REF: MOXGOFA

Alt living things reproduco by producing offsprings/ new individuals. Reproduction makes new
organisms of the same speoies as the parents. The ability to produce new generation of iodividual
of the sanrs spooies as of the parents is one of the fundamental characteristics of living things.

Importance of reproduction

.1. To replaoe those members of the speoie that die thus preventing extinction.
f.t To allow an increase in number of species where the conditions are suitable.

TYPES OF REPRODUCTION

1, Asexual reproduction
2. Sexual reproductiou

1. ASEXUALREPRODUCTISN
. Ao**l rupr"d*tt"" i-th- p**ss resulting in the genetically iduitical ofFspring from
one Parent.
r It is also defined as the form of reproduction where an organism reproduces itself withotit
the help of another organism.
r Asexual means 'without sex'. In short it does not require another organism of the same
species just one parent is enough to reproduce asexually.
. in this type of reproduction, only.mitosis occurs and it results in similar offspring called
Clones.
r It ocours in small organisms eg bacteri4 algae, fungi as well as iu pomplex organisms og
. plants and hydra. '

EXAMPLES OT ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

a) Binary fission

eilrc{-r{lF

Amoeba becomes
:ror*nded in shaPe nuo[€i .cytoplaenn
,and {he nucleus divides separate separqE*
produsiirstwo
new AmoFba

r Division of unicellular organismb in to two identical individuals whi.ch theu separate'

. This is found in organisms such as Amoeba and bgcterla

!.

Ii
i
 t Amoeba have a short generation time can divide one cell into many cells if the'conditions
^--s "c--
ar
-- _- _-L r -
litvuuraultr-

b) Spore formation
. Refers to formation of spores
r Cells divide by mitosis to produce spores
r The single cells enclosed in a resistant coat are known as sporangium,
r These disperso from parents and under appropriate oonditions, each spore can deveiop in
to an individual
r Common in fungi, toadstools. Mushrooms.

f7 * Jzz {? rsr [DiagramJ

c) Budding
. Outgrowttr/bud develops from the body wall
r Bud grows to form a daughter organism which detaches from parent to become
independent eg Hydra

f7 *'Vr {? 121,8, c,D [DiagramJ 1

d) vegetative propagation
r this is a common method of asexual reproduction in flowering plants
r it occurs when part of parent plant becomes detarched and develop in to a uew individual
r This type of reproduction is often associated with storage organs such as potato tubers,
onion buibs, kish rhizomes and strawberry runners.

Artificial methods of vegetative propagation

{Draw a diagram of each of the methods of vegetative propagation)

a'
I
Budding: where buds develop into new individuals. A bud together with some cambium
layers is taken from a selected plant (this is the scion). A T-shaped cut is made in the bark
down to the cambium of the stock, The scion is carefully inserted, but with the bud still
exposdd beneath the bark ofthe stock. The stock and the scion are tied together and the"
junction is protected with wax,
fr h* ft
b' Grafting: a form of cutting where a palt of a plant is carefully cut off to make a scion
and then attached to a stock and the fwo $ow together. The stock collects water and
mineral salts and transports them to the growing scion. This is common with oranges and
lemons.
17* {J
o, Cuttings; stems are cut below the node and planted in suitable soil so that the node can
develop adventitious roots to form a new plJnt. This is used with plants such as sugar
,. cane, cassava.
h*C, fl 23
 d. tayorlrg: a low branoh is bont down snd a ring of bark around of eborrt 5 cm wido is
ru*ovu{from arouud the node where it touohes the ground, The area with a ring is
,complctoly coverd with moist soil while the end oftho branch is allowed to remain tee
u*if ttre roots develop around the ringed area Theu the branch is orrt offfrom thc parent
ptaut and allowed to grow on its owt t' ?f* rJ
Natursl methods of vogetative propagation

a- Bulbs: are modified shoots consisting of a flattsned disq-like stem witl closoly set nodes,
bearing a fleshy scale leaves sunounded by some dry soale leaves which covorthe food
store, q*?? fl at
b. Bhizomes: this is a horizontal underground stem which possesses scale leaves aud buds.
It contains a store of food re$crves which enables the plant to survive through
unfavourable environmental conditions such as hot dry weather and winter' A number of
daughter plantS oan be produced froxn a single rhizome. Examples of rhizomes
inolude
gitger. /?# fl f? 20
c, Stem tubers: is a swollen underground stem bearing a number of reduced scale leaves'
The
buds produce flowering aerial shoots, and adventitious roots pow at their bases. Eaoh shoot .

g.o*i into a self supporting young plant' , trfu*fr

r) suckers
^ou
ru#"t*-!r!"3ffift="rtt ora stem with torminal buds which
grow from the base of an undergrodxrdste-temj[stGneath the surface of the soil. Examples
' if phnts which undergo this type of vegetafive propagation inplude bananas and plantain.
In a runner the stem glo*r along the surface of the ground. New shoots appear aloug the
stem wifh adventitiois roots developing below them. Exafnples include strawberries.
fi tr
Adwot"r* oreq"*sal r*prffe#o
o It involves only one parent and no fertilization is roquired'
0 The young plant can use the food stored in its otgan as it devolops.
o Take a short time for plants t0 mature using this mode of reproduotion'.
o It does notrequire exterual agents, such aslnsect and wind for pollination and dispersal'
o The daughter plants are the sarts as the parent in every way (no variation)' '.
o It is ecoiomical in some plants thus saving planting matsrials e.g. use of buds'
o Juvenile p*iod is reduced.
o plants propagated by vegetativs means are small in size and this makes harvesting and
othef operations easier.

