2023

ECE431: Electromagnetic Fields and Waves II

(Module 8: Maxwell Equation)

By

C. T. Thomas, MEng., REng.

Kwara State University, Malete

[email protected]

Basic Topics
• Maxwell first, second, third and fourth equations
• Form of EMFs generation
• Displacement current
• EM Flow diagram

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8.0 MAXWELL EQUATIONS

• Electrostatic fields deal with stationary charges and contains electric field
strength 𝐸 magnetostatic fields deal with steady current (electric charges moving
with uniform velocity to direct current) or static magnetic charges magnetic poles
and contains magnetic field strength H. In static 𝐸𝑀 fields, 𝐸 and 𝐻are
independent of each other, but in dynamic 𝐸𝑀 fields the two are interdependent
that is, a time-varying electric field produces corresponding time-varying
magnetic field.
• Time varying fields are usually due to accelerated charges or time varying
currents such as those shown in Figure 8.1. Any pulsating or varying current will
produce time-varying fields (or radiation).

Sinusoidal Triangular Rectangular

𝐅𝐢𝐠. 𝟖. 𝟏 Types of time-varying currents

In brief:
Stationary charges → electrostatic fields (static or time invariant)
Steady currents → magneto-static fields (static or time invariant)
Time – varying current → electromagnetic fields (or waves). [Dynamic or time –variant]

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Faraday’s Law
Michael Faraday’s experiment discovered that electromotive force, emf is induced
in closed circuit only by time- varying fields, either:
(i) a moving magnetic poles around a stationary coil or
(ii) either stationary poles around a moving coil or
(iii) both ( i) and ( ii) above.
Faraday 1st and 2nd laws of electromagnetic induction can be stated as
Wherever a conductor cuts a magnetic flux, emf (Vemf) is induced, the magnitude
of this induced emf in any enclosed circuit is equal to the rate of change of the
flux linkage. These laws can be express as

𝑑⅄ 𝑑ψ
𝑉𝑒.𝑚.𝑓 = − = −𝑁 ……………………..…. (8.1)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 5

𝑁 is the number of turns in the circuit and ψ is the flux per turn. The
negative sign shows that the induced voltage acts in such a way as to
oppose the flux producing it, this statement is known as Lenz’s law.
That is the induced emf causes current to flow in the opposite direction
of the original magnetic field that caused it.

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Form of EMFs Generation

𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 be given as a close integral of the electric field produce or enclosed by a
contour, 𝐿
𝑉 𝑒.𝑚.𝑓 = ∮𝑙 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 ……………………. (8.2)
𝑑𝜓
𝑉 𝑒.𝑚.𝑓 = ∮𝑙 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 = −
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝑉 𝑒.𝑚.𝑓 = ∮𝑙 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 = − ∫𝑠 B. 𝑑𝑠 ………….. (8.3)
𝑑𝑡
Since 𝜓 = ∫𝑠 B. 𝑑𝑠, 𝑆 is the surface enclosed by the circuit bounded by 𝑙, from
equation (8.3), it is easy to see that in a time-varying situation, both electric and
magnetic fields are present and are interrelated

As earlier explained, the variation with time of Faraday’s law in equation

((8.1) is due to three causes/way
i. By having a stationary loop in a time-varying field 𝐵
ii. By having time-varying loop area in a static field 𝐵
iii. By having a time-varying loop (coil) in a time-varying field 𝐵
We shall examine each separately

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i. Stationary loop in time-varying field 𝑩 (𝑨 form of transformer circuit EMF)

Here a stationary conductor is being cut with a time-varying magnetic field 𝐵
equation (8.3) becomes

𝜕𝐵
𝑉 𝑒.𝑚.𝑓 = ∮𝑙 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 = − . 𝑑𝑠 (8.4)
𝜕𝑡
By applying stoke theorem to equation (8.4)
𝜕𝐵
∫𝑠 ∇ × 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑠 = −
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐵
∇×𝐸 = − (8.5)
𝜕𝑡
This is a modified Maxwell equation for a dynamic 𝐸𝑀 field ∇ × 𝐸 ≠ 0, so
dynamic 𝐸𝑀 field is not conservative

ii. Moving loop in static field 𝑩 (motional 𝑬𝑴𝑭)

