo I encl. = µ0 K l

Ï and thus,
B ∥above − B ∥below = µ0 K

© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.

Combined Boundary Condition for B

Ï The boundary conditions for both the normal and tangential components of B can
be combined to give,
B above − B below = µ0 (K × n̂)
where n̂ is unit vector normal to the surface containing the boundary being
considered.

© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.

The Magnetic Vector Potential A

© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.

The Vector Potential A

Ï Maxwell’s equations guarantee that

∇·B = 0

Ï This allows B to be written as the curl of a vector potential A ,

B = ∇ × (A+∇ f )
since mathematically (4) the divergence of a curl is always zero, i.e., ∇ · (∇ × v ) = 0
Ï The vector potential A is not unique, i.e., the gradient of any scalar function f , i.e.,
+∇ f can be added to A without affecting its curl, i.e., the magnetic field B , since
mathematically (2) the curl of a gradient is always zero, i.e., ∇ × (∇ f ) = 0.

© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.

The Magnetic Vector Potential
Ï From Ampere’s law,
∇ × B = ∇ × (∇ × A) = µ0 J

Ï where we can now use the vector identity9 ,

∇2 A = ∇(∇ · A) − ∇ × (∇ × A)
which gives us,
∇(∇ · A) − ∇2 A = µ0 J

Ï Since the vector potential A is not unique, i.e.,

A → A +∇f
we’re free to make an appropriate choice for A , which is known as gauge freedom.
9 Recall the Laplacian of a vector function v which is defined as,
2
∇
|{z}v ≡ (∇2 v x )x̂ + (∇2 v y ) ŷ + (∇2 v z )ẑ
just shorthand
6≡ ∇ · (∇v ) © 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
The Magnetic Vector Potential

Ï One judicious way of exploiting this gauge freedom/redundancy in choosing A , which

is particularly convenient/optimal for steady currents, is the Coulomb gauge,

∇· A = 0
which gives us the vector Poisson’s equation,

∇2 A = −µ0 J

Ï It’s solution, in close analogy with Poisson’s equation for the scalar potential V is,
Z Z Z
µ0 J (r 0 ) 0 µ0 I (r 0 ) 0 µ0 K (r 0 ) 0
A(r ) = dτ = dl = da
4π s 4π s 4π s

© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.

Justifying the Coulomb Gauge ∇ · A = 0
optional
Ï Goal: Start with an arbitrary A whose divergence ∇ · A 6= 0. If one can find some
scalar f such that ∇ · A 0 = 0, we’ve justified our gauge choice.
Ï Stipulate that
∇ · A = v(r ) 6= 0

Ï ’Gauge away’ the divergence of A 0 → A + ∇ f , i.e.,

∇ · A 0 = ∇ · (A + ∇ f ) = 0

Ï We now see that a solution for the scalar f exists,

Z
0 2 1 v(r 0 ) 0
∇ · A = 0 =⇒ ∇ f = −v(r ) =⇒ f (r ) = dτ
| {z } 4π all space r − r 0
Poisson’s equation
, which demonstrates that the Coulomb Gauge: ∇ · A = 0 is indeed a valid gauge
choice.
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
The Magnetic Flux Φ

H
Ï The magnetic flux over a closed surface is always zero, i.e., B · d a = 0. Why?
Ï Whereas, the magnetic flux Φ through an open surface S is,
Z
Φ= B · d a 6= 0
S
and is non-zero, in general.
Ï Invoking Stoke’s theorem we obtain,
Z I
Φ= (∇ × A) · d a = A · dl
S C

over the contour C bounding the surface10 S.

10 The magnetic flux Φ depends only on the periphery C , and not on the shape of the surface S .
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Boundary Conditions for A in the Coulomb Gauge

Ï Since we’re in the Coulomb gauge, i.e., ∇ · A = 0, you should be able to demonstrate
that,
A above
⊥ = A below
⊥

H
Ï Also, since we’re in the Coulomb gauge, A · d l = Φ, you should be able to show
that,
A above
∥ = A below
∥

since the flux Φ through a shrinking Amperian loop goes to zero.

Ï However, the normal derivative of A inherits the discontinuity of B as,

∂A above ∂A below ∂
− = −µ0 K [ ≡ n ·∇ ’normal derivative’ ]
∂n ∂n ∂n

© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.