Diflrflvantaq€r,.pt AsexBaI *uroduction

r The lack of dispersal mechanism might lead to overcrowding and thorefore
young
individuals mav compete for food and spnce with the paronts'
. Offspring nro? tu wiped out by exinqtion due to laok of variation in case of
uooionfr*rrtut sondilons wtrictr do not favotr the species'
r Knowledge and skill is requhed
 I

commercl*I rppllcatlous of asexuar reproduction in flowerlng plants

Growlmg of swect potatoes and grapes

\
$inco the ofspring is genetically iaenlicaryt thc parenf
this mears the good characfiristics
of the parent are passed onro the new individuar hd";
sweet potatoes arc p.rodyed using vegetativu propagation
pr;;;hss;"d d;iriri"il"*r.*
i.e. cuiiig. TIi; pr.t fl#is out is
tlen govered by soit
"ng it is bcins roiterea f";
"It;dr;. il. "*
part devotops roots aad
the plant grows faster than if seedi were used,

ii. Pioduction of oranges usiug grafting and budding methods

A b)l of an orange is inierted uriolr
ttre drt of ; h,oof,il#sinee the rwo plauts are ctose
varieties. This is used to
P_roduce a plant whict, *iiLproi,i"* ii"itr with the **bio"tio;';i
thetwo plants, This can also be ur.d to produce aesirea qJiti*
ofplants ruia m*rr* or,
particular or shape can be produced by gardeners.

Asexual reproductiou Sexual reproduction

1. There is novariation (parent sarne as l. There is variation (parents mif Ue ditrerent
offspring genetically) from offspring genetically)
2. Seed dispersal or pollination not important, 2. Modes of seed dispersal and pollination
important,
3. Involves only'one parent to produce young 3. Involves two parents which produce gametes
ones.
which will have to meet to produce a yolmg
one.
4. Does not require much energy. 4. Requires much energy for gamete pmduction
5. Occurs mostly in some organisms that are 5. Occ.urs in all advanced organisms.
not advanced.
6. Uses mitosis 6. Uses both mitosis and meiosis.
 io,

\
ir
-

2. ss)tpAl, BErRoqpcTIqN
l.Thisisthoprocessofproduoingnewindividualsfromthefisionoftwonucleifromtwo
different gamotos to form a 4Ygofe' produoe a new
from two parents combines to
o In sexual reproduction g*r;.;i;#o**tion
individual'
from ofle ortwo pareuts'
. lorotil totn male and female sex cellslgametes
the parent and usuallyto each other'
\_ . otr il;g;;ern*i"dt;iff-*r, fron
is meiosis'
' fne ivpJof cEli division involved
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLAI{TS

r The sexualreproduotiveparts ofplants

are lloivers
. assumss the following pattem;
$exual reproduction cycle in plants

Fiower formation
Ll I
V
Pollination'
I
Y_
fertilization
I
Y
Seed and fruit formation

t
I

DisPersal of seeds or fruits

I
V
Germination

!t"t' all over again with flowering'

Growth to adult and the
'ytlt

sTrqlrcI|E#'' qr A-ruo.\rypR
!

aryrnBed.onll?'l'-i:*S' These a'e'fte catyr'

A floworhas four differenttypes of floral
eorolla, audroecium and the gXnoepium
it["; Jt
no** are-attaohed to tho reoeptacle'

?n
Y
?t fll
[Diagram]
WTIORI,SIRINGS DESCRIPTION PARTS TUNCTION
t)Calyx -Outermost whorl of - sepals - enctoses flower in its bud
floral part on the stage and proteot it tom the
receptacle sun and rain
- when it is green, it
manufactures food for the
flower
u)uorq$a -amangod in inner side - petals - brightly coloured6dffif
oftho calp petals attast insects for
- at the base ofeash pollination
petal is the nectar which - encloses the stamens and
produces a sugary liquid carpels in the bud stage ofa
called nectar flower
- provides mechanical support
in flowers where starnens are
attirched to the corolla.
ili)Androecium -third whorl ofa flower - anther - contains four pollen sacs in
(Stamens) * male reproductive
which pollen is made
parts of a flower made * when mature, it splits open
to
lrp of the *nther and release pollen grains
filament, - filament - supports the anther and holds
it in a prominent position.
- it contains vascular bundies
that allow food to be
transported to the anther
iv)Gynoecilm -fourth whorl of a -stigma - recetces pollen Sains
(Pistil) flower which consists of
carpels
- carpels is the female
reproductive parts of a
flower
Each carpel consists of
the stigma at the top,
style and a swollen

-1k
ovary at the base ls -{" ,ruparr#L,rl**o i,}
_ ilvrr|
styl"
1w,/u fk kalt,
glln rtkil lt ,,e7
l{ prdu* l" rr,*e" s*z:,o(s
fivuk)

6
 PoLLINATIqN
This is the transfer of pollen grain from the anther to the stigma
of a flowering plant through
various,vpotors or agents. Foitnis proqess to occur, the anther should
split open and expose the
pollen. There are two types/forms of pollination'
t. self pollination
2. uoss pollination

SELF POLLINATION
same flower or another of
This is the hansfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the
the same plant, It.* tafe phce between plants of the same genetic make-up( plants that
"lro
have been produced asexuallY).

CROSS POLLINATTON
rwo planis th{ ar! genetical}y
This is the transfer of poff* grains from the anther to the stigma of
is thatthe offspring is
different but of the *urn. rpu;*s. The advantage of cross pollination
usually genetically different from the both the parents'

AGENTS OF POLLINATIOII{
Pollination is usually brought about by different mechanisms or
agents'

i. wind Potlination
ii. Insect Pollination

Insect pollinated
r The inseot visiting tho flower will carry pollen grains which will
stick to its body, as it
the pollen
will be seeking nuit*, it witl pass by the stigmaof a_different flower and
grains will stic,k onto the stigma and fertilization will result'
r and sweet smelling flowers'
Plants that are insect pollinut"d hur" big, bright coloured
. TheY also Produce nectar'