Here the conductor is moving in a static magnetic field. The force 𝐹𝑚 on a moving
charge moving with uniform velocity 𝑢 in a field 𝐵 is given as
𝐹𝑚 = 𝑄𝑢 × 𝐵 = 𝑄. 𝑢. 𝐵
The motional electric field 𝐸𝑀 is defined as
𝐹𝑚
𝐸𝑚 = =𝑢×𝐵
𝑄
𝑉𝑒.𝑚.𝑓 = ∮𝑙 𝐸𝑚 . 𝑑𝑙 = ∮𝑙 𝑢 × 𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 (8.6a)
Applying stoke theorem to both sides

∮𝑙 𝐸𝑚 . 𝑑𝑙 = ∫𝑠 (∇ × 𝐸𝑚 )𝑑𝑠; ∮𝑙 𝑢 × 𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 = ∫𝑠 (∇ × (𝑢 × 𝐵))𝑑𝑠
∇ × 𝐸𝑚 = ∇ × (𝑢 × 𝐵) (8.6b)
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iii. Moving loop in time-varying field

Here we have both transformer 𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 and motional 𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓,so equations (8.5) and
(8.6) are combined
𝜕𝑦
𝑉𝑒.𝑚.𝑓 = ∮𝑙 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 = −∫𝑠 . 𝑑𝑠 + ∮𝑙 𝑢 × 𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙
𝜕𝑥
Or
𝜕𝐵
∇×𝐸 =− + ∇× 𝑢×𝐵 (8.7)
𝜕𝑡

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Displacement Current
This is to consider Maxwell equation for magnetic field (Ampere’s circuit law)
for time-varying condition.
Recall (equation 7.3 )
∇×𝐻 = 𝐽 (For static 𝐸𝑀 fields) (8.8)
Recall from previous page that the divergence of the curl of a vector is zero
(∇. ∇ × 𝐴 = 0).
hence
∇. ∇ × 𝐻 = 0 = ∇ . 𝐽 (8.9)
But the continuity of current equation ∇. 𝐽 ≠ 0, but the total current at a point
is zero from equation (7.4)
𝜕𝜌𝑉
∇. 𝐽 = − ≠0 (8.10)
𝜕𝑡
12

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Obviously, equations (8.9) and (8.10) are not compatible, let introduce a term
𝐽𝑑 … . equation (8.8) becomes
∇ × 𝐻 = 𝐽 + 𝐽𝑑 (8.10b)
∇. ∇ × 𝐻 = 0 = ∇. (𝐽 + 𝐽𝑑 )
0 = ∇. 𝐽 + ∇. 𝐽𝑑
𝜕ρv 𝜕(∇.𝐷) 𝜕𝐷
∇. 𝐽𝑑 = −∇. J = −(− )= = ∇.
𝜕t 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐷
𝐽𝑑 = (8.11)
𝜕𝑡
Substituting (8.11) into (8.10𝑏)
𝜕𝐷
∇×𝐻 =𝐽+
𝜕𝑡
𝐽𝑑 is known as displacement current density while 𝐽 is the conduction current
density
13

The generalized and final form of maxwell’s equations is given in table 8.1
Table 𝟖. 𝟏 Generalized form of Maxwell’s Equation

Differential integral form comments

form
1 ∇. 𝐷 = 𝜌𝑣 ∮𝑠 𝐷. 𝑑𝑠 = ∫𝑣 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣 Gauss’ law

2 ∇. 𝐵 = 0 ∮𝑠 𝐵. 𝑑𝑠 = 0 Nonexistence of isolated magnetic

charge or (Gauss law for magnetic
field)
3 ∇ × 𝐸 = − 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐵 𝜕 Faraday’s law
∮𝑙 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 = − ∫ 𝐵𝑑𝑠
𝜕𝑡 𝑠
4 𝜕𝐷 𝜕𝐷 Ampere’s circuit law
∇×𝐻 =𝐽+ ∮𝑙 𝐻 ∙ 𝑑𝑙 = ∫𝑠 (J + )𝑑𝑠
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
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Electromagnetic Flow Diagrams

These diagrams give the summary of the relationship between the various potentials
and vector fields of the electric and magnetic fields. In these diagrams 𝜌𝑚 is
introduce as 𝐴𝑒 also, this is to perfect and complete the flow.