 ∂A above below
Derivation of ∂n
− ∂A∂n = −µ0 K
optional
Ï Consider
B above − B below = µ0 (K × n̂)
and take its cross product with n̂
Ï Now use the BAC-CAB vector identity
A × (B ×C ) = B (A · C ) −C (A · B )
to obtain
Ï
(B above − B below ) × n̂ = −µ0 K
where one replaces B above = ∇ × A above , and B below = ∇ × A below , and uses
(∇ × A) × n̂ = (n̂ · ∇) − ∇(A · n̂)
∂A
to finally get using the definition of the normal derivative ∂n ≡ (n̂ · ∇)A
Ï
∂A above ∂A below
− = −µ0 K
∂n ∂n
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Magnetization

© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.

The Magnetic (Dipole) Moment

Ï Consider a small, (closed) loop carrying a current I , and enclosing an area A . The
quantity £ ¤
µ = m ≡ I A = I A n̂ Am 2
defines the magnetic (dipole) moment, and is a vector quantity, which is positive
when the current is anti-clockwise.
Ï Alternatively, the direction of the magnetic moment points from the south to north
pole of the magnet (inside the magnet).

© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.

The Far-Field Due to a Magnetic (Dipole) Moment

Ï The magnetic vector potential A at the far-field of a magnetic dipole moment m in

the Coulomb gauge i.e., ∇ · A = 0 is11 ,
µ0 m × ŝ
A(r ) =
4π s 2

Ï Similar to the far-field of an electric dipole, we can derive the magnetic far-field for
a tiny magnetic moment placed along the ẑ axis as,
µ0 m ¡ ¢
B dip. = ∇ × A ≈ 3
2 cos θ r̂ + sin θ θ̂
4π r
11 We won’t be deriving this expression in this course.
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Correspondence between B dip and E dip

Ï Observe12 that the expression for the electric field strength of an electric dipole p oriented
along ẑ ,
p
E dip. (r ) ≈ (2 cos θ r̂ + sin θ θ̂)
4πϵ0 r 3
is very similar to what we just showed,
µ0 m ¡ ¢
B dip. = ∇ × A ≈ 3
2 cos θ r̂ + sin θ θ̂
4π r
and thus we’re able to define the magnetic dipole moment m in analogy with what we did
earlier in electrostatics.
Ï In other words, m is the magnetostatic analogue of electric dipole moment p from
electrostatics.

12 In the Coulomb gauge A(r ) = µ0 R J (r 0 ) d τ0 = µ0 R I (r 0 ) d l 0 = µ0 R K (r 0 ) d a 0

4π s 4π s 4π s
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
The Force on a Magnetic (Dipole) Moment due to B ext .

Ï It determines the torque the current loop m will experience in a (uniform) external magnetic
field.
N = m × B ext.
tending to align m ∥ B ext .
Ï Subject to a non-uniform magnetic field B ext . , a (tiny) magnetic moment m also experiences
a force13 ,
F loop = ∇(m · B ext . )

Ï The potential energy U of a magnetic dipole m in an external magnetic field B ext . is,
U = −m · B ext .
13 In electrostatics ∇(p · E ) = (p · ∇)E , while in magnetostatics
∇(m · B ) = (m · ∇)B + µ0 (m × J ) [∵ ∇ × B 6= 0] © 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Magnetization
Ï In the presence of an external magnetic field B ext . , matter becomes magnetized; i.e.,
upon microscopic examination, it will be found to contain many tiny dipoles m ,
with a net alignment along some direction14 .
Ï Just like in the case of electric dipoles earlier we define a macroscopic measure,
magnetization M as,
· ¸
A
M ≡ magnetic dipole moment per unit volume
m
Ï For a collection of magnetic dipoles we have,
X Z
m= m i nd . = M(r 0 )d τ
all atoms
Ï Magnetization in a material is due to:
Ï atomic scale current loops due to the orbital motion of the electrons around the
nucleus, and,
Ï electron spin
14 Unlike for the case of electric polarization where p ∥ E
ext. , the individual magnetic moments may be
either m ∥ B ext. (paramagnetic) or m ∦ B ext. (diamagnetic) © 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Electron Orbital Magnetic Moment

Ï An electron with charge −e moving at constant speed v in a circular orbit of radius

r completes one revolution in time T = 2πr /v .
Ï This circular motion of the electron constitutes a tiny loop with current15 I given by

e ev
I =− =−
T 2πr

15 The current here cannot possibly be a steady current. Why?

© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Electron Orbital Magnetic Moment