Wind nollinated
- . -G.*t, **als and other treos are being pollinated by'wind'
r The flowers are usually small, green and without sweet scent/smeli.
r The pollen grains are usually very liglrt in mass and smooth'
r They can be carried long distances oJy wind and some of the pollen grains will be rappod
by the stigma of other flowers.
 The tablo below shows the dlfference between
insects and wind pollinated
lloweru,
T.EATURE OT' tr"LOWER WII{D POLLINATED INSECTPOITM
'
Petf,ls Dmail qulugfeefl petals Large Uriehrty dffiE.Fral
to atkact insects
Pollen grains Smaller in size, Iight and offi uonsrderably large, heavy and
smooth for easy hansportation ofte1 stic.kf or sprlry to easily
by the wind attach to insects

Stigma rpamery and long and Short and sti;Li to;rfija;;

protude outside the flower to landing platform
for insects.
trap pollen carried by wind Enclosed in the petals for easy
contaot with the insects

Anther Hangs outside the flow"r foi enclosed inside the flower for
expostrre to wind easy contact with the
pollinating insects
Filament Long anc, slender f,rlaments so Strong &short filaments to
$at the anther may swing in support insects that land on it
the breeze outside the flower. when they collect pollen and
nectar
trectar No nectar is produced Nestar is producedl
nectarines
Amountof pollen Very large quantities of pollen Small quantities produced.
produced
Scent No scerrt produced Produce scent to athact insects

Growth of pollen tube snd entry into the ovary

r After pollination, the.pollen sain$ absorb water; produce enzymes and

will start to
germinate with the stimulation fro.m sugarl fluid
seueted by ihe mature rii*;
' Thl enrymE anf the tY.guty fluid produce.d prevent fe*ilizaiion by a wrong-species,
From
each pollen grain a pollen tube dwelops.
r The nucleus will pass through the porien tube ro the ovules.
r Manypollen tubes grow down the style simultaneously aod where there
ovary has many
ovules; a separate pollen tube penetates each ofthe ovules.
pollen lube grows towards the micropyle (small opening
' Thu in the wall of an ovuls
thtgugh which the pollen tube enters) of an ovule, uaters it and ttren
penehates the
embryo sac.
 FERTILIZATION
r This stage follows pollination
r 'The
lrucleus fuses with the egg(ovule) to produce the zygote. This is called fertilization,

[diagram] f f * 9rylS-
WHAT HAPPENS Atr'TER FERTILTZATION?
After fertilization, a series of ohanges occur inside the flower;
. ttre zygote develops in to an embryo.
r The endosperm nucleus develops in to the endosperm.
r The ovary becomes the fruit, the owle becomes the seed.
r the petals and sepals dry offand fall offalong with the stamens, stigma and style,

DE\IELO_I'MENT OE.ASSEU

At this stage, the zygote develops into the embryo, which of the Plumule (first shoot), and the
\ radicle.(first root). The embryo is attached to two leaves called eofyledons whichare swollon
with stored food, The stored food mainly starch is used by the embryo during germination, The
embryo and the cotyledon are enclosed in a tough seed coat (testa). The micropyle remains as a
small hole in the testa is an important route for entry of water in some soeds. The hilium is the
scar left where the seed was attached to the pod.

Embryo = Plumule* radicle+ Cotyledons. kr the dicotyledonous embryo, two ootyledons are
formed while in monocotyledonous embryo only one ootyledon is formed.

ffi (DRAWTN1)
fr*P fr,,
Parts ofa seed and their functions

Cotyledons - stores food fbr the embryo develops (depending on the plants), I-n some cereal

,\ plants such as maize the endosperm stores food'

Testa - ( seed coat) protects the embryo.
Plumak -develops into a shoot during germination
Radical-:develops into a root during germination
Mi*opyle -allows uptako of water by the seed

SEED-DISPERSAL

After the seeds have been formed they are attaohed to the parent plant and before tfoey can
germinate they have to be separated from the parent plant. Seed dispersal is the spfaading/
icattering of seeds far from the parent plant through various agonts to trew habita{s' Seed
dispersal ensures that;
. Offsprings do not compete for resources such as spaoe, water, nutrisnts and food'
. Plants colonize new areas.
o C{- *rinEs are not erowded in one area.
 r To reduce the spread of diseases amongst crosery
crumped/grouped prants.
' Avoid oxtinction of.aplant species in cases of outbreat
conditions such as diseases or yeld firos.
of onArot*uule-environmental

Agents of dispersal include;

i)Dispersal by wind
The fruits and seeds that are dispersed by wind may
have the following characteristics;
r'
Are small and light so that they can float in th" ana fo. them to be btown ry
the wind "1,
{ They.have large, flattened wing-like skuctures or a parachute
of fine hairs so
that the surface area is enlarged to increase air resisiance.
The fine hairs are
known as pappus
./ They are fluffr
Examples
. Poppy
r Cotton
. sycamore
(diasrun$) fgflT fi Wl rt

iilDispersal by animals
some fruits are food for some animals for examples
a morula plant can be eaten by a goat and the
goat won't digest the seed because it is hard. and it
*iti egest ii somewhere and then the seed will
establish itself there in the prosence of good conditions
6. germination, Seeds dispersed by
animals have the fotlowing features;
r Most succulents fruits are-edible e.g. tomatoes and apples have some parts that are edible
and the ovary has the seeds.
o Succulent fruits are scented (have a smell) and their skins
are brightly coloured to attract
animals.
' Fruits/seeds thatare dl^y m?y develop spikes ttat catch on the
furl skin of a passing
animal, and will fall offas the anirnaimoves around

Examples
r Burbock
r Strawberies
o Tomatoes
r Morula
' APPles
(Drwins) ly7?77 t*D

C iii) Dispersal by water

Although wator acts as a secondary agent of seed dispersal, there
are some fiuits and seeds that
are dispersed by water.