𝐴𝑒 is introduced as magnetic current density (Just like 𝐽)

∇. 𝐵 = 𝜌𝑚 = 0
𝜕𝐵
∇ ×∈= − = 𝐽𝑚
𝜕𝑡

Also 𝐵 = ∇ × 𝐴

Where 𝐴 is the magnetic vector potential, see equation (7.5)

15

b. magnetostatic System c. electromagnetic System

Figure 8.2: Electromagnetic Flow Diagram

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PRACTICE EXAMPLES
Example 8.1
If the flux through each turn of a 100-turn coil is (𝑡 3 −2𝑡)𝑚𝑤𝑏, where 𝑡 is in
seconds. calculate the induced voltage at 5𝑠

Solution
Given; 𝜓 = (𝑡 3 − 2𝑡)𝑚𝑤𝑏, 𝑁 = 100 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠, 𝑡 = 5𝑠
𝑁𝑑𝜓 𝑁𝑑 𝑡 3 −2𝑡
𝑉𝑒.𝑚.𝑓 = − =− = −𝑁 3𝑡 2 − 2 = −100 3𝑡 2 − 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 5𝑠 , 𝑉𝑒.𝑚.𝑓 = −100 (3 5)2 − 2 𝑚𝑉 = −7300𝑚𝑉

𝑉𝑒.𝑚.𝑓 = −7.3 𝑉
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Example 𝟖. 𝟐

A medium is characterized by 𝜎 = 0, 𝜇 = 2𝜇𝑜 and 𝜀 = 5𝜀𝑜 . if

𝐻 = 2 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 3𝑦 𝑎𝑧 𝐴 𝑚 . calculate 𝜔 and 𝐸.

18

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Solution
Given,
𝐻 = 2 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 3𝑦 𝑎𝑧 𝐴 𝑚 (8.2.1)
𝜕𝐷 𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝐸
∇ × 𝐻 = 𝐽 + 𝐽𝑑 = 𝜎𝐸 + = 𝜎𝐸 + 𝜀 =𝜀 (Since 𝜎 = 0)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐸
∇×𝐻 =𝜀
𝜕𝑡
∇ × 𝐻 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜀𝜕𝐸
1
𝐸= ∫(∇ × 𝐻) 𝑑t
𝜀
𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝐻𝑧 𝜕𝐻𝑦 𝜕𝐻𝑧 𝜕𝐻𝑥 𝜕𝐻𝑦 𝜕𝐻𝑥
• ∇×𝐻 = 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 = 𝑎𝑥 − − 𝑎𝑦 − + 𝑎𝑧 −
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝐻𝑥 𝐻𝑦 𝐻𝑧

𝜕𝐻𝑧 𝜕(2 cos (𝜔𝑡 − 3𝑦)

=𝑎𝑥 − 0 − 0 + 0 = 𝑎𝑥 19
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
= +6 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 3𝑦 𝑎𝑥

1 6 1 6
𝐸 = 𝜀
∫ ∇ × 𝐻 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜀 𝜔
× −𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑤𝑡 − 3𝑦 = − 𝜀𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 3𝑦 𝑎𝑥 (8.2.2)
𝑎𝑥
𝜕𝐵 𝜕𝐻
Again, ∇×𝐸 = − 𝜕𝑡 = − 𝜇 𝜕𝑡
− ∇ × 𝐸 𝜕𝑡 = 𝜇𝜕𝐻
1
𝐻= ∫ ∇ × 𝐸 𝑑𝑡
−𝜇

𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇×𝐸 = = 𝑎𝑥 [0 − 0] − 𝑎𝑦 [0 − 0] + 𝑎𝑧 [0 − 𝐸 ]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝑥
𝐸𝑥 𝐸𝑦 𝐸𝑧
6 18
= − 𝜀𝜔 × −3 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 3𝑦 𝑎𝑧 = 𝜀𝜔 sin (𝜔𝑡 − 3𝑦)𝑎𝑧
1 18 1 18 1
𝐻 = − 𝜇 ∫ 𝜀𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 3𝑦 𝑎𝑧 𝑑𝑡 = − 𝜇 − 𝜀𝜔 . 𝜔 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 3𝑦)𝑎𝑧

18
= 𝜇𝜀𝜔2 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 3𝑦 𝑎𝑧 20(8.2.3)

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Comparing equations (8.2.1) and (8.2.3)

18
𝐻 =𝐻→2 =
𝜇𝜀𝜔 2
9 9
𝜔2= =
𝜇𝜀 2𝜇𝑜 5𝜀𝑜
1
But 𝜇𝑜 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝐻 𝑚, 𝜀𝑜 = × 10−9 𝐹 𝑚
36𝜋
9 9
𝜔2 = 1 = × 9 = 81 × 1015 = 8.1 × 1016
10× 4𝜋 ×10−7 × × 10−9 10−15
36𝜋

𝜔 = ± 8.1 × 1016 = ± 8.1 × 108 = ±2.846 × 108 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠

Now, Substitute 𝜔 into equation (8.2.2) to have 𝐸 in its final form

6 6
𝐸 = cos 𝑤𝑡 − 3𝑦 𝑎𝑥 = 1 cos(𝑤𝑡 − 3𝑦)
5 𝜀𝑜 𝜔 5× ×10−9 ×2.846 ×108
36𝜋
6
= cos(𝑤𝑡 − 3𝑦) = 476.95 cos(2.84 × 108 𝑡 − 3𝑦) 𝑉 𝑚 21
0.1258×10−1

Example 𝟖. 𝟑

A car travels at 120 𝑘𝑚 ℎ𝑟 . If the earth’s magnetic field is

4.3 × 10−5 𝑤𝑏 𝑚2 , find the induced voltage in the car bumper of
length 1.6𝑚. Assume that the angle between the earth’s magnetic
field and the normal to the car is 65° .

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Solution
Given,
120∗1000
Car velocity, 𝑢 = 120 𝑘𝑚 ℎ𝑟 = 𝑚 𝑠 = 33.33 𝑚 𝑠
60×60
Magnetic field, 𝐵 = 4.3 × 10−5 𝑤𝑏/𝑚 2

Car bumper length, 𝑙1 = 1.6𝑚

Angle between the earth’s field and the car, 𝜃 = 65°
Using equation (8.6𝑎), motional form of 𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓
𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 = ∫(𝑢 ∗ 𝐵) 𝑑𝑙

𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 = ∫ 𝑢 ∗ 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑢 ∗ 𝐵 𝑙 = 𝑢𝐵𝑙 ′ = 𝑢𝐵𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛250

= 33.33 ∗ 4.3 ∗ 10−5 ∗ 1.6 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛250 = 96.9107 ∗ 10−5
= 0.9691 ∗ 10−3 𝑣 = 0.96 𝑚𝑣 23

Example 𝟖. 𝟒
As demonstrated in Figure Ex 5.3, a bar magnet is thrust toward the center of a
coil of 10 turns and resistance 15.2 If the magnetic flux through the coil changes
from 0.45𝜔𝑏 to 0.64𝜔𝑏 in 0.025 𝑠𝑒𝑐. Calculate: ( i) the induced voltage in the
coil
( ii) The induced current and it’s direction as viewed from the arrow shown

Figure Ex 5.4 24

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Solution
Given 𝑁 = 10 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠, 𝑅 = 15.2, ψ1 = 0.05 𝑤𝑏 ψ2 = 0.64 𝑤𝑏

𝑡2 = 0.025, 𝑡 1 = 0𝑠

𝜕ψ ψ2 −ψ1 (0.64−0.45)
𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 = −𝑁 = −𝑁 = −10 = −95𝑉
𝜕𝑡 𝑡2 −𝑡1 0.02−0.00
𝑉 𝑒𝑚𝑓 95
𝐼 = = = 6.33 𝐴
𝑅 15
Since the coil moved in clockwise direction, the induced current flows in the
opposite direction (Lenz’s law)
𝐼 = 6.33 𝐴, Counter clockwise

25

Example 𝟓. 𝟓
Assuming that sea water has μ = 𝜇𝑜 , 𝜀 = 81𝜀𝑜 , 𝜎 = 20 𝑆 𝑚, determine the frequency at
which the conduction density is 10 time the displacement density magnitude
Solution
Solution contd…
Given: 20 2∗109
μ = 𝜇𝑜 𝜔 = 10−9
= 9 =
10×81× 4𝜋
1 9 × 10−9 36𝜋
𝜀 = 81𝜀𝑜 = 81 × 𝜋 10−9 = 8𝜋 9
× 10 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
36𝜋 4𝜋 9
𝜎 = 20 𝑠 𝑚 But 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
𝐽
Also, = 10
𝐽𝑑
8𝜋
Now, 𝜔 ×109
𝑓= = 9
=4 9 × 109 𝐻𝑍
𝐽 𝜎 2𝜋 2𝜋
But =
𝐽𝑑 𝜀𝜔
20
10 = ⇒ 10 × 81𝜀𝑜 𝜔 = 20 26
81𝜀𝑜 𝜔

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Assignment
A conductor with conduction current of magnitude of 0.2 mA has
its conductivity 𝜎 = 2.5 × 106 𝑆/𝑚 and 𝜀𝑟 = 6, calculate the
magnitude of the displacement current density 𝐽𝑑 .

Ans: 𝐽𝑑 = 26.7 𝑝𝐴/𝑚2

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