Ï The magnitude of the associated orbital magnetic moment m o is,

µ ¶
e
mo = I A = − Le
2m e

where L e ≡ m e (r × p) is the is the angular momentum of the electron and m e is its mass.
Ï Given the orbital magnetic moment m , one would expect a torque to an external magnetic
field B ext. to line it up such that m ∥ B ext. .
Ï However, in practice such orbits are hard to tilt over, so the lining up of m ∥ B ext. doesn’t
occur16
16 i.e., orbital angular momentum of the electron does not contribute to paramagnetism.
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Electron Orbital Magnetic Moment
the origins of diamagnetism

Ï In the absence of B ext. , the centripetal force is provided by the attraction between
the nucleus and the electron as17
1 e2 v2
= m e
4πϵ0 R 2 R
Ï On switching on B ext. , the speed of the electron is modified18 to v 0

1 e2 0 (v 0 )2
+ ev B ext. = m e
4πϵ0 R 2 R
17 What are the problems with this expression?
18 Griffiths conspires to keep the radius R fixed for the sake of this crude model.
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Electron Orbital Magnetic Moment
the origins of diamagnetism

Ï One can then show that19

eRB ext.
∆v = v 0 − v = >0
2m e
and finally,
Ï
1 e 2R 2
∆m = − e(∆v)R ẑ = − B ext. Diamagnetism
2 4m e
m ∦ B ext.

19 if the electrons were circulating in the opposite sense, ∆v < 0

© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Electron Spin Magnetic Moment

Ï In addition to the magnetic moment due to its orbital motion, an electron has an intrinsic
spin magnetic moment m s due to its "spinning" motion about its own axis.
Ï The magnitude of m s predicted by quantum theory is,
eħ
ms ≈ ∓ = ∓µB
2m e
where µB is known as the Bohr Magneton, and can only take the two values ∓µB .
Ï The e − s of an atom (in its ground state) with an even number of e − s usually exist in pairs,
with the members of a pair having opposite spin, canceling each others’ spin magnetic
moments.
Ï If the number of electrons is odd, the atom has a net nonzero spin magnetic moment due to
its unpaired electron.
Ï Magnetic spins are easy to flip over, and therefore m s ∥ B ext. (paramagnetism).
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Why Are Most Materials Effectively Non-Magnetic In The Absence of a
Magnetic Field?

Ï Problem: Despite the fact that all materials contain electrons that exhibit magnetic
dipole moments, why are most materials effectively non-magnetic in the absence of
an external magnetic field?
Ï Ans: In the absence of an external magnetic field B ext. , the atoms of most materials
are oriented randomly (Fig. (a)), as a result of which they exhibit a zero, or a very
small net magnetic moment.
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Bound Currents in Magnetizable Materials

Ï In the presence of an external magnetic field B ext . , matter acquires a net magnetic moment
P R
m total = m ind. = Md τ, which will in turn produce an induced magnetic field20 .
Ï Starting from the vector potential for a magnetic moment,
µ0 m × ŝ
A(r ) =
4π s 2
we can rewrite it as, Z
µ0 M(r 0 ) × s 0
A(r ) = dτ
4π s3
where M is the magnetic moment per unit volume, or magnetization.
20 Unlike in the case of electric polarization, the induced magnetic field does not always point opposite to
the external field B ext . , e.g., in paramagnetic materials the induced field is ∥ to B ext . .
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Bound Currents
Ï Similar to the derivation for bound charges it may be rewritten as,
µZ I ¶
µ0 1 0 1
A(r ) = [∇ × M(r 0 )]d τ0 + [M(r 0 ) × d a 0 ] or,
4π V s S s
Z
µ0 1 0 0
= [∇ × M(r )]d τ (M −→ proper vector function)
4π all space s

Ï The first term is the potential of a volume current density,

Jb = ∇ × M

Ï The second term is the potential of a surface current density,

K b = M × n̂
and thus21 , µZ I ¶
µ0 Jb 0 Kb
A(r ) = dτ + d a0
4π V s S s
21 Notice the correspondence with the far-field potential due to a given polarization density P .
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Physical Interpretation of the Bound Current Densities