:a:
 These have spongy or fibrous layers (whieh are water proof) which enclose chanbers of
air.
The trapped air allows them to float for a long period of time and floating away from the
parent plant s.g. coco nut fiuit. Some plants such as the wator lily have an aril, a small
float that holds air,
The seeds can float on the water until the aril decays, and then it will sink to the bottom
of the waterthen germinate.
:

. Coconutr'
. Lotub fruit

(Diagram)
fi* *

iv) Dispersal by explosive mechanisms

. Some plants do not depend on water, wind and animals but have their own explosive
dispersal mechanisms.
. TheSe plants when ripe the fruits beoome dry and they burst open by doing so they will
eject their seods away from the parent.
:

Examples
r legumes such as garden peas and cow peas
. balsam

. wallflower

(Diagram)
b## fg nfi{c

GERMIUTATXpN

as the
This is a prosess whereby seeds or spores sprout and begin to grow' This is also known
onset of growth of the embryo in the seed to develop into a seedling'

Seeds may remain dormant during dry conditions for long periods without
gerrninlting. Seeds
need certain conditions before thJy can germinate and grow. Some of these conditions are
intemal (within the seed) while otirers are external (environmental conditions). The interual
the
conditions include 6n2ymes necessary for gennination while the external conditions include
fo ll owing; ryater, orrygetrr s uitable temperatu res (warmth)'

COJ{DITIONS I\IEgESEABY F'OR GERI\trF'{ATION,

Water
r w&ter enters the seed through the micropyle'
c Water is needed to activate the enzymes ihut *itt hydrolyse (decompose) the stored food
in the seed.
 Wator also helps the seed to swell up and to ruptura the testa" This allows the embryo to
grow and the oxygen to enter the seed and for the carbon dioxide from respiration to be
removed,
It also maintains the turgor pressure of the cells thus keeping the shoot upright,

Oxygen
. Oxygen enters the seed through the testa which is soaked and split open.
o It is required by the seed for aerobic respiration,
r Germination requires a large amount of energy, this energy is released from the food
store (cotyledons or endosperm).

Suitable temperatu relwarmth

a this is needsd to provide an optimum temperahre for enryme activity.
t The warmth will make the enzyme activity to be high.
a Germination occurs rapidly at 40rC, *nd at 45'C, enzymes are denatured an.d the seedling
is killed.
Bolow 4nC, gennination may not start because temperatures are too low for the enzymes
to work.

Changes during germination

1,
The seed absorbs water thrcugh the miuopyle
2,The seed swells and the testa ruptures

il
3.The en:rymes besome activated and begin to hydrolyse stored food.

(Diagram) h* ,t fJ y
til

Roles of enrymes in germination

Wator is essential for activation of some enzymes in the seed during germination. The enz;'me
Hydrolase hydrolyses the insoluble storage rraterials into soluble substances that can be easily
transported. In this way proteins are hydrolyzed into amino acids, carbohydrates into glucose and
fat into fa*y acid and glycerol. These soluble substances (amino acids, glucose, fatfy acids and
glycerol) formed in the cotyledons or endosperm are moved to the growing point of the embryo
(radiole/first root and Plumule/first shoot)

GIuc$, fatty acids and glycerol serve as respiratory substrates for respiration which releases
energy for the germinating seed. Glucose forms the cellulose cell walls. Amino acids are used for
the fonnation of the new enzymes and complex proteins needed by new cells.

!n
 rN1{ESTIGATTNG CONDTTTONS NEqESSARY 4OR GERMTNATION

WATER

Procedure
. Label three containers, A, B and C and put dry cotton wool in the bottom of each.
. Place soaked seeds in B and C and dry seed in A.
r Leave A quite dry, soak B and add water to C to make the cotton wool moist until all the
seeds are completely covered.
r Put lids on the containers and leave them all at room temperature for e week"

(Diasram) Pf*$, fIS,

Expected Results
. The seed in B will gerrninate normally.
r Seed in A will not germinate.
. Seeds in C.may have started to germinate but will decay.

Interpretation
Although water is necessary for germination, too mueh of it may prevent germination by
cutting down the supply of oxygen to the seeds"

OXYGEN

Procedure
r Set up the experiment as shown in the diagram below.
. Pryrogallic acid and Sodiun hydroxide are used to absorb all the oxygen from the air.
I Seeds in A are deprived ofoxygen and B is a control.
r Leave the flasks for a week at room temperature.

(Diagram)
Pf**-ff 7
Expected Results
. The seed in B will germinate.\
r There will be no/little germination in A.

Interpretatiou
Flask A laoks oxygen, that is why the seeds did not germinate. Flask B has oxygen, the
Sodium hydroxide dbsorbed carbon dioxide not oxygen, so the soeds germinated. Therefore,
oxygen is needed for germination.

TEMPERATT]RE

Procedure
r Soak some maize Sains for a day and then roll thsm up in a stip of moist blottiug paper
as shown below.\label the papers A, B and C.
r Fut the rolls in a plastic bags
r Place A in a refrigerator (about 4eC)
r Leave B at room temperature (about 2fC)

;l
 \,il\r

r Put C in an incubator set at 35oC

Expected Results
I Seedling C will be more advanced than those at room temperature.
r Grains in A have not started germinating at all.

Interpretation
Seeds will not germinate below certain demper4ures. Tfre higher the temporature, tlrc
faster the germination process, at least up to 36t to 40'C.

sExuAt REPBODIICITIpN. JN MAN

The male reproductfue sYstem

7? ff $f f",,
Drawthediagramaftherutteandfemalereprodutctivesystemsandlabettheirparts' 'St
Part
l
fr'sir?
Testes t Oval shaped glands about 5 ,rn long and located in the scrotum.
c Produce sperns and male st i hormones like testosterone.
Scrotum I Hanging sac like $tructure,' rhich contains the testes.
a Hang the testes outsidq :he body to keeP them at a lower
temperaturo than the bodY t moerature to favour sperrn production
Epididymis a Long and highly coiled tubr about 6m located'outsidb the testes,
a Storage of mature and [aq ve sperms
Prostate . These three glands prodr ;ftriOr tUmtcontain nutrients and
Cowper's and chemicals that stimulate or stivato spenns.
Seminal . Fluid also neuhalises acid { om urine .

vesicle
Urethra o Tube from the bladdet that uns through tho penis to the outside'
I Conveys urine to the outsid r during urination'
a conveVs semen during eiac' lation
Penis r Soft cylindrical organ thal has erectile tissue that help oonvey
the
lot ofconnective tissue and
spenns during ejaculation' It also has a
blood vessels.
, Deposits samen into tfu: v3 nila
Sperm dust r Lons tube that oo

I
!14
7'.'._F*

SEXUAL REPH.OI}EJCTION IN Il,fAN

i&c c"pie-r,
MaIe reproductive sYstem
Draur GCSE tsJ 6.5 a alld b
Part Desqiution and function
Tesles a Oval shaped glands about 5 cm long and iocated in the scrotum.
a Froduce srerms aird male sex hornrones like leqlosterone.
Scrotum r t Hangitg sac iike stlucture, which contains the testes,
r Hangs the testes outside tlie body to keep them at a lorver leurperature than
t}le body tempelature to fa'/our spetm production.
Epididymis -- a Long and higltly coiled tube about 6m located outside the testes'
I Storase of mature and iuactive spelms
Prostate a These three glands produce fluids that contain nutrietlts and chemicals that
Corvper's and stirnuiate or activate sperms.
Seminai vesicle l Fluid aiso aeufalises acid from urine
Ureihra a Tube fi'om the biadder that runs through the penis to the outside'
t Conveys urine to ihe outside during urinati*u,
a conveys semeir during eisculation
Peni-q a soft cylinddcal organ lhat hiu erectiie tissue ti:at irelp convey the spetn:s
dru:ing e.jaculation. It also has a iot of cotmective tissrie al'rd blood vessels,
3 rits semen into the vasina
Sr-,- d*t a t-bt thrt nr"
t ttl*Pni is to flre urethra
""*'qi'*l*rl
Sperm production
Spenns production starts at puberfy. Dividir:g cells inside the testes produce spelms, which colieci in
ttre epididymis. Dudng copulation the epididyniis and ihe sperm duct conffact aad force the ir:active
sperm$ oui into the urethra. The prostate gland, Cowper's gland and the semiiral vesicie add fluid to
the
,p"r*, to fomr sernen. The fluid containi enzymes ihat activate the sperms acticn of lashing to propel
thern fol'ward. It aiso proi'ides nutrients for tlie sperm cells.
Drew a spernr cell fig 16.1 br
The acrosome produces some enz)rynes that dissolve the cot'ona laciiata of the olum during fertilisation.
At e single ejaculation -2-5 cm3 of semen is released. This contains -200-500 rniliion sperm eells'

Fernalc reproductive sy$tenr

Drau, fic 16.3 zlrl
azin<1 b *'
Part Description and function
Ovades a Trvo almond-shapeC endocriue glands one on either side of the uterus
t Contain immature ova at birth.
a also secrete female sex hormones and orosestetone.
Oviduct a Funnel shaped organs lined with cilia,
[Fallopiar: a The cilia create a curTgrrt by tiieir wafting movements to suck ths o\.rim into
tube) the oviduct and move it alorrg towards the uterus,
a Feriilisation occurs because its narrow shape gives a g1'eate[ chance of the
snem cnd ovrrm c.ollision
Ut** - t Largest organ in tire reproductive system.
(womb) a Thick muscular oryan about 8cm long.
a This is where the fertilised ovum 0l zygote imPlants and uadergoes
embryonic development for 9 months,
Cervix a @'the lower end of the uterus that opens
into the vagina.
pass-at birth'
, A oassase tlroueh which sperms go into the uterus and the baby
Vagina r A tubular and musgular strucfure that extends for about LLl cm belore reacnroS
' the outside ofthe Yulva.
 Ovu!atjen

ff#-li,'fi'-:,n*,?l;
- *
,TH;;
;;* * ;;
l,l;;l;.i.j;;li0c0 are presenr ar bi,th
"-' rJ'
Y* nff i *,Y ::i::: :i
As the ortm
il#.4r fiJiuDerty'
;sr*iri J-',#. ;
bur onry abour 500
wj jl
starfs to
lii'I"--riri
'-:l' tl,, is cailed *re?Lman
fi,.%?#g}ftrfl,3|"o
caoitv io,n s and partiauy
encioses
. i?l-':
.When ttre
folrictre.
Graffian f"11p;{,".i;;r_E.i,
__-- it
rL and t$
srrq is TOUICI(
foilicle
or*
*om the
rhe surface ol
r, ll:",:r,T_lluid
pressure build up. oj.rhe
the ovary
ovr
-" and finaliy
"trary bursrs
DUrst$
releases the ovurn
]his nlto the iviouct. An orr,m ic reio--^: '"-
+.***k.* ',;;'[t',i'-;?':;'i#ffi;#l;r"t:T:'i,i.iTl*:
---
{:s-affi',fj';;"-:::i":i'11.:'"'-,, ress arternatery
,T,|":.f:l-: :v.ry
towards the uterus. rrom he
U{."J[T":,#4wceksrzsaffi
Ferfil.i-^+:^"- --,
may occur during rhis
1,,,, ,1".:1,::i:lor
Diagratr orun ouu,r-r,gl'e.r period,
u -.
n.son befween the male
and female

Muclr smail"r-Ein-liG
. u!4* r.u6 ovum _0.0lmm
djametei in *u.n rr*
tlrgl@l and-hEiI
Irris

li;m*r.nffi
,rnob Cu*o,
Y{B.lash
.Fovements of iieir.
rarrs
o
M'oertirforwa'd.
,.Ir.uly p..
altemately fi.on: each
ova;y every 4 weeks,