Ï Consider a tiny current loop circulating anti-clockwise a current I uniformly around its
periphery, and distributed uniformly across it.
Ï The loop encloses an area a , and it’s height is t .
Ï I is related to the magnetic (dipole) moment via
m = M at = I A = I a ẑ

Ï In terms of M we can write the current I as

m m
I = Mt [M = = ]
V at
, or the surface charge density,
I
K= =M
t © 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Physical Interpretation of K b = M × n̂

Ï Consider a flat region having a uniform magnetization M = M ẑ produced by tiny,

identical current loops (magnetic dipoles).
Ï All the internal currents cancel in the bulk. . .
Ï But at the edges there are no adjacent current loops to do the canceling, and this
current is the bound surface current density K b = M × n̂ .

© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.

Physical Interpretation of J b = ∇ × M

Ï What if the magnetization is not uniform?

Ï In this case, the adjacent currents do not cancel.
Ï Consider two adjacent current-carrying loops resulting in an arbitrary magnetization
M(x, y, z) and let us calculate the current, say in the x̂ direction.
Ï I x has two contributions22 ,
¡ ¢ ∂M z
I xa = M z (y + d y) − M z (y) d z = d yd z
∂y
and,
¡ ¢ ∂M y
I xb = − M y (z + d z) − M y (z) d y = − d yd z
∂z
22 Focus your attention on the adjacent current strips lying at the boundary between the two blocks
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Physical Interpretation of J b = ∇ × M

Ï And thus the bound volume current density23 ,

µ ¶
I xa + I xb ∂M z ∂M y
(J b )x = = −
d yd z ∂y ∂z

Ï Thus leading to
Jb = ∇ × M

23 Explain the minus sign in the expression.

© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Magnetization and Auxiliary Field
Ï We can write the total volume current density as24 ,
1
J = J b + J f = (∇ × M) + J f = (∇ × B )
µ0

Ï Recall D ≡ ϵ0 E + P . In a similar spirit we define the auxiliary field25 as,

1
H≡ B −M
µ0

Ï Taking the curl of the above, one observes that H satisfies its own Ampere’s law,
I
∇ × H = J f or, H · d l = I f encl.

where I f encl. is the total free current passing through the Amperian loop.
Ï Basically, H plays a role analogous to D .
24 J
f involves actual transport of charge, whereas the bound current J b is due to the magnetic moments of
the aligned atomic dipoles/intrinsic angular momentum of the invidual atoms.
25 Some textbooks call H the ’magnetic field’, and B the ’magnetic flux density’/’magnetic field induction’.
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Beware of H !!
Ï Warnings similar to those discussed for D apply for H , namely. . .
Ï In general, ∇ · H 6= 0 since ∇ · M 6= 0 (e.g., think of a linearly increasing magnetization M in a
square-crosssectioned bar).
Ï Thus, in the magnetostatic regime we cannot write a corresponding Biot-Savart law for H ,
i.e., Z
1 d l 0 × ŝ
H 6= I
4π s2
as we’re not guaranteed ∇ · H = 0.
Ï Although true, Ampere’s law, I
H · dl = I f

cannot be used to actually determine H unless we we’re given a symmetric current

distribution.
Ï However, when symmetry is present, or if the magnetization is linearly dependent on H ,
we’re assured ∇ · H = 0, and we may use the Biot-Savart law, or Ampere’s law to actually
determine H .
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Magnetic Permeability

Ï Just as in most dielectrics P and E are linearly related26 , in most magnetic materials
too,
M = χm H
where χm is dimensionless: magnetic susceptibility.
Ï For such linear materials,

B = µ0 (1 + χm )H = µH or, H = B /µ
where µ, the magnetic permeability of the material, relates to χm as,

µ = µr µ0 = µ0 (1 + χm )
where µr = 1 + χm is the (dimensionless) relative permeability.

26 Recall for linear dielectrics P = ϵ χ ϵ E

0 e 0
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Diamagnets, Paramagnets, Ferromagnets

Ï A material is classified as diamagnetic, paramagnetic, or ferromagnetic on the

basis of the value of its χm .
Ï Diamagnetic materials have negative susceptibilities (χm < 0) whereas,
Ï Paramagnetic materials have positive ones (χm > 0).
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Relative Permeabilities For Some Diamagnetic And Paramagnetic Materials

Ï However, the absolute magnitude of χm is on the order of 10−5 for both these
classes of materials . . .
Ï which for most applications allows us to ignore χm relative to 1!
Ï µr = 1 + χm ≈ 1 or µ ≈ µ0 for both paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials!

© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.

Levitating a Frog
HW

Ï Problem: A frog is primarily water (a diamagnetic material). How will you levitate a
frog in a magnetic field? You’re given a long piece of insulated wire, a current source,
and a non-magnetic hollow pipe of radius . . .

© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.

Ferromagnets

Ï Ferromagnetic materials, which include iron, nickel, and cobalt, exhibit unique magnetic
properties due to the fact that their magnetic moments tend to readily align along27 the
direction of an external magnetic field.
Ï Their χm are large, and positive. (’extreme paramagnet’)
Ï Moreover, such materials remain partially magnetized even after the external field is
removed. Because of these peculiar properties, ferromagnetic materials are used in the
fabrication of permanent magnets.
27 χ
m À0
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Relative Permeabilities For Some Ferromagnetic Materials

Ï Ferromagnetic materials have large magnetic susceptibilities,

χm À 1 or µr ≈ χm

© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.

Ferromagnets

Ï The properties of ferromagnetic materials derive from magnetized domains,

microscopic regions (on the order of 10−10 m 3 ) within which the magnetic moments
of all atoms (typically on the order of 1019 atoms) are permanently aligned with each
other.
Ï This alignment, which occurs in all ferromagnetic materials, is due to strong coupling
forces between the magnetic dipole moments constituting an individual domain.

© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.

Ferromagnets

Ï In the (historical) absence of an external magnetic field, the domains take on random
orientations relative to each other, resulting in zero net magnetization.
Ï The domain walls forming the boundaries between adjacent domains consist of thin
transition regions.
Ï When an unmagnetized sample of a ferromagnetic material is placed in an external
magnetic field, the domains partially align with the external field.
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
The Magnetization Curve

Ï The magnetization behavior of a ferromagnetic material is described in terms of its

B H magnetization curve28 .
28 Recall that B ≡ µ H + M
0
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
The Magnetization Curve

Ï Suppose that we start with an unmagnetized sample of iron, denoted by point O .

Ï When we increase H continuously by, for example, increasing the current passing
through a wire wound around the sample, B increases also along the B H curve from
point O to point A 1 , at which nearly all the domains have become aligned with H .
Ï Point A 1 represents a saturation condition.

© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.

The Magnetization Curve

Ï If we then decrease H from its value at point A 1 back to zero (by reducing the
current through the wire), the magnetization curve follows the path from A 1 to A 2 .
Ï At point A 2 , the external field H is zero (owing to the fact that the current through
the wire is zero), but the flux density B in the material is not. The magnitude of B at
A 2 is called the residual flux density B r .
Ï The material now behaves as a permanent magnet owing to the fact that a large
fraction of its magnetized domains have remained aligned.
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
The Magnetization Curve

Ï Reversing the direction of H and increasing its intensity causes B to decrease from
B r at point A 2 to zero at point A 3 , and if the intensity of H is increased further
while maintaining its direction, the magnetization moves to the saturation condition
at point A 4 .
Ï Finally, as H is made to return to zero and is then increased again in the positive
direction, the curve follows the path from A 4 to A 1 . This process is called magnetic
hysteresis.
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
The Meaning of Hysteresis

Ï Hysteresis means "lag behind."

Ï Implication: the magnetization M of a ferromagnetic depends not only on the
prevailing H , but also on the magnetic history of the material.
Ï Further, the shape and extent of the hysteresis loop depend on the properties of the
ferromagnetic material and the peak-to-peak range over which H is made to vary.

© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.

Hysteresis: Hard vs. Soft

Ï Hard ferromagnetic materials are characterized by wide hysteresis loops and

cannot be easily demagnetized by an external magnetic field because they have a
large residual magnetization B r .
Ï Hard ferromagnetic materials are used in the fabrication of permanent magnets for
motors and generators.
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.
Hysteresis: Hard vs. Soft

Ï Soft ferromagnetic materials have narrow hysteresis loops, and hence can be more
easily magnetized and demagnetized.

© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.

Beware the difference between B − H , and M − H curves

Ï Recall, B = µ0 H + M
Ï The M − H curve saturates at H sat ,
Ï While the B − H curve increases linearly beyond H sat .
© 2016-2022 Rohit Narula. All rights reserved.