' shedding
orrhe uredne waii rining.
. Mellpal *:i::Tjv rhis lining consjsts orexra
"+:ffiifill#
cycle is- cootrolled
by hormones
and the folliele st "6:".;i
u'i' s t' Tfi"ffi
pi ru i ta ry r, r ;;1. "* " ,11j, *:lff T::ffi f 'drji ilf if:
. The onset ofbleed. ","*',-
rs usually taken as ihe
h*;A-d;;urng -_
onset of
"' rtre
qre eJelc'
cycle. Tiis
rnls ocours
o when ibrrilisation
. o Soon after menstr stops' the piuitary.gland
_
oruriof*.rr'o-'*'uation inside rereases FHS which
srjmuiates ri:e
the follicie in trri
ou#* "*rr. rrlir" ,,ff,,rur*. rhe production of
oesrrogen uy ,i,.
of extra ceils and biood
.: ifirifl:[::jffif5+'growth
{ier, i.,.,,- . r" *ilff.., i:l j:xli?"'i:Traratron
vessers sn rhe insr]de
for:fLe;;;;;- " of the uterine
pit,itarv *r'J', r.Ituini,ii!"ffi;:
thickerred, '"
ovulation may occur. tt$ i;f*'iillTl",fj:",wallandliningl;,;;
srimurale rhe
t Luteinizing hormone (LH)
causes rhe releasecf th: o!.um from
-: i"' i"'=r;;;"H'il, the oyary (owlation).

.' ffiifirdo,i:x'
llr olum surviyes for about 36 hrs,
ovidusr rowards rhe urerus.
Fert,isation rnay

' rorricre deveiops into a yerrowish

Afii:ileffi,'xil:Tfi1tr1fu*:fr:lT
wall lining thi&er throughourpregnaacy proseste'onr ,o Lrrp
rissue
trr*t".r*
r If fertilisarion does ,ot
if ir hjj:dr::f#o,e
"""",,"'ii"i::::,'l1:*
progesteroneibris;;tt;:.H;ffi,[1ffff
repeats itsoif all oyet
again" T,trj,f ir:T:,ff".,:X#l:,:::rhe.reveror
:crus rs shed. Menstruation oacurs. ffre
,y.i"
 _
-F\

The me*str*ai cycle rnaybe atTeot*d by the foliowing

a)Diet. Malnutriti*n rnay .lead to missed periods especially starvation. Obesity may aiso lead to
missed or ineguiar periods.
b)Emotional rtatus. Too much wonyin! may lead to missed or iregular periods. This is besause
hormone productior is affbcted nega#y-d$riag strsssful si{ustiorls. Ilcrmones gcntrol
menstrual cyole.
c) Ill health. When one is ill, most energy is directed toward fighting the disease arid therefore
the menstrual cyole may b stopped until the perscrn is well again.

F'ERT'II,ISATION
' . This is the fusion ofthe male and i'emale gamete nuclei to form a zygote.
. This process takes place in the oviduct, The oviduct is very narrow and there fore provides a
greater chance of fe*ilisation. Fertilisation is most likely to occur during the fertile period.
. Sexual excitement, which is mostiy psychoiogical, results in tha penis becoming erect. In this
shte, the penis can be inserted ea.sily into the vagiua. Semen is evenhrally released ir !o the
vagina" This is a reflex action called ejaculation. Semen pnters ihe uterus via the cervix. The
sperms swim towards the oviduct possible by chemo taxis and contractions of the uterine
walls. If an ovurn is present, one spetrl may collide with it resulting in feitilisation,

A SE'BIES OREYENTS THAT LEAD TO FERTILISATION (fig 16.10)

a) The sperm's acrosorre releases enzyrnss that digest aod disperse the follicle ceils surounding
the owm,
b) One spemr then penetrates the zona pelucida,
c) Then through the cell membrano and
d) The head ofthe sperm that contains the nucleus enters the cytopiasm
e) This wiii fuse with the fernale gamete nuclert.s io form azygole.
f) The penetration of the spena head triggers the development of an Extla membrane around the
zygote to prevent the penetration by othEr?penns.

EARLY DEYELOPMENT OF THE ZYGOTE (fig 16.12b ard 16.14 a ard b)

After fe*ilisation, the zygote starts dividing into 2 cells, 4 cells e.t.c. this division re-cuits in a hollow
ball of cells. All tliis occurs in the oviduct as the zygote travels down towards the uterus. The process
takes about 34'days.
. Irnplantation: This is when the hollow ball of eelis digests its way into the thickened
uterine wall lining and becornes embedded into it. Pregnancy tras now occurred.
. Placenta: disc shaped tissue with finger-iike projections that grows between the embryo and
the uterine wali lining. The piace-nta grows partially from the embryo tissue atd the uterine
wall linings.
* The embryo becomes surrouuded by the amnion mg which $ecrets the amnios lhid.
. Amnion fluid acts as a shock absorber ana tle$Tffitects the embryo form physical harm
and ailows il free movements.
. After I weeks of growth, the embryo iooks like a miniature human being. Most structures liko,
anns are well defined. It is now called a FOETUS.
. Umbilical cord: This tube corurects the embryo to the placenla consists of the umbilical
Y€in and the umbilical artery,
. The umbilica! vein carries oxygenated blood fiom the placental side to the embryonic heart. It
brings oxygeu and dlssolved nutrients to the embryo.
. Umbilieal artery carries deoxygenated blood from the embryonic heart to the placental side.
The umbilical artery divides into a mass of capillaries, which grow in pools of blood between
the villi of the piacenta, The matemal blood and the embryonic blood do not mix but the
capillaries are able to exchange materials between the fwo.
. The umbilical arter-v carries away CO2 and nitrogenous waste, These materials easily diffuse
across the capillaries into the placenta and are eventualiy excreted by the mother's systems.
o Some harmful materiais like nicotine and alcohol can also cross over to the foetal side. It is
therefore advisable forpregnant mothers to not smoke nor drink.
n? *R S il!,?illi_,E Xiri,:l"ill;E *
"v:ft:aj S.,Jf,i
A r.:sua.li,vli:ieaic : ovurn At a iinte.
r.r,ctz-rQr:'g o',,aries
Son:e tiines 2 or ruore ovbi.rrlay be released at a
tinre. A.lten:aiely a single zygote rriatr divide and sep&rate into two o, *o.ffia"prriar"r-r*ii,
implantation, This iesulrs in muitiple births.
l_i*"
c Idemtieel tl"/ia$t e single zygote may.rlivide nnd separato into two or more independent cells
before implantation. This resuits in identical twins. These sets of twins are g*"iirulry
identicai since they arc a result of ferlilisation of a single ovum and a single *p.*. "-------*
r Fraternal twins: if a woman releases two oL more ova at a time, they rnay"tre fertitised by a
cotresponding number ol sperms. These sets of twins are gerieticaliy jissln ita..-fn#
iu
becanse they develop from different ova fertilised by differeot qpr"or.

}IETARY NEEDS OF A PRECNANT MOTHER

The pregnant mother needs to have
a)Extra proteins for building new tissues for the foetus and for herself
b)Extra enelgy food to me et the energy demancis of the foetus and for helself
c)She needs exira calcium iols and vitamin D fol builciing new bones for the foefus
and
maintaining i:el own bones stre:rgth.
d)The mother also needs extm iron to build new haernoglobin for new tfte red biood cells
ofthe
embryo a*d to teplace her own, !{aemoglobin is necessary to rraintai* enough .uppiy
of
oxygen for botlr ihe mother and the embq,o for inueased respiration.
e) Must avoid alcohol and cigarette sn:oking aitogether. Nicotii:e can cl'oss the placenta
and
cause oxygell sl,ortage
in the embryo. Developrnent is aff'ecteri aucl the motirer rnay rniscar:y
cr have an under weight baby at bilth. Alcehol consurnption rnay lead to foeial aicoiroi
syndrorne. A baby may becorne mentaliy challenged and have s"re." plrysiral disability.

BREASST F'EEDING VtrR.SAS BOTTLE F'EL]DING

Breast milk is the prirnary food for ail babies. The mauimary glands are plepared to produce miik
during pregnancy and are ready by bidh. Some babies rnay noi be breastled if their mothers
have
diseases that may be passed onto thern via. breast milk, if they ilave lactose intolerauce or.when
the
mother cannot plovide enougir mllk for them. trf possibie babies have to be breast fed for
-6-i2
months.

Advan ta ges of breast-feedin g over b ottle-feedin g

r Breast milk is always at the righr temperature
* Breast miik is readily available when ever the baby needs to feed
c Mothers who breast-feed lose the extra weight they gaineci during pregnancy much faster.
Their uterus aiso goes back to its normal size faster.
r Breast milk is easierto digest and fhere fore does not give the baby constipadon or indigestion
because fheir digesrive system is still immature.
r It contains all the necessary nutrients in the r.ight pr-oportions
r The first milk produced cailed colostrums, contains antibodies, q.hich pr.otects the baby
against infections wirile its own immune system develops.
r Breast-feeding creates a ioviirg bond between tire mother aud the baby.
r Ii is less costly as compared to bottle-feeding where bottles, brushps and formula aiilk are
bought.
r Breast milk is iess likely to be contaminated and flrerefore a chiid who is breast-fed is iess
d!. likely to get dianhoea from the bottles.

METHODS OF BIRTH CONTROL

Birth control methods allow peopla to limit the size of their family and spaoing between the births.
Spacing is important to allow the womari to fully recover and the child to grow well before they irave
sibiings' These methods rvork by preventing fertilisation, preventing implantation or iimiting iexual
intercourse to times when fertiiisation is less likely to occur.
 ,- I .aist*.ral rnethoris
i"-:-:-":---*--'"
I lv]].eiiliiaj j gel:cl.r*ti,-1r: al{i
i vl-ili:ir:vrai j 'Ii:e pe::rs is
l
beforc ejaculation to avoid io nui easy tc witir draw beiore ejacuiation.
I

I Sperms into the woman's it exposes one to STDS and AIDS

Abstention Avoiding scxrial intercourse One may be over come by temptation and be
comoletelv caught offguard
Rhyth:n or safe Avoiding sexual intercourse Vory unreliable tlecause it is not easy to tirne the
peLiod around ovulation (* 3 days menstrua! cycle we).l since there are factors that
before and after ol,uiation) time may disturb it very easily, cijet, stress e.t.c.
to reduce chances ofconception

B) ART'IFiCIAL METIIODS

i) I\{echanical or barrier methods

Method Descriotion and How it u,orke Ad and

Condom A thin shpet of latex rubber, which is A very rpliable i99.9 %) method if used
(Male and unrolled over tiro erect penis ol it:serted properiy. Condoms piotect one against
female) into the vagina before sexual intei'course. STDS arid AIDS.
It traps spems to preverrt their entry into Has no side effects
the vasina May tear durine use
Diaphragm A thin dome shaped disc macie of rubber. Il can be very reliable provided it is the
The device is inserted into the vagina to fit right size to fit vrell over the ceryix.
tigirtly over the cervix. Spermicides are in Sper::ri cides further in crease its effi ciency,
conjunction with it. It prevents the entry of One in still exposed to STDS and AIDS
spen*s into the cervix. Needs to be fiited way before irrtercourse
(-i/2 an hour before) and should not be
removed for - 6-8 hours afterwards. This is
tedious.
Iutra A piece of flexible plastic in the form of a it is very reliabie
uteline Iocp or coi1, or oopper soven or T inserted Must be fitted by a medical persomel
device into the uterus and can be left there fol Regular check ups every 3 rnonths
(lUD) or many moriths. Preverrts pregnancy by Fertility retums soon after the device is
loop preveriing implantation. removed
Some women experience heavy menstrual
flow.
N4ay come out oE its own and therefbre
needs constant checkine.

ii) Chemieal methods

Method Descriotion and How it wolk Advantages and disadvantages

The Pii] Contain 1 or 2 female hormone. A highiy effective (99.9%) method if
taken
Prevent owiation by ir:hibiting accoidingly,
the release of the FSH, stop A medical persorutel prescribes the piii
mechanism that move the owm Side effects like skin pigmentation on thc face
in the oviciuct and thicken mucus Excessive weight gain or la,ss
in the vagina, to reduce spetm Not reeommended for patients with heart probiems
mobility. The pili is taken orally Needs to taken diiigently every day at around
once every day, the sarne time, Pregnancy may result if 2 or more
are missed per cycle
One is still exDosed to STDS and AJDS
Norplant Slow hormone (progesterone) Same as for the pill
releasing capsuies inserted just Morc convenient to use though
under the skin on the upper arm. May interfere with menstrual cycle
Last uo to 5vears.
 Ilepo Chemical ihat ililai,*€ f.rr"t" Very effective at preventing pregrancy.
Provera ho:moqe progesteroes to prevest lvledical persoanel needed to administer it.
(injection) owiation. The chemieal Same side effects as the piil
is injected every 3 months. Missed periods followed by heavy bleeding,
to STDS and AIDS
Chernical made ofjelly, ci?am or Not very reliable
foaming tablets. These are No side effecis
inserted ir,to the vagiaa beforre No examination before use is needed
sexual intercourse to kill spenxs. One is still exposed to STDS and AIDS

iii) Surgical methods (sterilisation)

and How it works

Cutting the sperm duct. This prevents the Very effective (100920) perforned
passage of mafure sperms to the urethra. A weil.
waiting period of about 6 montirs is needed. triteversible procedure
One is stil! oxposed to STDS and
AiDS
Surgicaliy cutting and rying of the oviduct. Veiy effective {100%) if perfonned
This blocks the passage of the ovum and well and has no side effects.
spefils. In evei'sible and permanent procedure
One is stili expcsed to STDS and
AIDS

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DTSEASES {STDS) ANS HIV/ArDS

These are diseases that are trao$mitted from an inf-ected person to aaother throilgh sexual coaiact only.

i) Gonorrhoea (pg 334i

Tlris is very cornmor STD caused by ooccai bacteria cailed l{eisser.ia gonar'haea Its incubation periocl
is about l0 days.
Signs and symptoms
This is more evident in males than female who rnay go ioryears without showi-ng any obvious signs,
. Green- yellow discharge from the peais or vagiaa
'r Inflammation of the urethra which ieads to a buruing sensation when uriaating
If not treated, it may lead to steriliry by blocking of the sperm duct or oviduct scar tissue tirat
fonns after a severe infection
. Frequent uiination
o Lower abdominal pains
. May aiso iead to the inflammation of the heart, joints, and the eyes,
r A baby may pick the bacteria fi'orn the mother's vagina during birth and become biind
. Stenlity may result if not treated
Treatment
Can be treated using antibiotics like peniciliin
Controllpreventive measures
. Prornpt treatment must be sort if inf'ection is suspected
r Avoid sexual contact during treatrnent to avoid re-infection
r Both partners should be treated
. Have one sexual partn$
r Use condoms during sexual intercourse

ii) Syphili$ (pg 33a)

Spiral bacteria calledTreponenmpallidwn cause it. This disease occurs in three stages,
Primary (1o) stage
Sets on between 2-4 weeks after infection.
Painless open sore or ulcors on the vagina, penis or mouth mark this stage.
It is very difficult to see the sores in females especially if they are insidi the vagina.
The ulcers usually disappear without any medical treatmefit
The infection continues to invade the body though.
Tliis srage is sur*ble wrth ant'ibioiics iike peniciliin
Seeondary (2") stage
Seis ci: about 4-3 weeks aftel tho 10 stage.
Painless body rash that also disappears without treatment
Falling off of patches of hair
This stage is curable with antibiotics like peniciliin
Wliite patches in the mouth
Tertiary (3o) stage
Sets in weeks or even years after the secondary stage. This stage is completely incurable ar:d often
ieads to death.
The infection has now invaded the most body system badly and rnay lead to
paralysis, blindness,
madness, heart problems and eventually death.
A pregnant mother may pass on the disease to the untrori cliiid through the placenta, Often the baby
dies before birth or soon afteruvards.
Control of Preventive measures
Same as for gonon'iroea

HIV/AIDS (pg 33s)

Although noi In STD, HMAIDS is included here since one major way thlough which is spread is by
s€xual contact with an infected persol1,
Tire Acquired Imrnune Deficiency Syndrcme (AIDS) is a manif,estation of illnesses that
result frono a
compromised immurre system due to an infeciion by the F{uman hamunodeficiency Virus (HIV)' The
HIV enttrs and replicates inside the heiper CD4+ (T-cell) and eventually destroys them whe:r ready'
This reduces the number of the CD4+ ceil (T-cel]s) so muoh that the body's immune system fails to
defend it against diseases.
After sexuil contact, there is a window period of aboul 3 months. During this time, tire virus canrot be
detected in the person's blood, The persoil can still transmit it though'
just HIV+ and
A person n uy iruu" for up to 10 years showing no signs of the disease i.e. the person is
does not have AIDS yet. The onset of AIDS is marked by fi'equent infections like diau'hoea, Kaposi
sarcoma, TB, pneumonia, meningitis e,t'c.
Transmission
Body fliiids of an infected person i.e. blood, semen, vagiaa secretion contai:r the virus.
A person may
therefore cotrtract HIV through
"r Shariug ofunsterilised needles and syringes witi: an infected person
Tattooiug
r An infeoted mother to the unborn child or tluough breast rniik
. Sexual intercourse with an infected person
. Blood iransfusion
Preventive nneasures
r Have one sc1uai paftnel
. Abstain frgd1sexual intercourse
r Avoid sexual intereourse without using a cort'-lorn
. Nevei share razors, needies, sydnges or any other shatp instruments that may
draw biood'
r Use rubber gloves rvhen administering first aid or when caring for an HIV/AIDS patient
through saliva, harid shaking, sharing toilets and baths, cutlery, kissing' and
NB. HIV is not transmitted

Treatment.
inside the body' These
None so far but drugs are now available to control tire muitiplication of the virus
as nevirapine; zidovudine e.t.c. Pregnant mothels are also given LZT
are Anti-retroviral Drugs such
under the PMTCT programme.
Vaccine triais are ongoing I Botswana and other conntries'